Context: 25th September marked 108th birth anniversary of Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyay. In this context, let us understand the philosophy of Integral humanism given by him.
Integral Humanism:
Background:
The doctrine of Integral Humanism was born from Upadhyaya’s desire to have “uniquely Indian” ideas guide the journey of the newly independent nation, as opposed to the many Western ‘isms’ like individualism, communism and socialism which developed in West.
He explained that Bharatiya (Indian) thought views life as a unified whole, with the physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions closely intertwined. In contrast, the Western approach often isolates and compartmentalizes aspects of life.
Integral Humanism focuses on the holistic development of society and the individual, encompassing both material and spiritual well-being. It integrates the traditional Indian concepts of dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desires), and moksha (spiritual liberation).
Key features:
‘Integral Humanism’ presents ‘Indigenous socio-economic model’ in which human being remains at the center of development.
The aim of Integral Humanism is to ensure dignified life for every human being while balancing the needs of individual and society.
It supports sustainable consumption of natural resource can be replenished integral humanism enhance not only political but also economic and social democracy and freedom.
As it seeks to promote diversity it is best suited for a country as diverse as India.
The philosophy of integral humanism is based on the following three principles.
Context: Cholliyattom is an informal collective of young Koodiyattam artists in Kerala, launched during the COVID-19 pandemic. This platform aims to bring together artistes from various schools of Koodiyattom to collaborate, preserve the art form, and learn the nuances of different styles.
Preserving different Koodiyattam traditions:
Cholliyattom plays a critical role in preserving various styles of Koodiyattom, which include the Kalamandalam or Painkulam style, Ammannur style, and Mani Gurukulam style.
By creating a space for intergenerational knowledge transfer, Cholliyattom ensures that these styles are kept alive and continuously practiced.
Nuances of Koodiyattom:
Koodiyattom is known for its complexity, with intricate sign languages, acting styles, and specific techniques that vary between traditions.
While the costumes across different styles may appear similar, there are slight differences in gestures and performances, which can be challenging for audiences unfamiliar with the art's technical vocabulary.
Expanding Koodiyattom beyond temple premises:
Historically, Koodiyattom performances were confined to temple premises in Kerala, limiting its audience and outreach.
However, Cholliyattom aims to bring this ancient Sanskrit theatre tradition to a broader audience by encouraging participation from artistes of diverse social backgrounds.
The collective not only promotes collaboration among artistes but also strives to make the art more accessible to younger generations, ensuring its continuity and evolution.
About Koodiyattam:
Introduction:
Koodiyattam, a theatre tradition practiced for over two thousand years in Kerala, gained international recognition when UNESCO proclaimed it a ‘Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity’ in 2001.
It was later inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008.
Koodiyattom, derived from the Malayalam word ‘koodiyattam’ meaning ‘combined act,’ is a unique fusion of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of Koothu, an ancient performing art from the Sangam era.
Koothu, also known as Therukoothu, is a traditional folk art from Tamil Nadu, where artists combine music, dance, and storytelling to narrate epic tales.
The performances are conducted in Tamil, and this art form dates back to the early Tamil country.
Koothu reached its zenith centuries ago, with mentions in Sangam literature, which also documents the development of Tamil literature (iyal), music (isai), and drama (natagam).
Koothu performances usually draw from scenes in ancient epics like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Tamil classical epics.
Notably, there is no spoken dialogue in the performances-only songs are used to convey the narrative.
History:
Koodiyattom, traditionally performed in temple theatres known as koothambalams, is the only surviving art form that incorporates drama from ancient Sanskrit theatre.
The art form evolved from Koothu, which has been mentioned in Sangam literature and temple inscriptions of the Pallava, Pandiyan, Chera, and Chola periods.
These performances, considered integral to worship, were conducted alongside devotional singing of hymns like Tevaram and Prabandam.
Notably, kings of the ancient period, including a Pallava king named Rajasimha, contributed by authoring works like Kailasodharanam that were performed as part of these sacred services.
Reformation by Kulasekhara Varma:
Kulasekhara Varma, a medieval king from the Chera Perumal dynasty, is credited with reforming Koodiyattom.
He introduced the local language for the Vidusaka role and restructured the presentation into well-defined units.
He also authored two plays, Subhadradhananjayam and Tapatisamvarana, which are still performed today.
Other classical plays traditionally performed in Koodiyattom include Kalyanasaugandhika by Nilakantha, Nagananda by Harsha, and several plays by Bhasa, such as Abhiseka and Pratima.
Instruments and performance traditions:
Traditionally, the main musical instruments used in koodiyattam are the mizhavu, kuzhitalam, edakka, kurumkuzhal, and sankhu.
The mizhavu, the most prominent of these, is a percussion instrument that is played by a person of the Ambalavas Nambiar caste, accompanied by Nangyaramma playing the kuzhithalam (a type of cymbal).
Percussion instruments are musical instruments that produce sound by being struck, shaken, or scraped. Examples-Drums, cymbals etc.
Traditionally, koodiyattam has been performed by Chakyars (a subcaste of Kerala Hindus) and by Nangyaramma (women of the Ambalavasi Nambiar caste).
The main actor is a Chakyar who performs the ritualistic koothu and koodiyattam inside the temple or in the koothambalam.
Chakyar women, Illotammas, are not allowed to participate. Instead, the female roles are played by Nangyaramma.
Koodiyattom performances are divided into three main parts:
Purappadu: The actor performs a verse with the nritta aspect of dance.
Nirvahanam: Through abhinaya (expressive gestures), the actor depicts the emotions and character of the play's protagonist.
Koodiyattom: The final part, where the actual play begins, involving multiple actors performing in rhythm with the beats of the mizhavu drummers.
Modern revival:
In 1962, under the guidance of art and Sanskrit scholar V. Raghavan, Guru Mani Madhava Chakyar performed Koodiyattom outside Kerala for the first time at Sanskrit Ranga in Chennai.
This marked a significant moment in the evolution of the art form as it expanded beyond its traditional boundaries.
Decline:
Historically, Koodiyattom was an exclusive art form performed within Hindu temples and restricted to caste Hindus.
The art form, often requiring forty days to complete a performance, faced a significant decline with the collapse of the feudal order in Kerala during the 19th century, leading to a loss of patronage and financial difficulties for artists.
Despite a revival in the early 20th century, Koodiyattom once again struggles due to a lack of funding and institutional support.
Context: Artists in Thrissur, Kerala, performed Pulikali, the traditional tiger dance, marking the grand conclusion of the Onam festivities.
About the Pulikali dance:
Introduction:
Pulikali, a vibrant recreational folk art from Kerala, is an integral part of the state's cultural heritage.
This captivating performance is held annually during the Onam festival, which is Kerala's largest and most significant harvest celebration.
On the fourth day of Onam, also known as Naalaam Onam or Chathayam, trained artists perform Pulikali to entertain the masses.
The performance is marked by artists painted as tigers and leopards, dancing to the rhythmic beats of traditional instruments such as the Chenda, Chengila, Udukku, and Thakil.
Usually, men and children perform this art form. For the first time, 3 women among a 51-member team participated in the Pulikali at Thrissur in 2016.
The theme of the dance revolves around tiger hunting, which is symbolized by the performers' costumes and movements.
Significance of Pulikali in Thrissur:
Pulikali is predominantly performed in Kerala's Thrissur district, where it enjoys a 200-year-old tradition.
This region is considered the heart of the art form, with thousands of people gathering each year to witness the spectacle.
Although Pulikali is also performed in other regions, such as the outskirts of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam, the Thrissur Pulikali remains the most popular and classical of all variations.
History:
Pulikali traces its origins back to the reign of Maharaja Rama Varma Sakthan Thampuran, the ruler of Cochin over 200 years ago.
The Maharaja introduced Pulikali as a form of entertainment for the local populace, where dancers would put on tiger costumes and mimic the movements of a tiger in a performance called 'Pulikkettikali.'
Over time, the event gained popularity and became a central feature of Thrissur’s Onam celebrations, held in memory of this historic tradition.
Performance:
It is also known as Kaduvakali in some regions and the dancers are called Pulikalikkar.
The elaborate body paint, in shades of yellow, red, and black, plays a crucial role in the performance.
The stripes, ranging from simple ‘patta vara’ to intricate ‘zebra vara’ designs, are applied with great care to achieve the authentic look of a tiger.
The tune used for Pulikali Onam dance has a unique rhythm and is popularly known as pulimelam.
The special rhythm, composed by Thottungal Ramankutty Asan 70 years ago, is unique to Thrissur’s Pulikali.
Each Pulikkali team comprises 50 dancers.
Rituals and preparation:
The preparation for Pulikali is not just physical but also spiritual.
Performers observe a 41-day fasting period starting from the first day of the Malayalam month Karkidakam.
During this period, they purify their bodies and prepare mentally for the dance. The ritual of getting into costume begins the night before the event.
While Pulikali remains a significant part of Onam celebrations, it is also performed during other festive occasions in Kerala. Today, Pulikali is not only a folk art but also a major cultural spectacle that draws thousands to Thrissur, preserving its legacy for future generations.
Note:
Rama Varma Kunji Pillai Thampuran (1751–1805), also known as Sakthan Thampuran Sakthan means powerful), was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cochin.
Sakthan Thampuran was born at Vellarapally Palace to Anujan Namboodiripad of the Chennamangalam Mana and Ambika Thampuratti of the Cochin Royal Family.
The present-day city of Kochi in southern India was once part of this princely state.
He is credited with shaping the city of Thrissur, and it was under his patronage that the renowned Thrissur Pooram festival was initiated.
Sakthan Thampuran shifted his capital from Thrippunithura to Thrissur, laying the foundation for the city.
Context: Port Blair has been renamed ‘Sri Vijaya Puram’ by the Government of India in an effort to move beyond its colonial legacy. The new name pays tribute to the region’s historical ties with the Srivijaya Empire. This renaming also symbolizes the triumph of India's freedom struggle, recognizing the unique and vital role the Andaman and Nicobar Islands played in that historic fight for independence.
Introduction:
Port Blair, the gateway to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was named after Archibald Blair, a naval surveyor and lieutenant in the Bombay Marine.
Blair was the first to conduct a detailed survey of the Andaman Islands, a crucial factor in the city’s establishment.
Archibald Blair’s early career and survey missions:
Blair began his service in the Bombay Marine in 1771, embarking on numerous survey missions across the coasts of India, Iran, and Arabia.
His work extended into various regions, including the Chagos Archipelago, Diamond Harbour near Calcutta, and along the Hooghly River.
These early missions earned him a reputation as a skilled surveyor, leading to his involvement in a mission to the Andaman Islands.
Survey of the Andaman Islands and naming of Port Cornwallis:
In December 1778, Blair departed from Calcutta with two ships, the Elizabeth and the Viper, to explore the Andaman Islands.
His expedition, lasting until April 1779, navigated the west coast and subsequently the east coast of the islands.
During this survey, Blair discovered a natural harbour, which he initially named Port Cornwallis, after William Cornwallis, then Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army.
Later the island was renamed after him.
Recognizing the strategic importance of this harbour, Blair reported his findings to the East India Company (EIC), who were impressed by the potential of the location.
Colonization of the Andaman Islands:
Following Blair’s discovery, the EIC decided to colonize the islands to establish a safe harbour to monitor and counter Malay pirate activities.
Port Cornwallis would also serve as a refuge for shipwrecked sailors and as a shelter for British officers during hostilities with other powers.
As part of the colonization process, several convicts were transported to the islands to perform unpaid labor, and the region became a penal colony.
Decline of the first colony:
In December 1792, for strategic reasons, the colony was shifted to the northeast part of the Andaman Islands, and the new settlement was named Port Cornwallis.
However, this new colony did not last long, as the settlers faced severe disease outbreaks, resulting in numerous deaths.
Port Blair and the revival of penal colony post-1857 revolt:
The Revolt of 1857 changed the course of Port Blair's history.
The British, now burdened with a large number of Indian prisoners, decided to renovate and resettle Port Blair as a penal colony.
Many of these prisoners were given life sentences, with some being hanged, and others succumbing to disease and the harsh conditions of the settlement.
With the rise of the Indian Independence Movement, the British constructed a vast cellular jail in 1906, now infamously known as Kaala Paani.
This jail housed numerous Indian freedom fighters, including Veer Damodar Savarkar, becoming a symbol of British colonial oppression.
Blair’s exploration and discovery were instrumental in shaping the colonial history of the Andaman Islands.
Certain facts about Port Blair
Port Blair, now officially known as Sri Vijaya Puram, serves as the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India situated in the Bay of Bengal.
It functions as the headquarters of the South Andaman district.
Port Blair is home to several strategic military installations. Indian Navy's major naval base, INS Jarawa, is located here, along with air and sea bases operated by Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, and Andaman and Nicobar Command-the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces, comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
In Indian freedom struggle movement:
Netaji Subas Chandra Bose escaped British surveillance in Calcutta on January 16, 1941, and returned to Indian soil nearly three years later, arriving at Port Blair Aerodrome on December 29, 1943.
On 30 December 1943, Netaji hoisted the national flag for the first time on Indian soil, at Port Blair, symbolizing the fulfilment of his promise that the Indian National Army (INA) would stand on Indian land by the end of 1943. This momentous visit also marked the declaration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the ‘first liberated territory of India.’
To commemorate this significant event, a Sankalp Smarak (Memorial of Resolve) was dedicated to the nation on December 29, 2021 (78 years after Bose's historic arrival in the Andamans).
From 1943 to 44 during World War II, this territory served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The island at the time was liberated from British rule by Japan which captured it during World War II. British forces eventually regained control of the islands in October 1945.
History of Engagement of Imperial Chola with Andaman Islands and Srivijaya:
During the 11th century, the powerful Chola emperor, Rajendra I, used the Andaman Islands as a naval base to launch a significant military campaign against the Srivijaya Empire (southern Sumatra), located in present-day Indonesia.
Strategic importance:
According to inscriptions found at Thanjavur dated to 1050 CE, the Cholas referred to the Andaman Islands as Ma-Nakkavaram (great open or naked land), which is believed to have contributed to the modern name of Nicobar under British rule.
The islands’ geographic location made them an ideal staging ground for naval expeditions aimed at Southeast Asia.
His attack on Srivijaya was a remarkable event, reflecting the Chola Empire’s strength and its influence in the region.
Invasion of Srivijaya:
The Chola invasion of Srivijaya was unique in India’s otherwise peaceful interactions with Southeast Asia.
For nearly a millennium, Southeast Asian states had come under the strong cultural influence of India, but this military campaign marked a rare instance of direct conflict.
Reasons for invasion:
The Srivijaya Empire may have attempted to disrupt Chola trade routes with the East, which prompted Rajendra I’s military response.
It is also believed that Rajendra I sought to extend his digvijaya (conquest of all directions) to Southeast Asia, thereby enhancing his imperial glory.
The attack on Srivijaya was also part of the Chola’s broader expansionist ambitions, which also included conflicts with other South Indian empires and Sri Lanka.
Outcome:
Rajendra I’s naval campaign against Srivijaya resulted in significant victories.
According to inscriptional records, he captured Srivijaya’s king, Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, and seized valuable treasures from the Buddhist empire, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jewelled war gate of Srivijaya.
The control over the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia gave access to a major commercial hub.
The conquest gave the Cholas control over important maritime trade routes.
This victory not only marked the height of Chola naval power but also demonstrated the empire’s capacity to influence events far beyond the Indian subcontinent.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, through their association with Rajendra I’s naval expeditions, gained a significant role in India’s maritime strategy and historical narratives.
About Rajendra Chola I (reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE):
Introduction:
Rajaraja I appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent, marking the continuation of the Chola dynasty.
For two years, they ruled jointly, with Rajendra actively participating in campaigns, especially against the Western Chalukyas.
These efforts extended the Chola Empire's boundaries to the Tungabhadra River, securing its northern frontier.
Conquest of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka:
One of the major achievements during Rajaraja’s reign was the attack on Madurai, forcing the Pandya rulers to flee to Sri Lanka.
Rajendra I continued this campaign, successfully conquering Sri Lanka and reclaiming the Pandya crown and jewels.
This victory further solidified Chola dominance over the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.
Northern expeditions:
After ascending the throne in 1014 CE, Rajendra launched a significant campaign into northern India, extending the Chola influence beyond the Godavari River.
His forces secured key victories, leading to the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, commemorating the northern conquests.
Western Chalukya campaigns:
Rajendra I continued his father’s campaigns against the Western Chalukyas, successfully sacking their capital, Kalayani.
The dwarapala statue from Kalayani, installed at the Darasuram temple, is a lasting symbol of these victories.
Rajendra I assumed titles such as Mudikonda Cholan, Gangaikondan, and Kadaramkondan to reflect his military triumphs and scholarly achievements. His reign marked the zenith of Chola power, extending from South India to Southeast Asia, cementing the Chola Empire as one of the most powerful in Indian history.
Context: September 12 marks the 127th anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi, regarded today as one of the finest last stands in global military history.
AboutBattle of Saragarhi
Saragarhi was the communication tower between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan. The two forts in the rugged North West Frontier Province (NWFP), now in Pakistan, were built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh but renamed by the British.
Though Saragarhi was usually manned by a platoon of 40 soldiers, on that fateful day, it was being held by only 21 soldiers from the 36th Sikh regiment (now 4 Sikh) of the British Indian Army and a non-combatant called Daad, a Pashtun who did odd jobs for the troops. The post was led by Havildar Ishar Singh.
The purpose of the this post was to maintain communication between the two forts using heliograph, a signalling device that used flashes of sunlight to transmit messages.
On 12 September 1897, a massive force of around 10,000 Afghan Afridi and Orakzai tribals attacked Saragarhi, trying to cut communication between the forts.
Despite being heavily outnumbered, the 21 Sikh soldiers decided to fight rather than surrender.
Havildar Ishar Singh and his men held their ground for several hours, engaging in fierce combat, fought till their last breath, killing 200 tribals and injuring 600.
In 2017, the Punjab government declared 12th September a public holiday to commemorate Saragarhi Day.
To this day, the Khyber Scouts regiment of the Pakistani army continues to honour the Saragarhi memorial near Fort Lockhart with a guard and salute.
Context:In December 2022, the Humboldt Forum Museum in Berlin, Germany, unveiled an intricately designed red sandstone gateway, a 1:1 replica of the original East Gate of Sanchi's Great Stupa. At nearly 10 metres tall, 6 metres wide, and weighing around 150 tonnes, this reproduction reflects the detailed craftsmanship of the ancient structure. Its significance was highlighted by a visit from India's External Affairs Minister, S. Jaishankar, emphasizing the ongoing cultural dialogue between India and Germany.
Stupa
A stupa is a commemorative monument usually containing sacred relics of the Buddha or other venerable saints.
The archetypal/typical stupa is a hemispherical structure, whose origins can be traced to pre-Buddhist burial mounds found in India.
The Sanchi complex was in a state of profound disrepair when it was first encountered by British officer Henry Taylor in 1818.
This discovery led to a renewed interest in the site, which was subsequently formally surveyed and excavated by Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in 1851.
The restoration of the site to its current condition was overseen by ASI Director-General John Marshall during the 1910s, with crucial financial support from the Begums of Bhopal.
The most recent construction in Sanchi can be dated to as late as the twelfth century CE.
The Great Stupa is one of the oldest standing stone structures in India, believed to have been built over the Buddha’s relics.
The development of the Sanchi complex was supported by patronage from Vidisha’s mercantile community.
The Great Stupa and Sanchi's other Buddhist monuments were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1989.
The Sanchi Stupa is featured on the reverse side of the ₹200 Indian currency note to highlight its significance as a cornerstone of Indian cultural heritage.
Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka:
The Sanchi Stupa was originally commissioned by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
The initial design of the stupa featured a simple hemispherical brick dome constructed over the relics of the Buddha.
This early form was crowned with a Chatra, a symbolizing high rank, intended to honour and protect the sacred relics of Buddha.
Ashoka’s wife Devi was a merchant’s daughter from nearby Vidisha and a native of Sanchi, oversaw the construction.
Expansions:
In the 1st century BCE, significant enhancements were made to the original stupa.
Four elaborately carved Toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade (railing or barrier supported by a series of vertical posts) encircling the structure were added.
These additions marked the stupa’s transition from its Mauryan origins to a more ornate and decorative phase.
Structural developments:
Subsequent rulers, particularly the Shungas and Satavahanas, expanded and embellished the stupa.
During the Shunga period, the stupa was significantly enlarged with stone slabs, increasing its size to nearly twice its original diameter.
The dome was flattened near the top and crowned with three superimposed parasols, set within a square railing, symbolizing the Dharma, or Wheel of the Law.
The high circular drum supporting the dome was designed for circumambulation (Pradakshinapath) and accessible via a double staircase, complemented by a stone balustrade enclosing a second pathway at ground level.
The railings surrounding Stupa 1, dating to around 150 BCE or 175–125 BCE, are composed of plain stone slabs with dedicatory inscriptions.
These railings, though made of stone, mimic a wooden prototype, evident from the slanted joints resembling those in wood rather than vertical cuts typical of stonework.
The railings also feature short donor inscriptions in Brahmi script, with additional inscriptions added during the Gupta Period.
Satavahana contributions:
The Satavahana Empire, under the rule of Satakarni II, conquered eastern Malwa from the Shungas, gaining control over the Sanchi site.
The Satavahanas are credited with constructing the ornate gateways around the original Mauryan and Shunga stupas.
The 1st century BCE saw the introduction of highly decorated gateways, which were also coloured.
An inscription in Brahmi script, the Siri-Satakani inscription, commemorates the donation of one of the top lintels of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of King Satakarni II, reflecting the ongoing patronage and cultural significance of the site.
Gateways of the Great Stupa:
The Great Stupa at Sanchi is renowned not just for its hemispherical dome crowned with a chhatra (parasol) but also for its intricately carved ornamental gateways or toranas.
These gateways, constructed in the first century BCE during the Satavahana dynasty, serve as remarkable illustrations of Buddhist art and iconography.
The Stupa is surrounded by four toranas, each oriented towards one of the cardinal directions.
These gateways are composed of two square pillars topped with capitals, which support a superstructure.
The pillars and lintels are adorned with elaborate bas reliefs and sculptures depicting scenes from the Buddha’s life, stories from the Jataka Tales, and other Buddhist motifs.
1. Southern gateway:
The Southern Gateway, the first of the four to be erected, is situated directly in front of the steps leading to the stupa’s terrace.
The Northern Gateway, the second to be constructed, is the best-preserved of the four.
It retains most of its original ornamental figures and provides a clear view of the artistic style used in all the gateways.
This gateway features panels that narrate various events from the Buddha’s life.
A notable atypical panel depicts foreigners making a dedication at the Southern Gateway.
3. Eastern gateway:
(Eastern Gateway)
The Eastern Gateway, constructed third, is particularly famous in Europe due to its plaster cast, created by Lieutenant Henry Hardy Cole in the late 1860s. This cast was widely distributed and displayed across Europe, including at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The upper lintel of the Eastern Gateway represents the seven Manushi Buddhas, with the historical Buddha being the latest.
The middle lintel depicts the Great Departure, where Prince Siddhartha leaves Kapilavastu.
The lower lintel portrays Emperor Ashoka visiting the Bodhi tree.
Decorative elements include shalabhanjika (fertility emblems represented by a yakshi grasping a tree branch), elephants, winged lions, and peacocks.
4. Western gateway:
The Western Gateway, the last of the four to be built, follows the same structural design as the other gateways, with two square pillars, capitals, and a superstructure of three architraves.
Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in its submission to a Parliamentary panel discussingthe Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, highlighted several issues arising from the dual status of protected monuments that are also notified as Waqf properties. Referring to examples like Fatehpur Sikri in Agra and Atala Masjid in Jaunpur, ASI officials contended that this overlapping status leads to conflicts and administrative complications.
Issues concerning Waqf Properties and ASI’s conservation efforts:
Declaration of monuments as Waqf properties:
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) reported that the Waqf Board has declared 53 monuments as Waqf properties under the Waqf Act of 1995.
These monuments were already protected under ASI’s jurisdiction, leading to overlapping claims of authority.
Jurisdictional conflicts:
ASI has raised concerns about jurisdictional conflicts arising from the Waqf Board’s actions.
The designation of these monuments as Waqf properties after they were already notified as protected has complicated the management and preservation responsibilities.
Restrictions on conservation activities:
ASI officials have reported challenges in conducting conservation work on these monuments due to restrictions imposed by the Waqf Board. Specific issues include:
Unauthorized modifications: The Waqf Board has made various alterations to the original structures, which ASI believes threaten the monuments' authenticity and integrity.
Examples of concern:
Installation of unauthorized fixtures in Mecca Masjid, Ahmednagar.
Construction of shops within the enclosure of the Atala Masjid, Jaunpur.
Interference in management: In Fatehpur Sikri, the Waqf Board has reportedly appointed its own tour guides, replacing those certified by ASI.
Opposition to ASI's claims:
Committee members, including opposition party representatives, have contested the ASI's claims:
Legislative framework: They argue that the ASI is not fully adhering to its own legislative framework. The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act includes provisions that balance private property rights with public interests in preservation.
Historical basis for Waqf designations: Opposition members assert that the Waqf Board’s designations are based on historical evidence of ‘Waqf by user’ and are not arbitrary.
Legislative concerns:
Opposition members have warned that removing the ‘Waqf by user’ clause from the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, could lead to increased legal disputes and multiple claims over Waqf properties, exacerbating the existing conflicts.
Criticism of ASI’s inaction:
ASI has faced criticism for its perceived inaction regarding the Waqf Board's alleged undermining of the integrity of protected monuments.
Critics have urged ASI to provide explanations for not using its legislative powers more effectively to address these issues.
Overall, the debate highlights the challenges of balancing cultural heritage preservation with historical ownership claims, emphasizing the need for a clear and coherent framework to resolve conflicts between public institutions and private entities.
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act:
Purpose and enactment
The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (AMASR Act) was enacted by the Indian Parliament in 1958.
The Act aims to preserve and protect ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites, and remains of national importance.
The Act regulates archaeological excavations and safeguards sculptures, carvings, and similar objects, ensuring the preservation of India's rich cultural heritage.
Role of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):
The ASI operates under the provisions of the AMASR Act. It is responsible for carrying out the Act's objectives, including the protection and conservation of designated monuments and archaeological sites.
Regulations on Protected areas:
The AMASR Act designates a 100-meter radius around each monument as a prohibited area, where no construction or alteration except certain circumstances is allowed without permission.
The Central government can extend the prohibited area beyond 100 meters.
An additional 200-meter area is classified as regulated, where any construction or modifications require prior approval.
The National Monuments Authority (NMA), established under the Act, is the regulatory body responsible for overseeing activities within these zones and granting necessary permissions.
Amendments:
The Act was amended in 2010 to strengthen penal provisions against encroachments and illegal constructions near monuments.
Establishment of a 100-meter prohibited area around national monuments, with a 200-meter regulated zone where construction requires NMA approval.
Introduction of heritage by-laws for individual monuments, prepared by expert bodies to address specific needs.
The Act provided a clear statutory definition of 'prohibited' and 'regulated' areas around monuments, establishing precise guidelines for land use in these regions.
Role of the National Monuments Authority (NMA):
The NMA is tasked with implementing the AMASR Act, supervising the protection and preservation of ancient monuments and archaeological sites, and regulating construction activities within the protected and regulated areas.
The NMA has the authority to grant permissions for any construction or development within the designated zones, ensuring that heritage conservation is maintained.
Definitions
Ancient monument: Defined as any structure, erection, monument, or site of historical, archaeological, or artistic interest that has existed for at least 100 years.
Archaeological sites and remains: Areas containing ruins or relics of historical or archaeological significance, also existing for not less than 100 years.
AMASR Amendment) Bill, 2017:
Introduction:
The AMASR (Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains) Amendment Bill was first introduced in the Lok Sabha in 2017, by the Minister of Tourism and Culture.
This Bill seeks to amend the original Act, which was enacted in 1958 to protect ancient monuments and archaeological sites.
Key amendments
Construction in prohibited areas
The Bill allows for public works to be constructed in these prohibited areas. This includes infrastructure projects deemed necessary by the central government for public welfare.
Approval process for construction
The Bill stipulates that any construction, reconstruction, repair, or renovation within these prohibited areas must be approved. The relevant central government department must submit an application to the competent authority.
The central government will then assess whether the construction qualifies as a public work and will communicate its decision to the applicant within ten days.
Definition of Public works:
The Bill introduces a specific definition for public works: ‘construction works related to infrastructure financed and carried out by any central government department or office for public purposes, necessary for public safety or security, and where no viable alternative exists beyond the prohibited area.’
Assessment requirements:
The Bill also expands the scope of impact assessments required for public works. It includes considerations of archaeological, visual, and heritage impacts in the prohibited areas.
Rationale:
The central government has argued that the prohibition on new construction within protected areas is hindering public works and developmental projects.
They believe the amendment is necessary to facilitate infrastructure development while balancing the need to preserve historical sites.
Current Status:
The Amendment Bill was passed in January 2018.
It was then referred to a Select Committee in the Rajya Sabha.
The committee's report, submitted in 2019, recommended evaluating the area limit for prohibiting construction on a case-by-case basis rather than applying a blanket 100-metre restriction.
It also raised concerns about the definition of public works, noting that it excludes certain public utility projects such as Metro construction, which do not directly relate to safety and security.
The committee suggested the Bill be passed following consultations with central and state governments and relevant departments.
It also provided observations and recommendations for drafting notifications and rules related to the Bill.
About National Monuments Authority (NMA):
The National Monuments Authority (NMA) was established under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India, in accordance with the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010.
Enacted in 2010, this Act aimed to enhance the protection and preservation of India's rich cultural heritage by managing the areas surrounding centrally protected monuments.
Responsibilities:
Protection and preservation: The NMA is tasked with the critical role of safeguarding monuments and archaeological sites through effective management of the prohibited and regulated zones around these sites.
Managing prohibited and regulated Areas: Ensuring that activities within these areas do not compromise the integrity and preservation of the monuments.
Granting permissions: Reviewing and approving construction-related activities within the prohibited and regulated areas to prevent potential damage to the heritage sites.
Addressing urbanization and development:
With the surge in urbanization, population growth, and development pressures, there is increasing strain on land, including those areas around centrally protected monuments.
Balancing Development and preservation: Regulating growth and construction around these monuments to balance the needs of urban development with the essential requirements for preservation and protection of heritage sites.
Public scrutiny:
The NMA is required to scrutinize heritage bye-laws and obtain public objections and suggestions before granting approvals.
Organizational structure:
The Act mandates the constitution of the NMA with a Chairperson, up to five whole-time and five part-time members, and a Member Secretary.
The Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) serves as an ex officio member.
Grading and Classification:
The NMA is also responsible for grading and classifying monuments to streamline their management and preservation.
About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a prominent government agency tasked with archaeological research, conservation, and preservation of cultural and historical monuments across India.
Historical background:
Cunningham, with his expertise in Brahmi, conducted extensive surveys of Buddhist monuments across India.
Despite early challenges, he advocated for the establishment of a formal archaeological body.
The ASI was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, who also served as its first Director-General. This initiative marked the beginning of systematic archaeological research in India.
Predecessors:
The Asiatic Society, founded by British Indologist Sir William Jones in 1784, conducted early research into India's history.
The society, based in Calcutta, published ‘Asiatic Researches’ and made significant contributions to the study of ancient Persian texts.
Notable early members, such as Charles Wilkins, translated the Bhagavad Gita into English, furthering the understanding of Indian heritage.
Early efforts:
James Prinsep’s successful decipherment of the Brahmi script in 1837 was a pivotal moment, greatly enhancing the understanding of ancient Indian inscriptions and history.
Expansion and reform: The 1958 AMASR Act placed the ASI under the Ministry of Culture, and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972) ensured national protection for important monuments.
Organization and structure:
The ASI is headed by a Director-General, supported by an Additional Director-General, two Joint Director-Generals, and seventeen Directors.
The organization operates under the Ministry of Culture.
The ASI administers over 3,650 monuments and sites of national importance, including temples, mosques, forts, and other historical structures.
Scientific preservation:
Establishment of the Science Branch: Founded in 1917 by Mohammed Sanaullah Khan, the Science Branch focuses on preserving and chemically treating artifacts.
The branch has expanded its scope to include material analysis and conservation.
Founded by: Akbar in 1571 as the Mughal Empire's capital. It served as the capital until 1585 when Akbar abandoned it for a campaign in Punjab, and it was completely abandoned by 1610.
Named after the former village of Sikri, the site has revealed ancient temples through ASI excavations. Previously controlled by the Sakarwar Rajputs until 1527.
Akbar constructed a religious compound and later a walled city here, calling it Fatehpur Sikri, or ‘City of Victory,’ following his Gujarat campaign in 1573.
Recognized for its historical significance and architecture, Fatehpur Sikri was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.
Atala Masjid, or Atala Mosque:
It is a 14th-century mosque in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh.
Built on the site of the Atala Devi temple, demolished in 1364, construction began in 1376 under Firuz Shah Tughlaq, with materials from demolished temples.
The mosque was completed by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi in 1408.
The mosque features a central courtyard with the Madarsa Din Dunia.
It has three large gateways and has a central dome (nearly 17 meters high).
Context: The conservation and development of Jaipur's Walled City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019, will be funded with ₹100 crore. The initiative will focus on enhancing infrastructure while preserving the city's architectural heritage and vibrant culture.
Important monuments in Jaipur
Known for its pink facade buildings, the Walled City's heritage status reflects its distinctive grid-based street layout with colonnades that form large public squares called chaupars.
The Walled City is renowned for its landmarks, including the 400-year-old Man Sagar Lake, City Palace, Tripolia Gate, Ajmeri Gate, Sanganeri Gate, Zorawar Singh Gate, Jantar Mantar Observatory.
It also features Maota Lake at the base of the historic Amber Palace, the Maharaja School of Arts & Crafts (now the Museum of Legacies) in Kishanpole Bazaar, and the Hawa Mahal, Jaipur’s most iconic landmark.
Man Sagar Lake
Man Sagar Lake, an artificial reservoir, boasts a history of over 400 years.
Constructed around 1610 by Raja Man Singh, the then ruler of Amer, the lake was created by damming the Dravyavati River.
Its purpose was to enhance water supply and irrigation in the region.
The lake is bordered by the Aravalli hills on the north, west, and east, while the southern side features densely populated plains.
A key feature of Man Sagar Lake is the Jal Mahal, a palace situated in the lake's centre, offering a picturesque view.
City Palace
The City Palace served as both a royal residence and the administrative headquarters of the Jaipur State
Its construction began shortly after the city of Jaipur was founded under Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, who relocated his court from Amber to Jaipur in 1727.
The palace was completed in 1732 and continued to function as the ceremonial and administrative centre of the Maharaja of Jaipur until 1949, when Jaipur became part of the newly formed Indian state of Rajasthan.
The palace’s design reflects a blend of Mughal and Rajput architectural styles.
Jantar Mantar observatory
The Jantar Mantar is an exceptional collection of 19 astronomical instruments commissioned by Sawai Jai Singh II.
Completed in 1734, this observatory is renowned for housing the world’s largest stone sundial and is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Situated close to the City Palace and Hawa Mahal, the Jantar Mantar allows for the naked-eye observation of celestial positions
It also follows three classical celestial coordinates to track the positions of heavenly bodies- namely the horizon-zenith local system, the equatorial system, and the ecliptic system.
The main aim of Jai Singh II was to refine the ancient Islamic zij tables, to measure the exact hour continuously, and to define the calendar in a more precise manner. Therefore this observatory is an example of Ptolemaic positional astronomy which was an example to many civilizations.
Amber fort
History:
The settlement was originally founded by Raja Alan Singh of the Chanda clan in 967 CE.
The Amber Fort, as it stands today, was constructed over the remnants of this earlier structure during the reign of Raja Man Singh, a Kachwaha King of Amer.
His descendant, Jai Singh I, further expanded the fort.
The fort's significance continued until 1727 when the Kachwahas shifted their capital to Jaipur under the rule of Sawai Jai Singh II.
Despite this transition, the Fort remained a prominent site and continued to be a symbol of Rajput grandeur.
Architectural features:
The present structure showcases Rajput architecture with Mughal influences.
Constructed from red sandstone and marble, the fort is renowned for its opulence and grandeur.
The fort is divided into sections, each with its own gate and courtyard:
Suraj Pol (Sun Gate): The primary entrance to the fort.
Diwan-e-Am (Hall of Public Audience): Features a pillared hall and a two-tiered gateway known as Ganesh Pol.
Dil-e-Aaram Garden: A Mughal-style-garden leading to the Diwan-e-Am, characterized by latticed galleries and double-rowed columns with elephant-shaped capitals.
Diwan-e-Khas (Hall of Private Audience): An exclusive area for private meetings.
Within the fort, two prominent buildings are located opposite each other in a separate courtyard:
Sheesh Mahal (Mirror Palace): Renowned for its intricate mirror work.
Jai Mandir: A beautiful structure complementing the Sheesh Mahal, both forming part of the ‘Zenana’ (women’s quarters). This area was designed to ensure privacy for the kings and their queens.
Religious significance:
Near the Ganesh Gate, there is a temple dedicated to Shila Devi, a goddess from the Chaitanya cult, given to Raja Man Singh after his victory over the Raja of Jessore in 1604 (present-day Bangladesh).
In June 2013, the Amber Fort, along with five other forts in Rajasthan (Chittor Fort, Gagron Fort, Jaisalmer Fort, Kumbhalgarh, and Ranthambore Fort), was included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list.
These forts were recognized for their exemplary Rajput military hill architecture and cultural significance.
Hawa Mahal
The Hawa Mahal, or ‘Palace of Winds,’ is a distinctive palace.
Built from red and pink sandstone, it is strategically located on the edge of the City Palace.
This iconic structure, completed in 1799, is celebrated for its unique architectural features and its role as a symbol of Jaipur's rich heritage.
History:
Constructed by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh, the grandson of Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh, the Hawa Mahal was inspired by the Khetri Mahal's distinctive architecture.
Architectural feature:
The Hawa Mahal was designed by the architect Lal Chand Ustad.
Its façade, resembling a honeycomb, consists of 953 small windows, known as Jharokhas, adorned with intricate latticework.
This lattice design served a dual purpose:
allowing royal women to observe street life and festivals without being seen, and
facilitating a natural cooling effect through the Venturi effect, making the interior more comfortable during the hot summer months.
The palace's five-story exterior is a visual masterpiece, with each Jharokha showcasing delicate carvings.
Its design reflects a fusion of Hindu Rajput and Islamic Mughal architectural styles.
The Rajput influence is evident in the domed canopies, fluted pillars, and floral motifs;
While the Mughal influence is visible in the stone inlay work and arches, reminiscent of the Panch Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri.
Context: The Joint Committee of Parliament reviewing the Waqf (Amendment) Bill has, according to sources, received a total of eight lakh petitions from both institutions and the public.
The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024:
The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, introduced in the Lok Sabha, proposes significant amendments to the Waqf Act, 1995.
The Act regulates waqf property in India, which refers to the endowment of movable or immovable property for religious or charitable purposes under Muslim law.
The Bill aims to enhance management, transparency, and efficiency in the administration of waqf properties.
Renaming and scope:
The Bill proposes renaming the Act to the ‘United Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency and Development Act, 1995’.
It will continue to regulate waqf properties but introduces new provisions for better governance and oversight.
Formation and management of Waqf:
Formation of Waqf
Original provisions: Waqf could be established through declaration, long-term use (waqf by user), or endowment when succession ends (waqf-alal-aulad).
Amendment provisions:
Only individuals practicing Islam for at least five years may declare a waqf.
The individual must own the property being declared.
Removal of waqf by user.
Waqf-alal-aulad must not deny inheritance rights to heirs, including women.
Government property as Waqf:
The Bill states that government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
The Collector will determine ownership in cases of uncertainty and update revenue records if deemed government property.
Powers and authority:
Determination of Waqf property
Original act: Empowered Waqf Boards to determine if a property is waqf.
Amendment bill: Removes this provision; no longer will Waqf Boards have the authority to make such determinations.
Survey of Waqf properties
Original act: Appointed a Survey Commissioner and additional commissioners.
Amendment bill: Empowers Collectors to conduct surveys of waqf properties, with pending surveys to be conducted under state revenue laws.
Central Waqf council
Original Act: Constituted the Central Waqf Council with only Muslim members, including women.
Amendment Bill: Changes the composition:
Two members must be non-Muslims.
MPs, former judges, and eminent persons need not be Muslims.
Muslim members must include representatives of Muslim organizations, scholars in Islamic law, and chairpersons of Waqf Boards. Two must be women.
Waqf Boards:
Original act: Provided for the election of up to two members each from electoral colleges of MPs, MLAs, MLCs, and Bar Council members.
Amendment bill:
Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group, who need not be Muslim.
Boards must include two non-Muslim members and at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward classes of Muslims, as well as Bohra and Agakhani communities if relevant.
The original act provides that at least two members must be women. The Bill states that two Muslim members must be women.
Original Act: Allowed separate Waqf Boards for Sunni and Shia sects if they constituted more than 15% of waqf properties or waqf income in the state.
Amendment Bill: Extends this provision to include separate boards for Aghakhani and Bohra sects.
Tribunals and appeals:
Composition of tribunals:
Original act: Required a Tribunal chairman to be a Judge of specified ranks and included a knowledgeable person in Muslim law.
Other member to be a current or former officer of the rank of joint secretary.
Appeals:
Original act: Decisions of the Tribunal were final with no appeal options.
Amendment bill: Tribunal decisions can be appealed in the High Court within 90 days.
Powers of the Central government:
Original act: Allowed state governments to audit waqf accounts at any time.
Amendment bill: Empowers the central government to oversee audits by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) or a designated officer.
Rationale for the Amendment:
The amendment seeks to address concerns about the unchecked powers of Waqf Boards, which have led to extensive land claims and disputes.
For instance, in September 2022, the Tamil Nadu Waqf Board claimed the entire Thiruchendurai village, predominantly Hindu, highlighting the need for more stringent regulations and transparency.
Objectives
Transparency: Requires mandatory verification for all property claims by Waqf Boards to ensure transparency.
Gender Diversity: Modifies the composition of Waqf Boards to include more women representatives.
Revised verification procedures: Introduces new procedures for verifying Waqf properties to prevent misuse and disputes, with district magistrates overseeing these processes.
Limited powers: Aims to curb the extensive powers of Waqf Boards to prevent misuse and ensure proper management of waqf properties.
Concerns raised about the proposed amendments:
Reduced powers: The Bill diminishes the authority of State Waqf Boards, adversely impacting their ability to manage and oversee Waqf properties. This reduction in power undermines the effectiveness of these Boards in fulfilling their functions.
Minority Rights: There are apprehensions that the Bill may negatively affect the interests of Muslim communities who rely on Waqf properties for religious and charitable purposes. The changes might harm the ability of these communities to manage their assets effectively.
Increased government control: The increased involvement of district magistrates and other government officials in overseeing Waqf properties may lead to excessive bureaucratic interference. This heightened control could compromise the autonomy traditionally enjoyed by Waqf institutions.
Potential encroachment: The Bill's provisions for government oversight in Waqf property management might be seen as an encroachment on religious autonomy. The role of district magistrates and other officials could be perceived as intruding into religious matters.
Potential for disputes: The new verification processes, including the involvement of district magistrates, could lead to increased disputes and complications. The introduction of additional bureaucratic steps might exacerbate existing issues rather than resolving them.
Changes to Family waqf regulations: The Bill's requirement that family waqfs (waqf-alal-aulad) be created only after fulfilling the rights of all heirs could hinder the creation of such waqfs. This contrasts with other legal frameworks that allow for similar arrangements.
Derecognition of certain waqfs: The Bill attempts to derecognize waqfs that are categorized as ‘waqf by user’ or ‘waqf by reputation,’ potentially leading to legal and administrative challenges. This could create opportunities for unscrupulous individuals to exploit the situation.
Abolition of the Office of Survey Commissioner of Waqf: The proposed replacement of the Survey Commissioner of Waqf with district collectors could lead to inefficiencies and complications. The collectors’ existing responsibilities may detract from their ability to manage Waqf property surveys effectively.
Changes in Tribunal and appeals procedures : The Bill proposes changes to tribunal procedures, including an increase in the time allowed for raising objections. This could lead to delays and a rise in the number of cases, potentially complicating the resolution process.
Composition and functioning of Waqf bodies: The Bill’s changes to the composition of the Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards, including the nomination of non-Muslims, could disrupt the existing balance and effectiveness of these bodies. The inclusion of local body members in the Waqf Boards might dilute their focus and expertise.
Restrictions on non-Muslim donations: The Bill seeks to bar non-Muslims from donating to Waqf institutions, despite their potential support for various Muslim charitable causes. This provision conflicts with the inclusive nature of Islamic law and Indian syncretic culture.
Waqf Act 1955:
Waqf Law:
Waqf, literally meaning ‘detention’ or ‘confinement,’ refers to the permanent dedication of property for religious or charitable purposes in Islam.
Once a property is designated as Waqf, its use is restricted solely to these purposes, and any other use or sale is prohibited.
Under Sharia law, Waqf property remains dedicated to its purpose indefinitely.
In the late 19th century, a legal challenge to Waqf properties arose when a dispute reached the Privy Council in London.
The council described Waqf as ‘a perpetuity of the worst and most pernicious kind’ and declared it invalid.
This ruling was later overturned in India with the enactment of the Mussalman Waqf Validating Act of 1913, which preserved Waqf properties.
Post-Independence:
The Waqf Act was first enacted by Parliament in 1954.
This Act was repealed and replaced by a new Waqf Act in 1995, which enhanced the powers of Waqf Boards.
In 2013, amendments were made to grant the Waqf Boards even greater authority to designate properties as Waqf.
The Waqf Board of India is now the third-largest landholder in the country, following the Railways and the Defence Department.
Waqf Act, 1995:
The Waqf Act, 1995, regulates the administration of Waqf properties.
It defines Waqf as the permanent dedication of movable or immovable properties for religious, pious, or charitable purposes as recognized by Muslim law.
These properties are endowed to benefit the needy and fund various institutions such as educational establishments, graveyards, mosques, and shelters.
Once a property is designated as Waqf, it becomes non-transferable and remains dedicated as a charitable act toward God, essentially transferring ownership to the divine.
Management of properties:
A Survey Commissioner is responsible for listing Waqf properties by conducting local investigations and reviewing public documents.
Waqf properties are managed by a mutawali, who oversees their administration.
Unlike trusts under the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, Waqfs are intended to be perpetual and dedicated to specific charitable or religious purposes.
Creation and ownership:
To establish a Waqf, the individual (Waqif) must be of sound mind and hold valid ownership of the property
Interestingly, the Waqif does not need to be Muslim, provided they believe in Islamic principles.
Waqf Board:
The Waqf Board is a legal body capable of acquiring, holding, and transferring property. It can also engage in legal proceedings.
The board manages Waqf properties, recovers lost properties, and authorizes transactions involving immovable Waqf properties, requiring approval from at least two-thirds of its members.
Established in 1964, the Central Waqf Council oversees and advises state-level Waqf Boards across India.
FAQs:
Q.1 What is the meaning of ‘Waqf’?
Waqf refers to properties dedicated exclusively for religious or charitable purposes under Islamic law, and any other use or sale of the property is prohibited. Waqf means that the ownership of the property is now taken away from the person making Waqf and transferred and detained by Allah. ‘Waqif’ is a person who creates a waqf for the beneficiary. As Waqf properties are bestowed upon Allah, in the absence of a physically tangible entity, a ‘mutawalli’ is appointed by the waqif, or by a competent authority, to manage or administer a Waqf. Once designated as waqf, the ownership is transferred from the person making the waqf (waqif) to Allah, making it irrevocable.
Do all the Islamic Countries have Waqf Properties?
No, not all the Islamic countries have Waqf properties.
Context: The conservation and development of Jaipur's Walled City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019, will be funded with ₹100 crore. The initiative will focus on enhancing infrastructure while preserving the city's architectural heritage and vibrant culture.
More information from the news article:
Known for its pink facade buildings, the Walled City's heritage status reflects its distinctive grid-based street layout with colonnades that form large public squares called chaupars.
The conservation efforts are anticipated to enhance tourism, support the local economy, and improve infrastructure.
The Walled City is renowned for its landmarks, including the 400-year-old Man Sagar Lake, City Palace, Tripolia Gate, Ajmeri Gate, Sanganeri Gate, Zorawar Singh Gate, Jantar Mantar Observatory.
It also features Maota Lake at the base of the historic Amber Palace, the Maharaja School of Arts & Crafts (now the Museum of Legacies) in Kishanpole Bazaar, and the Hawa Mahal, Jaipur’s most iconic landmark.
Founded by Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachwaha Rajput ruler of Amber, the historic fortified city of Jaipur was laid out on the plains with a grid plan inspired by Vedic architecture.
As the capital of Rajasthan, Jaipur has preserved its local commercial, artisanal, and cooperative traditions in their original form.
Note:
Jaipur became the second Indian city, after Ahmedabad, to receive the UNESCO World Heritage City status.
This recognition was granted during the 43rd session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC), held in Baku, Azerbaijan in 2019.
Ahmedabad, Gujarat:
Ahmedabad holds the distinction of being the first Indian city to receive UNESCO World Heritage City status in July 2017.
This recognition celebrates its rich architectural, historical, and cultural significance.
Founded in 1411 by Sultan Ahmad Shah I, Ahmedabad served as the capital of Gujarat for six centuries, showcasing a continuous historical narrative.
The city is renowned for its unique blend of Islamic, Hindu, and Jain architectural styles.
Notable landmarks include Bhadra Fort, Jama Masjid, Sarkhej Roza, and many traditional havelis (wooden houses).
Ahmedabad's historic pols (gated residential areas) reflect intricate wooden architecture and community living.
Dubbed the ‘Manchester of the East,’ Ahmedabad is famous for its thriving textile industry, which plays a significant role in the city's economy and culture.
(Sawai Jai Singh II)
About Sawai Jai Singh II
Sawai Jai Singh II (1688-1743) was the Rajput ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, who later founded the fortified city of Jaipur and established it as his capital.
Ascending to the throne at the age of 11 in 1699, Jai Singh initially served as a vassal of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb honoured him with the title ‘Sawai,’ meaning one and a quarter-times superior to his contemporaries, before the siege of Khelna Fort in the Deccan.
In 1721, he was granted the title Saramad-i-Raja-i-Hindustan, followed by Maharaja Sawai, Raj Rajeshwar, Shri Rajadhiraj in 1723.
Later in his life, Jai Singh II sought independence from Mughal dominance and asserted his sovereignty by reviving the ancient Ashvamedha sacrifice, a ritual that had been abandoned for centuries.
He shifted his kingdom's capital from Amber to the newly established city of Jaipur.
Situation during his accession
Upon ascending the ancestral throne of Amber, Jai Singh II faced a dire situation, with insufficient resources to maintain even a modest force of 1,000 cavalry.
This challenging circumstance had developed over the preceding 96 years, coinciding with the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Given Amber's proximity to Mughal power centres in Delhi and Agra, the Jaipur rulers had historically relied on diplomacy rather than military action in their interactions with the Mughals.
Six months after his accession, Aurangzeb ordered Jai Singh to serve in the Deccan Wars.
Jai Singh eventually reached Burhanpur, but could not advance further due to heavy rains. His rank and pay were further reduced by 500.
Despite his military achievements at the siege of Khelna in 1702, Jai Singh's reward was limited to the restoration of his previous rank and the conferral of the title ‘Sawai.’
Relations with later Mughals:
Aurangzeb's death in 1707 initially exacerbated Jai Singh's difficulties, as his patrons, Bidar Bakht and his father Azam, were defeated in the Mughal succession war.
Jai Singh responded by forming alliances with the Rajput states of Mewar (through marriage) and Marwar against the new Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah I.
Relations with the Marathas:
Jai Singh governed Malwa three times between 1714 and 1737.
During his first term (1714–1717), he successfully repelled Maratha incursions.
However, by 1728, Peshwa Baji Rao's victory over the Nizam of Hyderabad allowed the Marathas to establish a foothold in the region.
In his second tenure (1729–1730), facing a weakened Mughal Empire, Jai Singh sought to negotiate with Shahu, the Maratha ruler, to restore Mughal authority but was soon recalled to Rajputana.
In his final term (1732–1737), he urged Emperor Muhammad Shah to compromise with the Marathas.
Despite his efforts, court opposition led to his removal, and Malwa eventually fell to the Marathas in 1738 following a defeat of his successor, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah.
Throughout this period of upheaval, Jai Singh remained within his state but was far from passive.
Anticipating further instability, he launched an extensive program of fortification throughout Jaipur's territories.
To this day, many of the fortifications around the former Jaipur state are attributed to the reign of Jai Singh II.
Contributions
Revival of Ancient Vedic practices and reforms:
Sawai Jai Singh II revived ancient Vedic ceremonies, including the Ashwamedha sacrifice in 1716 and the Vajapeya in 1734, which had not been performed for many generations.
An adherent of the Nimbarka Sampradaya of the Vaishnava sect, Jai Singh actively promoted Sanskrit learning and initiated significant social reforms, such as the abolition of Sati.
He also successfully lobbied for the abolition of the Jaziya tax imposed on Hindus by Aurangzeb in 1679, which Emperor Muhammad Shah finally revoked in 1720.
In 1728, he further convinced the emperor to eliminate the pilgrimage tax on Hindus visiting Gaya.
Astronomy and Science:
Motivated by a desire to advance the nation's understanding of astronomy, Jai Singh established five observatories across India in Delhi, Mathura, Benares, Ujjain, and his capital Jaipur, despite ongoing local conflicts and foreign invasions.
These observatories, collectively known as Jantar Mantar, were equipped with advanced instruments such as the Ram Yantra, Jai Prakash, Samrat Yantra, Digamsha Yantra, and Narivalaya Yantra, which allowed for highly accurate astronomical observations.
He compiled a set of astronomical tables, ‘Zij-i-Muhammadshahi,’ and oversaw the translation of Euclid's ‘Elements of Geometry,’ as well as works on trigonometry and logarithms into Sanskrit.
His observatories, relying primarily on Indian astronomy, were used to accurately predict eclipses and other celestial events.
The City of Jaipur:
One of Jai Singh's greatest achievements was the construction of Jaipur, originally called Jai Nagara, which became known as the ‘City of Victory’ and later as the ‘Pink City’.
Construction began in 1725, and the city was officially established as the capital of the Kachwaha dynasty in 1733, replacing Amber.
Jai Singh, while planning the layout of Jaipur, consulted numerous architects and founded the city based on the principles of Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastra, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya.
The city became a commercial hub, attracting merchants from across India who sought the safety and prosperity offered by its thick protective walls and a garrison of 17,000 troops.
Later, during the reign of Sawai Ram Singh II, Jaipur was painted pink to welcome Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, in 1876.
The city’s avenues have retained their pink hue, earning Jaipur the nickname ‘Pink City.’
(Location of Amber, 1525, with neighbouring polities, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire)
The Kingdom of Amber
Later known as Jaipur State, was situated in the north-eastern Dhundhar region of Rajputana and was governed by the Kachwaha Rajput clan.
It was founded in the 12th century by Dulha Rai, who was likely the last ruler of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty of Gwalior.
He established his rule in Dausa with the support of the Chahamanas of Shakambhari.
The kingdom experienced a period of stagnation from the 12th to the 15th centuries, with limited historical records.
Under Raja Bharmal, the kingdom forged a strong alliance with the Mughal Empire, marked by his daughter's marriage to Emperor Akbar.
Bharmal's son, Raja Bhagwant Das, and grandson, Raja Man Singh I, emerged as prominent generals in Akbar's army, contributing significantly to the expansion of the Mughal Empire.
Later, Mirza Raja Jai Singh I served under Shah Jahan and became a distinguished general but fell out of favour with Aurangzeb in 1664 due to his suspected involvement in Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's escape from Mughal captivity.
Sawai Jai Singh II ruled during the decline of the Mughal Empire, successfully rebelling against Mughal authority in 1708 to reclaim his confiscated territories.
However, after his death, the kingdom faced economic difficulties due to a civil war between his sons Ishwari Singh and Madho Singh I, as well as pressures from the Marathas.
In 1818, following the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the kingdom became a princely state under British rule by signing a treaty that established a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company.
It acceded to independent India in 1947 and was officially integrated into the nation by 1949.
Context: Odisha tribal boy from the Bonda tribe becomes the first from the community to clear NEET exam.
About Bonda tribe
Also known as the Remo, is a tribal people who currently live in the hills of Odisha's Malkangiri district in India.
They are one of the most isolated and primitive tribes in mainland India. They are one of the 75 Primitive Tribal Groups.
There are two different Bonda tribes: the Upper Bondas and the Lower Bonda.
The Upper Bondas have almost no connection to the outside world, preserving their traditional way of life.
They speak Remo, an Austro-Asiatic dialect closely related to the Gutob language.
Primarily the Bonda are agriculturists. They practise shifting cultivation (klunda chas) extensively. Their livelihood is supplemented by animal domestication and seasonal forest collections.
Bonda men wear a narrow strip of loin cloth (gosi). Women wearing a mass of brass and bead necklaces and by large heavy circular collars (neck rings) of brass and aluminium.
The unfree labour or Goti system in India is known as Gufam by the Bonda people. They are often led to bonded labour through marriage, known as diosing.
They have a matriarchal society where women prefer to marry men who are at least 5-10 years younger, ensures that the men can continue to earn for them as they grow older.
They are polytheists. They believe in the existence of a number of Gods and spirits. They worship mostly the deities of nature.
The Bonda villages are traditionally autonomous. Social order is maintained by a set of traditional functionaries - Naik- the village chief, Challan -the organiser of village meetings and Barik - the village messenger.
Context: On Navy Day (December 4), last year, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated a 35-foot statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji at Rajkot Fort in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. However, the statue collapsed recently on August 26, causing embarrassment for the state government. The statue's collapse has sparked a war of words between the ruling and opposition parties in Maharashtra, which is headed for elections.
Introduction
The Marathas played a pivotal role in the decline of Mughal power in India.
Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji, they posed a formidable challenge to the Mughal Empire in the 1670s.
By the mid-18th century, they had successfully displaced Mughal authority in central India.
In 1674, the Maratha General Venkoji, Shivaji's half-brother, led an invasion of Thanjavur, ending Nayak rule and establishing Maratha dominance in the Tamil region.
This Maratha rule in Thanjavur continued until the death of Serfoji II in 1832.
Early life of Shivaji
Shivaji (1627–1680) was born in Shivner near Junnar to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai.
Shahji was a descendant of the Yadava rulers of Devagiri on his mother’s side and the Sisodias of Mewar on his father’s side.
Shahji served under Malik Ambar, a prominent Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of Ahmednagar.
Following Malik Ambar's death, Shahji played a crucial role in Ahmednagar's politics before entering the service of the Sultan of Bijapur after Ahmednagar's annexation by the Mughals.
Shivaji and his mother were placed under the care of Dadaji Kondadev, who managed Shahji's jagirs at Poona.
Shivaji earned the trust of the Mavali peasants and chiefs, familiarizing himself with the hilly terrain around Poona.
He was also influenced by religious leaders Ramdas and Tukaram, with Ramdas being regarded as his spiritual guru.
Military conquests:
In 1646, he captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur, followed by the fort of Raigad, which he rebuilt.
After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took control of his father’s jagirs and several forts, including Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar, and Kondana.
Despite a temporary lull in military activities due to his father’s imprisonment by the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji resumed his campaigns in 1656, capturing Javli and constructing the fort of Pratapgarh.
Conflict with Bijapur:
Following the death of Mohammad Adil Shah of Bijapur in 1656, Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan Adil Shah II made peace with Aurangzeb, who was engaged in a war of succession in Delhi.
Taking advantage of Aurangzeb's absence, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured key cities and forts.
In 1659, Bijapur's Sultan sent Afzal Khan with a large army to subdue Shivaji.
However, Shivaji out maneuvered Afzal Khan and his forces, capturing the fort of Panhala and securing his recognition as the ruler of his territories.
Conflict with the Mughals:
Aurangzeb, who became Emperor in 1658, appointed Shaista Khan as Governor of the Deccan to crush Shivaji.
Shivaji responded by launching a daring attack on Shaista Khan's residence in Poona in 1663, forcing Aurangzeb to recall him.
In response, Aurangzeb dispatched Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji, leading to the Treaty of Purandar in 1665, where Shivaji ceded his forts and agreed to serve as a Mansabdar.
Shivaji's visit to Agra and renewed hostilities:
Persuaded by Jai Singh, Shivaji visited the Mughal court in Agra in 1666 but was humiliated and briefly imprisoned.
Upon his escape, Shivaji resumed his military campaigns, reclaiming lost forts and sacking Surat again in 1670.
He also imposed a chauth, or tribute, on Surat.
Coronation:
In 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigad.
He assumed the title of ‘Chhatrapati’ (supreme king).
Deccan campaigns:
In 1676, Shivaji began his career of conquests in the south.
A secret treaty was signed with the Sultan of Golkonda.
Shivaji promised him some territories in return for his support.
He captured Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining territories which belonged to his father, Shahji.
He allowed Venkoji or Ekoji to carry on administering Thanjavur.
The Nayaks of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
The Carnatic campaigns added glory and prestige to Shivaji.
Senji, the newly conquered place, acted as the second line of defence for his successors.
Administration:
Central administration
Shivaji established a robust system of administration that was deeply influenced by the Deccan style, particularly drawing inspiration from Malik Amber's reforms in Ahmednagar.
As the supreme head of the state, Shivaji held ultimate authority, but he was supported by a council of eight ministers known as the ‘Ashtapradhan’.
Among these ministers, the Peshwa (also referred to as the Mukhya Pradhan) was initially the head of the advisory council, playing a crucial role in assisting Raja Shivaji in governance.
Revenue administration
Shivaji made significant reforms in revenue administration by abolishing the Jagirdari System and introducing the Ryotwari System, which emphasized direct relationships between the state and the cultivators.
He also redefined the roles of hereditary revenue officials, such as Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, and Kulkarnis, ensuring stricter supervision over the Mirasdars, who held hereditary rights in land.
The revenue system was modeled after Malik Amber's Kathi system, where each piece of land was measured using a Rod or Kathi.
In addition to land revenue, Shivaji introduced two significant levies: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Chauth, accounting for one-fourth of the revenue, was essentially protection money paid to the Marathas to avoid raids by Shivaji's forces in non-Maratha territories.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% imposed on areas outside the Maratha kingdom.
Military administration
Shivaji organized a well-disciplined and efficient military force that became a cornerstone of his administration.
The ordinary soldiers in his army were paid in cash, while the chiefs and military commanders were compensated through Jagir grants (known as Saranjam or Mokasa).
His army was composed of three main divisions:
Infantry (Mavali foot soldiers)
Cavalry (horse riders and equipment holders)
Navy
Shivaji’s last years were troubled by his eldest son Sambhaji’s rebellion. He died in 1680, leaving behind a kingdom that spanned the Western Ghats, Konkan, and parts of Karnataka, although some southern provinces were still unsettled at the time of his death.
