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PM recalls the noble teachings of Bhagwan Mahavir on Mahavir Jayanti

Context: The Jain community celebrates Mahavir Jayanti, one of their most important festivals, throughout India. The celebration honours the birth of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.

History Of Mahavir Jayanti

Lord Mahavira was born in Kundalgrama, Bihar, in the Chaitra month, according to Jain traditions and religious writings.
The cleansing of the Mahavir effigy with fragrant oil by the people symbolises the purity of the Lord.
People go to pilgrimage locations that are associated with the Jain community.

Gomateshwara is a well-known place to visit during the festival.

Emergence of Heterodox Thinkers

In the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, North India had a remarkable awakening as a result of a number of heterodox philosophies challenging the pre-existing philosophy.
In order to reflect on the social and cultural climate of their times, philosophers like Gosala, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira, Ajita Kesakambalin, and others renounced the world and wandered across the Gangetic plains.

Causes of Intellectual Awakening

The rigidity of the Vedic religion and state creation limited people's freedom of thinking and behaviour.
In heterodox sects, a revolt against the practise of accepting dogmas as truthwas articulated.
The process of socio-political and economic change was expedited by the creation of territorial identities.
Disenchanted with the existing order, the wealthy class (thriving in Magadha or the mid-gangetic plains) started to act in opposition to the Orthodox faiths.
Since the Vedic religion was not yet fully organised, its influence on society was limited, making it easy for individuals to adhere to the newly forming religious sects.
New classes of merchants and bankers like sethis sought higher social status in line with their economic standing as a result of urbanisation and the rise of trade.
Kshatriyas were upset because the Vedic writings only allowed Brahmins to live a staged life in ashramas.

Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira's sect, which Buddhist writings refer to as Nigantha Nataputta
grew into the religion known as Jainism.
Before, it was known as Nirgranthas (free from bonds).
Risabha is credited as the sect's founder in Jaina mythology.
He is regarded as the original Tirthankara.
Three of the Tirthankaras: Risabha, Ajitanatha, and Aristanemi, are mentioned in the Yajur veda.
Mahavira, also known as Jina, the conqueror of the soul, organised his followers into secular and monastic groups.

Life of Mahavira

About 540 BCE, Mahavir was born in Vajji, a democratic kingdom (Ganarajya)
where the ruler was chosen through popular vote.
He was son of the King Siddharth of Kundagrama and Queen Trishala belonging to the Ikshvaku dynasty.
Mahavir was given the name Vardhaman, which means "One who grows."
His mother was a princess of the Lichchavi and Chetaka's (chief of Lichchavi) sister.
Mahavira was closely related to the rulers of Magadha, Anga, and Videha through his mother.
At the age of 30, he left his home and spent 12 years wandering as a mendicant in search of the truth.
He abandoned his clothes and engaged in strict penance.
He met Gosala while wandering, but they later parted ways because of their differences.
Vardhamana gained Nirvana, or enlightenment, in the thirteenth year of his wandering, when he was 42 years old. He attained Tirthankara status and came to be known as Jina or Mahavira (the Great Conqueror).
He passed away at the age of 72 in Pavapuri, close to Rajgriha, around 468 BCE. He fasted unto death (Sallekhana) according to Jaina ideals.

Sects of Jainism

A split in Jainism happened roughly 500 years after Mahavira's departure, in or around 79 or 82 CE.
Because of the severe famine in Magadha.
some of Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu left for south to maintain their rigorous discipline.
They remained without garments and were known as ‘Digambaras’ (space-clad or naked).
Others who remained behind under Sthulabhadra's leadership, chose a white clothing, and came to be known as ‘Svetambaras’ (white-clad).
Jainism was weakened in Magadha as a result of the schism, but it flourished in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Karnataka.

Jaina Councils

Jaina Council	Year	Venue	Chairman	Patron	Result
First	300 BC	Patliputra	Sthulabhadra	Chandragupta Maurya	Compilation of 12 Angas
Second	512 AD	Vallabhi	Devardhi-Kshmasramana	---	Final Compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas

Tenets of Jainism

Jainism places a strong emphasis on nonviolence.
Jainism rejects the idea of a creator. Jainism did not initially worship any deities.
Mahavira disapproved of Vedic rule.
It holds that there is no beginning or end to the world.
Jainism promoted dualism:
- According to which the universe is composed of everlasting souls (jivas) and substance (ajivas).
- When jiva and ajiva combine, karma (action) is produced, which causes a never-ending cycle of birth and reincarnation.
- Severe penance and austerity must be practised in order to release oneself from karma.
- As a result, only monks in Jainism were able to break free from the cycle of rebirth and birth.
It does not support any form of inequality based on birth.
- Birth does not determine one's social standing; rather, one's actions do.
- Birth-based status is regarded as a sin.
- The monastic order accepted women.
- Nevertheless, a woman to find salvation need to be reborn as a man and then pursue redemption by accruing merit through good deeds.

Three Gems

Jains are required to follow three principles called Triratnas

(1) Right faith (samyag-darshana/samyak-shadha);

(2) Right knowledge (samyag-jnana);

(3) Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata/ samyak-karma/samyak-acharana)

Five Great Vows/Pancha Mahavratas

The monks have to undertake the five great vows

(1) Not to kill or injure (ahimsa);

(2) Not to steal (asteya);

(3) Not to lie (satya);

(4) Celibacy (brahmacharya);

(5) Not to possess property (aparigraha)

The first four vows were laid down by Parshwanath and the fifth one was added by Mahavira.

Types of Knowledge

There are five types of Knowledge:

(1) Mati jnana: Perception through activity of sense organs, including mind

(2) Shruta jnana: Knowledge revealed by scriptures

(3) Avadhi jnana: Clairvoyant perception

(4) Manahparyaya jnana: Telepathic knowledge

(5) Keval jnana: Temporal knowledge

Syadvada theory in Jainism

The "theory of perhaps" holds that all of our judgements must necessarily be conditional and relative.
Seven different types of prediction are conceivable, according to Syadvada (Saptabhangi Nayavad).
Both absolute affirmation and negation are incorrect.
Anekantvada, or the philosophy of plurality, is another name for Syadvada.

Jaina Literature

The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a type of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (language of the common people) and can be classified as follows: 12 Angas, 12 upangas, 10 parikarnas, Chhedasutras, Mulasutras and Sutra-Granthas.
14 purvas/parvas- It is the part of 12 Angas and the oldest text of Mahavira’s preachings.
Besides this, the important Jain texts are:
- Kalpasutra (Sanskrit)- Bhadrabahu
- Parishishta Parvan (an appendix of Trishashthishalaka Purusha)- Hemachandra.

Odisha’s modern capital swallows its ancient urban hub

Context: The nationally protected 2,700-year-old Sisupalgarh, a fort city on the outskirts of Bhubaneswar, is being bulldozed by the land mafia, even as official notifications are ignored, and the State government and ASI point a lazy finger at each other. Odisha high court has already ordered to remove the encroachment in the vicinity of the fort.

About Sisupalgarh and its fort:

Ruins of the North West gate of Sisupalgarh

Location: Sisupalgarh or Sisupalagada is situated in Khurda District in Odisha on the banks of Mahanadi Delta.
Duration: 7^th Century BC.
It was excavated in 1948 by Braj Basi Lal under Archaeological Survey of India orders.
Currently only, Shola Khamba, a constellation of 16 monolithic (now 13) pillars, and the western gateway has survived which proves the presence of ancient city and fort.
Stone used for the construction were laterite stones.
Excavations in the 1950s revealed the settlement was well planned, with a drainage system and roads crossing each other at 90-degree angles.

About Kalinga and various Empires

Kalinga is known to be a powerful kingdom as early as the time of the Kurukshetra battle. Srutayudha, the king of the Kalinga joined the camp of the Kaurava in the battle and was killed in the battle by Bhimasena with his two heroic sons: Bhanumana and Ketumana.
After the Mahabharata War a new Kshetriya dynasty ruled over Kalinga and it is known from the Buddhist work ‘Mahagovinda Suttanta’ that the glory and power of Kalinga was restored within a short period.
According to the Puranas 32 Kshetriya kings ruled over Kalinga after the Mahabharata War up to the time of Mahapadmananda who ascended the throne of Magadha in 362 BC.
Nanda rule: Mahapadmananda undertook irrigation projects to eradicate famine condition in Kalinga. The pre-Mauryan black polished potteries and punch-marked coins having four symbols found in plenty from Asurgarh in Kalahandi district and Sonapur in Bolangir district indicate the flourishing economic condition during the time of the Nanda rule. Last Nanda king was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.
Mauryan rule: Asoka, the son of Bindusara who invaded Kalinga in 261 B.C. and succeeded in occupying Kalinga (Massive Kalinga War). Seeing the massive loss of life, Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Kalinga became one of the administrative provisions in the empire of Magadha with headquarters of a Kumara (Viceroy) located at Tosali. It was also the headquarter of highest judiciary of Mauryan rule. Edicts were engraved on the Dhauli and Jaugada rocks to inculcate his administration and religious principles to the people.
Kharvela rule: In the early part of the 1^st century BC Kalinga became independent under the Chedi Chief Mahameghavana. The third ruler of this dynasty was Kahravela who flourished during the second half of the 1^st century B.C. The Hatigumpha inscription in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar furnishes detailed accounts about the life and activities of Kharavela from his boyhood to his 13^th regnal year. He repaired the fort at Sisupalgarh (Kalinganagari). Kharavela excavated a number of cave-dwellings in the Kumari hills for the Jain monks and bestowed endowments for them. Jainism greatly flourished in Kalinga under the sincere patronage of Kharavala. Inscriptions of Guntupalli, Velpuru in Andhra Pradesh and Velpuru inscription also talks about this Mahamegahavahana dynasty.

In city, an exhibition celebrating India’s monuments in Thanjavur style

Context: Seema Sethi, an artist from Delhi, decorates her canvases using a variety of mixed media, including gold foil, watercolour, and semiprecious stones. Deities are portrayed in the Thanjavur style, which is distinguished by use of vibrant, rich colours and shiny golden foil.

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Thanjavur/Tanjore paintings

Thanjavur painting is a traditional South Indian painting style that originated in the Tamil Nadu town of Thanjavur.
The Nayakas of Thanjavur, who were under the control of the Vijayanagara Rayas, encouraged art—primarily, classical dance and music—as well as literature, both in Telugu and Tamil, and painting of predominantly Hindu religious subjects in temples. The art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from this time period, which dates back to around 1600 AD.
However, Thanjavur art as we know it today originated in the Thanjavur Maratha court (1676–1855). Under the support of the famous art patron Sarfoji II Maharaj, these works achieved their pinnacle.
The Saraswathi Mahal Library in Tanjore, which was established by Sarfoji II, contains some specimens of this artwork.
According to Charles Gold, a British narrator, the Tanjore paintings were created by "Moochys or Painters of India. The Nayudu community of Madurai and the Raju group of Thanjavur and Tiruchi, also known as Jinigara or Chitragara, were the communities that produced the paintings in the Thanjavur style.
The Government of India recognised it as a Geographic Indication in 2007–2008.

Style and technique

The pieces were framed and intended to be hung on the walls of domestic puja rooms or bhajan halls. They were constructed on canvas glued on a wooden structure, marking a considerable departure from the pan-Indian tradition, which requires that paintings be modest.
The vibrant reds, rich greens, chalk white, turquoise blues, and generous use of gold (foil) and inset glass beads made up the majority of their stunning colour palette. The paintings occasionally included precious stones.
During Sarfoji II's reign, Thanjavur glass paintings that used Chinese reverse glass painting techniques became popular as a quicker and less expensive art.
Dark brown or red was typically utilised for outlining. The background was primarily red, though it may also be blue or green.

Influences

Paintings from Thanjavur exhibit influences from Deccani, Vijayanagara, Maratha, and possibly European or Company styles.
The paintings from Tirupati and Kalamkari may have had the most influence.
During the Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1767–1799, when a British garrison was stationed in Thanjavur, the direct European influence on Tanjore paintings began.
The majority of artworks depict Hindu gods, goddesses, and saints, essentially acting as devotional icons. Jain, Sikh, Muslim, and other religious as well as secular subjects have also appeared in Tanjore paintings.

About Miniature Paintings

Miniature paintings are bright, individually created, small works of art. These paintings' complex brushwork, which contributes to their distinct individuality, is one of their best qualities.
The colours utilised in the paintings come from a variety of organic materials, including fruits, indigo, precious stones, gold, and silver.
Miniature painting in India is credited to the Palas of Bengal as its forerunners, but it was under the Mughals that it attained its zenith.

History of Miniature Paintings

When the Palas ruled over India's eastern region around 750 A.D., miniature paintings first appeared there.
The religious teachings of the Buddha, which included his images, were inscribed on palm leaves, which is how these paintings came to be well-known.
Similar paintings were imported to western India by the Chalukya Dynasty kings around 960 A.D. Religious topics were frequently depicted in miniature artworks at this time.
The popularity of miniature paintings began to soar with the expansion of the Mughal Empire. Indian miniature paintings merged elements of the Persian style of painting during Akbar's reign.
With the influence of European paintings at the Mughal court, these miniature paintings underwent further development.
The Rajput kings of Rajasthan continued to support miniature paintings and artists even after the Mughal Empire had collapsed. The miniature paintings of Rajasthan had unique characteristics and frequently portrayed the royal lifestyle and mythological tales of Lord Krishna and Radha, despite being influenced by the Mughal style of painting.

Union Home Minister unveiled the statues of Lord Basaveshwara and Nadaprabhu Kempegowda in Bengaluru, Karnataka

Context: The statues of two legendary figures from Karnataka, Basavanna and Kempegowda, have been unveiled. The messages of social justice, democracy, sound governance, and progress shall be promoted.

Life History of Basaveshwara [ 1105-1167]

Born in Bijapur district, Karnataka in 1105 CE.
He was an Indian statesman, poet in the Kannada language, and social reformer who lived in Karnataka during the time of King Bijjala I of the Kalachuri dynasty.
As the Kalachuri kingdom's chief minister, he established new public institutions including the Anubhava Mantapa, also known as the "hall of spiritual experience," which attracted people from all socio-economic classes.
He launched social reforms and a religious movement centred on resurrecting Shaivism using the public treasury, recognising and promoting ascetics known as Jangamas.
The Basavarajadevara Ragale, written by the Kannada poet Harihara (about 1180), is the earliest account of the social reformer's life. It is significant since the author was a near contemporary of the Basavanna.
The Vachana Sahitya in Kannada is one of the literary works of the Basavanna.
Basava is credited as the founder of Lingayats' tradition in hagiographic writings. However, modern scholars, based on Kalachuri inscriptions assert that Basava revived and improved a previously existent tradition.

Philosophy

He developed a new devotional movement named Veerashaivism.
In his poetry, Basava discussed about gender equality, community spirit and refraining from wars for any cause.
He said that the true god is "one with himself, self-born," challenging rituals, dualism, and externalisation of god.
Basava opposed rituals, but he supported icons and symbols such as wearing an Istalinga (necklace with a personal linga) and applying Vibhuti (sacred ash on the forehead) as a constant reminder of one's devotion and religious principles.
In order to eliminate the need for elite translation and interpretation of spiritual concepts and to ensure that everyone can grasp them, he advocated for the use of the vernacular language, Kannada, in all spiritual conversations.
His holy trinity included a guru (teacher), a linga (a lingam that belonged to Shiva), and jangama (constantly moving and learning).
In the 12th century, Basava built the Anubhava Mantapa, a place where anyone from either gender might assemble and debate spiritual concepts. Here, ardent followers of Shiva would share their accomplishments and spiritual poems written in the vernacular language.

Social Reforms

Basava believed that all people were created equal, regardless of caste, and that all manual effort had an equal value. According to the Basava, a true saint and Shaiva bhakta was determined by behaviour rather than by birth.
Anti-caste movement: In the 12th century A.D. Basaveshwara started one of the earliest known anti-caste campaigns in Karnataka.
In order to replace patriarchy, caste, and the brahmanic religion with an equitable system, they were carefully scrutinised, painstakingly rejected, and replaced.
Saints from the untouchable caste like Channiah and Kakkaih, as well as famous figures like Akkamahadevi and Allama Prabhu, participated in the collaborative effort known as the Anubhava Mantapa.
He organised an inter-caste marriage between an untouchable groom and a Brahmin bride as one of his extreme actions. The inter-caste marriage arranged by Basavanna is still regarded as a notable accomplishment in the history of the social reform movement.
He stayed away from wearing the sacred thread, which is a sign of caste superiority, in order to distance himself from his caste.

As compared to other Bhakti movements, the social reform movement by Basava stands out as unique. The movement had a political as well as a social impact on society. He promoted the idea of political representation for the voiceless. The followers of Basavanna currently identify as Lingayats and are one of the most powerful castes in Karnataka.

Lingayatism

Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism (Vishishtadvaita), with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja.
Lingayatism rejects any form of social discrimination including the caste system and authority of Vedas and Puranas.
According to a tradition which developed after Basava’s time, Lingayatism was transmitted by five Panchacharyas, namely Renukacharya, Darukacharya, Ekorama, Panditharadhya, and Vishweswara.
The scripture of Lingayatism Basava Purana was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.

About Nadaprabhu Kempegowda (Also mentioned in news)

He was 16th century chieftain of Vijayanagar Empire.He is credited to have built around 1000 lakes throughout the city.
He belonged to the dominant agriculture Vokkaliga community. ContributionFoundation of Bengaluru city: In 1526, Kempe Gowda conquered the Sivaganga principality and later Domlur.With imperial permission of the Vijayanagar Emperor Achyutharaya (an inscription at Dasarahalli records the decree date as 1532), he built Bangalore Fort and the town in 1537, and moved his capital from Yelahanka to the new Bengaluru Pete, the foundation of present-day Bangalore city.

Source: PIB

Why Tipu Sultan must be killed, again

Context: As elections in Karnataka approach, the 18th-century king Tipu Sultan is once more at the centre of a debate. By supporting claims that Tipu Sultan was assassinated by two Vokkaliga leaders rather than the British and Maratha army, an effort is being made to appeal to the politically influential Vokkaliga population.

About Mysore Kingdom

An Independent state that was created as a result of the Mughal Empire's fall. The destabilisation of the Mughal power over the provinces was a major factor in the emergence of these states.
A significant state that emerged in the eighteenth century was Mysore. The Wodeyars were in charge of this region, which was situated near the meeting point of the Eastern and Western Ghats.
The region became a never-ending battleground as a result of several powers' interest in this land. In the end, Haider Ali gained control over the state.

Haider Ali

Nanjaraj (the sarvadhikari) and Devaraj (the Dulwai), had reduced Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar to the status of a puppet in the early eighteenth century. Under the leadership of the ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj, Haidar Ali began his career in the Mysore army.
In addition to introducing Western training techniques for his army, Haidar Ali enlisted the assistance of the French to establish a weapons factory in Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu).
Due to his involvement in the First and Second Carnatic Wars in South India, Haider Ali witnessed the military superiority of European troops. Mysore sided with the French in the Carnatic Wars.
The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English formed an alliance against Haider Ali, the king of Mysore, in the first Anglo-Mysore war (1767–69). In the end the English had to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769.
The Treaty of Mangalore, which was signed in 1784, brought an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784). Tipu Sultan succeeded his father Haider Ali after his death.

Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan was the last Muslim ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, before the taking over by Wodeyar Dynasty.
Navy: Defeat in Third Anglo-Mysore War convinced Tipu to take measures to build a navy. He issued a Hukmnanah (ordinance) in 1796 for a strong naval force with 40 ships to be built at speed. The navy was put under command of 11 Mir Yam (Lords of Admiralty), with headquarters at Seringapatam. The naval divisions or Kachehris at Jamalabad (Mangalore), Wajidabad and Majidabad. Timber for ships was to be procured from state forests.
Ammunitions: Established munitions industry in Nagar, which were regarded as equal in quality to those produced in Europe.
Rocket technology: Pioneer of rocket technology and expanded iron cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned a military manual Fathul Mujahidin
Economy: Attempted to revive commerce and forged commercial linkages with other parts of India and West Asia and build a public sector company with state finance. Introduced sericulture and an was a member of the Jacobin club. He also planted a liberty tree at Seringapatam.
Agriculture and Revenue Settlement:
- Tipu modified land revenue management.
- Rules were laid down for distribution of arable land among old and new ryots, preference was given to hereditary ownership of land and rent was fixed.
- Tipu’s measures were the basis for Ryotwari Settlement introduced by East India Company in South India.
- Captain Alexander Read first introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Baramahal district surrendered by Tipu after his defeat in 1792.
- Calendar: Introduced a new calendar in 1784. This calendar was known as Mauludi Era and had 354 days. It counted its first year from the year of birth of Prophet Muhammad. The calendar’s name was derived from Arabic phrase ‘Maulud-i-Muhammad’, Birth of Muhammad.
- Introduced several administrative innovations such as a new coinage system.
Deployed rockets against advances of British forces and their allies during Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatnam.
Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92): Tipu Sultan was defeated by EIC and the Treaty of Seringapatam was concluded. Under this treaty, Tipu lost half of Mysore’s territory.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799): This conclusive war led to falling of Seringapatam. English chose a Hindu boy from the earlier ruling royal family i.e., Wodeyars, as the Maharaja and imposed subsidiary alliance on him.

Government will attempt to open corridor to Sharda Peeth in PoK for devotees: Shah

Context: In line with the Kartarpur Corridor, the government intends to establish a corridor to Sharda Peeth in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (POK).

About Sharda Peeth

Location: Mount Harmukh, Neelum Valley in Jammu and Kashmir's Kupwara District.
As a centre of education
- It was one of the most prestigious temple-educational institutions on the India-n subcontinent between the sixth and the twelfth century CE.
- Scholars travelled great distances for the texts since it was well renowned for its library.
- It was crucial to the growth of the Sharada script in North India.
As a pilgrimage site
- It is one of the Maha Shakti Peethas.
- Together with the Martand Sun Temple and the Amarnath Temple, it is one of the three holiest locations for Hindu pilgrims.
- It is also known for rise of Shaktism.
Lalitaditya Muktapida (724 CE–760 CE) of the Karkota dynasty most likely commissioned it.
Historical traces of the temple
- Al-Biruni first described the location as a venerated shrine with a wooden picture of Sharda, but this description is based only on hearsay as he had never visited Kashmir.
- Both the intellectual and spiritual components of Sharada Peeth are described by the Kashmiri poet Bilhana, who lived in the 11th century. He says that Sharada Peeth is the place that gave Kashmir its status as a centre of education.
- Sharada Peeth is also mentioned in Kalhana's epic Rajatarangini (12th century).
- Abu'l-Fazl has also described Sharada Peeth as a stone temple in the 16th century.
Architecture
- The red sandstone temple was constructed in the Kashmiri architectural style. The compound is perched on a hill and is accessed from the west by a grand stone stairway. The temple is erected upon a plinth.
- The temple is covered with a low single roof, even though Kashmiri architecture is most often characterised by a pyramidal stone roof.
- Two Ancient Linga could be observed in a tiny opening on the north side of the wall.

Sharda Script

Almost 1200 years ago, it developed from the Western branch of Brahmi.
Between the 8th and 12th centuries, the script was widely used to write Kashmiri and Sanskrit in Kashmir and the surrounding territories of the Indian Subcontinent.
Its name comes from the goddess Sarada or Saraswati, the patron goddess of learning. It is a native script of Kashmir.
An early version of the Sharada script is used in the Bakhshali manuscript.
Regional variations in the Sharada script emerged in 10^th century in Kashmir, the Hill States (which included parts of Himachal Pradesh), and Punjab.

No slander please, they are our freedom fighters first

Context: Writer has called for the due respect that should be given to all the unsung freedom fighters of modern Indian History.

Here is the list of four important freedom fighters that were mentioned in the editorial.

1. V D SAVARKAR

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Born in 1883 at Nashik in Maharashtra.
Founded Abhinav Bharat Society (initially as Mitra Mela, 1899) along with brother G D Damodar in 1904. It was a secret society which also had connections with London.
He was involved with India House (founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma in London to promote nationalist ideas among youth).
Savarkar went to London in 1906. He soon founded the Free India Society, along with Madam Bhikaji Cama based on the thoughts of the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini
Functioned as president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943. He called against Quit India Movement.
Savarkar was convicted and sentenced to 50-years imprisonment also known as Kala Pani and transported in 1911 to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Released in 1924.
He later joined Tilak’s Swaraj Party.
He advocated for the use of Hindi as a national language. He also fought against untouchability and caste-based discrimination.

Literary works of Savarkar

The History of the War of Indian Independence (on revolt of 1857)
‘Hindutva: who is Hindu?’

2. Dr. Chembakaraman Pillai

Born in Thiruvananthapuram in 15 September 1891.
He started his struggle for freedom by protesting the Partition of Bengal in 1905.
He joined with Bala Gangadhara Tilak in his resistance against the Partition of Bengal. When the British police tried to arrest him because of his revolutionary speeches against the Travancore State government, he escaped to Germany in 1908 with the help of his friend Sir Walter Williams Strickland.
At Berlin University, he formed International Pro-Indian Committee to gather the support of the German people for India’s freedom struggle.
He came in touch with many revolutionary Indian leaders in Germany like Hardayal, Raja Mahendra Pratap, Dr. Prabhakar, and A. C. Nambiar.
He started a newspaper called Pro-India to spread the message of the Indian freedom movement.
He participated in the First World War on the German side to defeat the British.
Armed with an engineering degree he joined the German navy as an officer in the cruiser Emden which attacked British ships and shelled several places in India.
Madras was shelled on 22 September 1914 after a fierce sea battle with British ships.
He met Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa. He was the Foreign Minister when a temporary Free Government of India was established in Afghanistan on 1 December 1915.
He met Subhash Chandra Bose in Vienna in 1919. Though he joined in the German army, he criticized even Adolf Hitler, when he humiliated India in his speech.
Dr. Chidambaram Pillai died on 26 May 1934 in Germany under mysterious circumstances.

3. Vanchinathan Iyer

Vanchinatha Iyer or Vanchinathan was born in Shenkottai. Vanchinathan alias Sankara Iyer was the son of Shri Raghupathy Iyer.
He had studied upto primary standard and joined the Forest Department thereafter.
He participated in revolutionary activities against the Britsh.
On 17 June 1911, Vanchi who was 25, assassinated Robert Ashe, the district collector of Tirunelveli, who was also known as Collector Dorai.
He shot Ashe at point-blank range when Ashe's train had stopped at the Maniyachi Station, enroute to Madras. He committed suicide thereafter. The railway station has since been renamed Vanchi Maniyachi.
The mastermind behind the assassination was Nilakanta Brahmachari who went around the Madras presidency in 1910 recruiting cadres and hatching plots against the British. In this venture, he was accompanied by Shankar Krishna Iyer, Vanchinathan's brother-in-law, who introduced the men to each other.
Along with a few other men, Nilakanta Bramhachari, Vaanchinathan, and Shankar Krishna Aiyar found an organisation called Bharatha Matha Sangam which plots the assassination of influential British men.

4. Thillaiaadi Valliammai

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She was a South African Tamil girl who worked with Mahatma Gandhi in her early years when she developed her nonviolent methods in South Africa fighting its apartheid regime.
She joined her mother in the march by women from Transvaal to Natal – which was not legally permitted without passes.
They were protesting against the judgement given by Justice Searle which made all marriages invalid if not registered under the registrar office or not performed according to the Christian rituals.
She was imprisoned for the protest against the South African government. She was imprisoned for three months, but due to severe illness she died at the age of 16 soon after the release.

Getting it right: a historian’s effort to document the life of Bhagat Singh

Context: The 23rd of March is commemorated as Martyrs Day in honour of Bhagat Singh and his comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev. The day is also known as Shaheed diwas.

Early life of Bhagat Singh

Born on September 27, 1907, in the Lyallpur area of the Punjab, now in Pakistan.
Bhagat Singh's uncle Ajit Singh was prominent in politics. Ajit Singh led the establishment of the radical Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore and oversaw the publication of its newspaper, Bharat Mata.
Ajit Singh also participated in the protests against the Canal Colonization Bill in 1907 and the Ghadar Movement in 1914–1915. His uncle Ajit Singh had an impact on Bhagat Singh.

Participation in the Indian Independence Struggle

He enrolled in the Lahore National College in 1923, which Lala Lajpat Rai established in reaction to Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement.
He also contributed to pamphlets issued by the Naujawan Bharat Sabha and wrote for publications in Punjabi and Urdu. He also contributed to Kirti, the publication of the Kirti Kisan Party.
Affiliation with Hindustan Republican Association Army or HRA/ Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA):
- The organisation operated throughout the Bihar, Punjab, and United Provinces region.
- It was founded in October 1924 in Kanpur.
- Founded by: Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Sachin Sanyal.
- Objective: Plan an armed uprising to depose the colonial administration and install a federal government based on the basis of adult franchise in India.
- During a meeting held in Delhi's Ferozshah Kotla ruins in September 1928, the younger revolutionaries reorganised the group under the new name Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), with socialism as its stated objective.
- Reorganised by: Chandra Shekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Bhagwaticharan Vohra, Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Verma, and Jaidev Kapur.
The killing of Saunders (Lahore, December 1928)
- Cause: The death of Sher-i-Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai as a result of blows from a lathi charge during a procession against the Simon Commission.
- Saunders, the police officer in command of the lathi charge in Lahore, was shot dead by Bhagat Singh, Azad, and Rajguru.
- Defended the murder by stating that it was "an dishonour to the country" that a leader who was revered by millions of people was killed by an unqualified police officer.
Bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly (April 1929)
- On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly to protest against the adoption of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill.
- Objective: To get arrested using the trial court as a platform for propaganda.

The Lahore Conspiracy Trial, which took place in 1929, saw the trial of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact: On February 14, 1931, Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi agreed to a pact in Delhi. Gandhi's requests for a public investigation into police abuses and a life sentence instead of the death penalty for Bhagat Singh and his companions were both rejected by the viceroy.
The Congress's Karachi session: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed six days prior to the session on March 23 (the session actually took place on March 29).
- The Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha demonstrated with black flag protests throughout Gandhi’s trip to Karachi in retaliation for his failure to achieve the commuted death sentence for Bhagat and his companions.

Rethinking in Bhagat Singh's ideologies

Bhagat Singh transitioned his belief from violence and individual heroic action to Marxism and a popular broad-based movement.
This is why Bhagat Singh helped found the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926) as an open wing of revolutionaries to conduct political work among the youth, peasants, and workers.
For students to engage in open, legal work, Bhagat and Sukhdev jointly established the Lahore Students' Union.
He also understood that organising a mass movement of the exploited was necessary for a revolution to be successful.
The aim of the revolution was not just to end imperialism but also to stop "exploitation of man by man," and to establish a new socialist system.
He was a secular. The members of Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha were not allowed to be associated with sectarian organisations and were to promote tolerance in society.
Books by Bhagat Singh: Why I am an Atheist and Ideas of a Nation.

Protection of Indian Heritage & Artefacts

Recent investigation by the Indian Express and the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists highlights that the Archaeological Survey of India needs to be equipped with resources to protect objects within its mandate.

The Government is trying to bring the lost heritage and artefacts of the country back and therefore, has also signed agreements with the Museums in the UK, US and Australia to repatriate Indian Antiquities.

Challenges faced to bring back historical artefacts:

The major challenge is to find out the background detail of the objects that have been moved out of India.
There are also large gaps between what have been reported as missing and the number of objects and artefacts that are being found in the foreign museums.
The Law enforcement agencies involved in the process lack the resources. For example: CAG report has brought to the light that the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has no vigilance or the monitoring cell that would deter the crimes of theft relating to antiquities.
To attract the best talent/domain experts the ASI will need more autonomy from the Union Ministry of Culture.
Parliamentary Standing Committee Reports on Transport, Tourism and Culture:
2005: Access to the latest technology: Archaeologists in the ASI are dependent on laboratories in the developed/first world countries for the analysis of pottery.
2021: Lack of resources in the Museums in India.

Way forward:

Mirdha Committee, 1984: It recommended that the ASI needs to be given the status of a ‘scientific and technical institution’ and to be made more autonomous for better functioning.
The Agencies need to be equipped with latest technologies and adequate resources. For example: Goa’s Advanced Antiquities Management System (AAMS) launched by the state’s Directorate of Archives and Archaeology.
Also, there is a need to bring expertise so as to preserve the antiquities and heritage of India in an ambitious manner.

Martand Temple

Archaeological survey of India is looking towards bringing back artefacts belonging to the medieval History of Jammu and Kashmir that were lost or stolen previously. Among these includes the objects stolen from Martand Temple.

ABOUT MARTAND TEMPLE

It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Sun God located near Anantnag in Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (Union Territory), India.
According to Kalhana in Rajatarangini, Martand Sun Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD. Lalitaditya belonged to the Karkota dynasty.
Dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism. Surya is also known by the Sanskrit language synonym Martand.
The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a zeal to Islamise the society under the advice of Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad Hamadani.
Other Sun Temples in India: Sun Temple at Konark (Odisha), Sun Temple at Modhera (Gujarat).

Temple architecture:

It blended the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.
Primary shrine in its centre and surrounded by 84 smaller shrines.
Temple walls are depicted with the images of lord Vishnu and river goddess such as Ganga and Yamuna.
Material: Lime mortar was used with huge blocks of grey limestones.

ABOUT KARKOTA DYNASTY

Duration: 625 − 855 CE
Region: Kashmir Valley
Founder: Durlabhavardhana
Succeeded by: Utpala dynasty (Avanti Varman was the founder)
Patronised the both Hinduism (Vaishnavite) and Buddhism (ruins of Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara could be found).
Sources for the dynasty: Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Nilamata Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Chronicles of Xuanzang.
Coins: based on the Kushan style (image of king standing or Gods on obverse) with Sharada script. Coins were always inscribed in the name of Kidara I on the reverse. They were made using the mixed metals.
Lalitaditya commissioned numerous gold and silver images for temples and monasteries across faiths, and his span is considered to be the zenith of Kashmiri sculpture.

India treasure trove and Antiquities Abroad

There has been high profile official move to ensure the return of lost heritage from abroad. In October 2021, India successfully got back as many as 307 antiquities to India valued at nearly $4 million.

Definition of an antiquity:

The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, define an antiquity" as "any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship, any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave; any article object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages; any article, object or thing of historical interest that "has been in existence for not less than one hundred years"
For manuscript, record or other document which is of scientific, historical literary or aesthetic value, the duration is not less than seventy-five years."

Related laws in India:

In India Item-67 of the Union List, Item- 12 of the State List, and Item-40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country's heritage.
Before Independence, an Antiquities (Export Control) Act was passed in 1947 to ensure that "no antiquity could be exported without license."
In 1958, The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was enacted (AMASR Act).
The government enacted The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, which was implemented from April 1, 1976.

About the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act:

The Antiquities And Art Treasures ACT, 1972: This Act is enacted to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art treasures, to prevent smuggling of and fraudulent dealings in antiquities.
Important Sections:
Section.3: The Act states, "it shall not be lawful for any person, other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorised by the Central Government in this behalf, to export any antiquity or art treasure.
Section.5: Antiquities to be sold only under a licence.
The Act also states ‘No person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a licence. The licence is granted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Section.14: Any person who owns controls or is in possession of any antiquity shall register the same before the registering officer and should obtain a certificate.

Section.25: If any person exports or attempts to export any antiquity or art treasure is liable for punishment for a term not less than 3 months which may extend to 3 years and with fine.

Archaeological Survey of India:

The first systematic research into the subcontinent's history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was founded by the British Indologist William Jones on January 1784. The most important of the society's achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.

Present Status: The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture. Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance. These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, step-wells, and rock-cut caves. The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.

International Convention:

The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the- Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defined "cultural property as the property designated by countries having "importance for archaeology, prehistory history, literature, art or science."
Following the UNESCO convention in 1970, guidelines have been issued globally for museums, which states that; ‘When acquiring an object, collected whether by purchase or donation or any other way, museums should exercise due diligence in verifying the object's history. If a museum is acquiring - an object, the museum must verify whether the object was lawfully obtained, lawfully exported and/ or imported’.
The UNESCO 1970 declaration stated that, requesting Party shall furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return. The first thing in order to prove the ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police.

Provenance of an antiquity: Provenance is the history of ownership and documentation of either purchased or acquired pieces. An antique's provenance can add substantial value, as it can attribute ownership in the past to a famous or important historical figure.

Angkor wat Temple

India is currently working on the restoration project of 12^th Century sites at the Angkor Temple in Cambodia.

About the Angkor Temple

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world.
Literally means ‘City Temple’.
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu (protector in Cambodia). However previous kings of Khmer dynasty were Shaivite.
Patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II (Khmer empire), whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.
Duration: 1116-1150 C.E.
It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next.
Carvings in the temple shows eight different stories of Hindu mythology (e.g. Amrit Manthan).
Material used: Grey sandstone.
Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site.

About the Khmer Dynasty:

Also known as Angkorian Empire or Khambuja.
Duration: 802-1431 CE
Founder: King Jayavarman II
Angkor was their capital city.
Important contribution: Angkor Wat, Angkor City and Bayon Buddhist temples.