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Hampi- A World Heritage Site

Context: The recent collapse of the Saalu Mantapa at the Virupaksha temple in Hampi has ignited discussions about the potential neglect of one of India’s largest World Heritage Sites. 

Introduction - Hampi

  • Hampi is a treasure trove of monuments. Some structures stand proudly against a backdrop of colossal granite boulders, while others lie in disrepair, marred by the ravages of time and conflict.
  • Scattered throughout the site are damaged sculptures, elephants missing trunks and musicians with missing limbs, testimonies to the destruction inflicted by a 16th-century war. 

Conservation efforts:

  • Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986, Hampi's heritage is regulated, though it encompasses 30 villages across two districts, each managed by separate local authorities. 
  • The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the Karnataka government's Department of Archaeology are responsible for the task of preserving these historical treasures.
  • Hampi remained largely forgotten until the late 18th century when British explorers began documenting the site.
  • Colin Mackenzie, the first surveyor-general of India, created the first map of Hampi in 1799, and early restoration efforts began. 
  • Systematic excavation began in the 1970s, leading to the Hampi National Project of 1976. This initiative uncovered significant remnants of the 14th-century metropolis, such as the submerged granite pavilions of the Vitthala temple.
  • Recent excavations have continued to reveal parts of Hampi's vibrant past, including the paan-supari bazaar, a kilometre-long market.

Impact of UNESCO’s World Heritage status: 

  • The World Heritage designation has spurred increased conservation efforts but has also introduced challenges.
  • In 1999, Hampi was briefly placed on the ‘World Heritage in Danger List’ due to a proposed bridge construction.
  • This led to the establishment of the Hampi World Heritage Area Management Authority (HWHAMA) in 2007, which implemented a masterplan dividing the site into core, buffer, and peripheral zones.
  • While the designation has protected Hampi’s monuments, it has also led to the displacement of local residents and their commercial activities.
  • The HWHAMA regulations have been criticized for excluding local communities from the conservation process.
  • For example, the bustling market in front of the Virupaksha temple was cleared to comply with these regulations, affecting local livelihoods.

Need for balancing conservation with community needs: 

  • The conservation of Hampi involves more than preserving its physical structures; it requires balancing heritage protection with the needs of local communities.
  • Hampi needs better sanitation, green mobility plans, and architectural guidelines. 

History of Hampi

  • Founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, the Vijayanagara Empire flourished across southern India.
  • The site of Hampi was the last capital of the Kingdom of Vijayanagar.
    • Anegundi was the first capital of the Vijayanagara empire.
    • The other capitals of Vijayanagara were Penukonda and Chandragiri. 
  • The Dravidian temples and palaces won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries, like Portuguese Domingo Paes, who described it as ‘as large and beautiful as Rome.’ 
  • Hampi is located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
  • Zones of the Hampi: 
    • Sacred Centre: This zone, identified by scholars like Burton Stein, is considered the spiritual and religious heart of the site.
    • Urban Core/Royal Centre: This area represents the administrative and royal hub of Hampi, central to the city's governance and elite activities.
    • Metropolitan Vijayanagara: The remaining expanse of the site beyond the sacred and royal zones, encompassing the broader urban and suburban areas of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Monuments and temples

1. Virupaksha temple: 

Virupaksha Temple
  • Known as the ‘Pampavathi Temple,’ the Virupaksha Temple is one of Hampi's oldest structures. 
  • Dedicated to Sri Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) the temple was originally constructed by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • Pampadevi, associated with the Tungabhadra River is also worshipped. 
  • The temple's history dates back to the 7th century CE, with inscriptions referring to Shiva found from the 9th and 10th centuries. 
  • It features three gopuras (entrance towers).

2. Vittala temple complex:

vittala temple
  • The Vittala Temple Complex, famous for its iconic stone chariot and the symbol of Karnataka Tourism, is a notable feature of Hampi.
  • It is dedicated to Lord Vittala, an incarnation of Vishnu.
  • The Temple dates back to the 15th century. It was built during the reign of King Devaraya II (1422-1446 A.D.), one of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • Several portions of the temple were expanded and enhanced during the reign of Krishnadevaraya (1509 -1529 A.D.). 
  • The complex boasts intricately carved pillared halls and remnants of the Vittalapuram Township that once surrounded it.
  • The Ranga Mantapa is one of the main attractions of the Vittala Temple. It is renowned for its 56 musical pillars. These musical pillars are also known as SAREGAMA pillars, indicating the musical notes emitted by them. The musical notes emanate when the pillars are tapped gently.

3. Mahanavami Dibba:

Mahanavami Dibba
  • Also known as the ‘Great Platform’ or ‘House of Victory,’ it is a grand ceremonial monument in the royal centre of Vijayanagara.
  • The platform's three-tiered design includes detailed granite reliefs depicting royal activities, battles, and festivities.
  • The top tier, originally supporting a wooden pavilion, was destroyed, but the intricate carvings on the lower tiers remain.
  • Adjacent features include an audience hall with stone stubs, an aqueduct leading to a large stepped tank, and additional water pools and gardens.

Kalamezhuthu or Kalam Pattu Art

Context: A Kalamezhutu workshop was recently organised by Malayalam Department in Kochi, Kerala.

About Kalamezhuthu

  • Also known as ‘Dhulee Chithram’ or Powder drawing. also known as Kalam Pattu in northern parts of Kerala.
  • Floor Art: Kalamezhuthu is a floor painting art form prevalent in Kerala. The artists use floors of temple or noble households as their canvas. 
  • Ritual significance: Performed as part of rituals to worship gods like Kaali, Ayyappan or Vettakkorumakan (serpent). The drawings are erased at the end of the ritual to the accompaniment of musical instruments. These drawings are part of Kalamezhuthu festival which is a 40-day ritualistic festival celebrated in most Bhagavathy temples of Kerala.
  • Natural Colours: Maestros of this art form use natural colours. Pigments are extracted from plants - rice flour (white), charcoal powder (black), turmeric powder (yellow), powdered green leaves (green), and a mixture of turmeric powder and lime (red). 
  • Time taking process: Kalamezhuthu drawings take a long time to prepare, sometimes extending to two days with perfection.
  • Themes: Figures drawn usually have an expression of anger and other emotions.
  • Community involved: Kalamezhuthu artists are generally members of communities like the Kurups, Theyyampadi Nambiars, Theeyadi Nambiars and Theeyadi Unnis. The kalams drawn by these people differ in certain characteristics.
Kalamezhuthu or Kalam Pattu Art

Harappan Civilization will be called ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ in new textbooks

Context: Michel Danino, visiting professor at IIT Gandhinagar and chair of the NCERT committee for new social science textbooks, recently supervised the release of the Class 6 textbook ‘Exploring Society: India and Beyond’. In an interview, he addressed concerns about the use of alternative names like ‘Sindhu-Saraswati’ and ‘Indus-Sarasvati’ for the Harappan Civilization, stating that these terms are based on established archaeological research rather than political agendas.

More information: 

  • In contrast to previous editions, the new Class 6 social science textbook ‘Exploring Society: India and Beyond features’ extensive references to the 'Sarasvati' river in its chapter on the origins of Indian civilization. The earlier textbook, Our Past I, briefly mentioned the Sarasvati only in the context of Rig Vedic hymns.
  • The updated textbook highlights the Sarasvati river's significance in the chapter on the 'Beginnings of Indian Civilization,' identifying the Harappan Civilization as the 'Indus-Sarasvati' or 'Sindhu-Sarasvati' Civilization.
  • It describes how the Sarasvati basin, which included major sites like Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala, was integral to this ancient civilization. The river, now known as the 'Ghaggar' in India and 'Hakra' in Pakistan, is depicted as seasonal in the new textbook. 
  • The textbook also discusses the role of the Sarasvati-river in the decline of the Harappan Civilization. It cites two primary factors:
    • climate change leading to reduced rainfall; and
    • the drying up of the Sarasvati-river in its central basin, resulting in the abandonment of cities such as Kalibangan and Banawali.
  • In contrast, the old textbook did not specifically attribute the river's decline to the downfall of Harappan cities. It mentioned various theories including river drying, deforestation, and flooding, but did not conclusively link these factors to the collapse of all cities, suggesting instead a loss of control by the rulers.

Harappan Civilisation

Harappan Civilisation
  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history. It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.
Indus Valley Civilization map

Geographical setting of the Harappan Civilization: 

1. Geographic extent: The Harappan Civilization's geographic reach encompassed:

  • Northern Extent: From Mandu in Jammu
  • Southern Extent: To Daimabad in Maharashtra
  • Western Extent: From Sutkagendor in Balochistan, Pakistan
  • Eastern Extent: To Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh

2. The civilization covered regions including: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh. Notably, Harappan sites have also been discovered in parts of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

3. The Pre-Harappan site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan provides evidence of early cotton cultivation, indicating the region's agricultural development prior to the rise of the Harappan Civilization.

Important sites of the Civilization

1. Harappa:

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Ravi River in Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Findings: Significant discoveries include Cemetery-37, Two sandstone statues depicting human anatomy, Two rows of six Granaries, workmen quarters, red sandstone male torso. 

2. Mohenjo-Daro: 

  • Location: Located on the banks of the Indus River in Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Findings: Notable structures such as the Great Bath and Assembly Hall were found. Additionally, a seal depicting Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva) and a fragment of woven cotton were unearthed.

3. Chanhudaro: 

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Indus River in Sindh, Pakistan.
  • Findings: This site is unique for lacking a citadel. Discoveries include bronze figurines of a bullock cart and ekkas (two-wheeled carts), along with a small pot that suggests the presence of a kink well.

4. Lothal: 

  • Location: Located on the banks of the Bhogva River near Gulf of Cambay, in Gujarat, India.
  • Findings: The city was divided into a citadel and a lower town, with a notable dockyard. Evidence of rice cultivation was also found.

5. Kalibangan:

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Ghaggar River in Rajasthan, India.
  • Findings: Discoveries include evidence of a ploughed field, a wooden furrow, seven fire-altars, camel bones, and two types of burials—circular and rectangular graves.

6. Dholavira: 

7. Surkotada: 

  • Location: Located between the Sabarmati and Bhogavo rivers in Gujarat, India.
  • Findings: Important finds include evidence of horses, an oval grave, and pit burial practices.

8. Banawali: 

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Saraswati River in Haryana, India.
  • Findings: The site shows evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures. Noteworthy discoveries include high-quality barley remains.

Gotipua Dancers: traditional dance in Odisha

Context: In the rural landscapes of Odisha, the centuries-old tradition of Gotipua, where young boys are trained to perform intricate dances dressed as girls in homage to Hindu deities, is facing a grave crisis. While these boys, once celebrated on international stages, dedicate their early years to rigorous training, their futures after puberty often paint a starkly different picture.

About Gotipua Dance

About Gotipua Dance
  • The Gotipua dance, a centuries-old tradition from Odisha, India, is a mesmerizing form of folk dance performed by young boys dressed as females.
  • Sculptures of dancers on bas-reliefs in temples in Orissa (like the Konark Sun and Jagannath Temples in Puri) demonstrate this ancient tradition.
  • These boys, often starting their training at a tender age, embody the grace and spirituality of Radha and Krishna through acrobatic and expressive dance forms.

History:

  • The origins of Gotipua dance can be traced back to the decline of the Mahari dance tradition around the 16th century.
  • During this period, the Mahari dancers, who were female temple dancers dedicated to Lord Jagannath, saw their influence wane.
  • To preserve this sacred dance tradition, young boys were introduced to perform in the same devotional context. This shift occurred during the reign of Bhoi dynasty king Rama Chandra Dev, who played a pivotal role in fostering this unique dance form in Odisha.
  • Akhadas and Physical culture: 
    • King Rama Chandra Dev established gymnasiums known as Akhadas in each street of Puri to encourage physical culture and protect the temple from intruders.
    • These Akhadas also served as cultural centres where Gotipua dancers, known as ‘Akhada Pilas’, were trained.

Influence of Sri Chaitanya and Vaishnavism: 

  • The arrival of Sri Chaitanya to Puri in the early 16th century significantly impacted the socio-religious and cultural life of Odisha.
  • He popularized the Bhakti movement, emphasizing devotion to Krishna through Madhura Rasa Upasana, a mode of worship. 
  • The Vaishnavites, influenced by Sri Chaitanya, promoted Sakhi Bhava-offering oneself to Krishna as a female attendant.
  • The Vaishnava maths of Odisha often patronized these dancers, with some even maintaining their own troupes.

Features:

  • The dance form is characterized by two basic postures: ‘Tribhangi,’ where the body is held with three bends (head, torso, and knees), and ‘Chouka,’ a square-like stance symbolizing Lord Jagannath. 
  • It is also characterized by distinctive poses, movements, gestures, and postures, known in Odia terms as Chhai, Chhataka, and Chhapaka.
  • Essential elements a Gotipua must learn includes: Utha, Baitha, Thia, Chali, Buda, Bhasa, Bhaunri, and Pali. These terms describe specific movements, such as rising from a sitting pose, dancing while standing, and various forms of body bending and spinning.
  • The traditional costume includes a ‘Kanchula’ (a brightly coloured blouse) and ‘Nibibandha’ (an apron-like cloth tied around the waist). The costume also includes ‘Pattasari’. 
  • Musical instruments: Tabla, Odissi Mardala (a two-headed drum), Gini (small cymbals), Harmonium, Violin, and Bansuri (flute).
  • Vocalists also play a crucial role in narrating the stories through song, adding to the dance's emotive power.

Bandha Nrutya:

  • One of the most captivating aspects of Gotipua is the ‘Bandha Nrutya,’ where the boys perform intricate acrobatic poses.
  • These postures, known as ‘Bandhas,’ are deeply rooted in ancient texts like the ‘Abhinaya Chandrika’ and ‘Sangita Darpana.’
  • The Bandhas include a variety of poses such as: Padmasana (Lotus Pose); Hansa (Swan Pose); Mayura (Peacock Pose); Garuda (Eagle Pose); Kandarpa Ratha (Chariot of the God of Love). 
  • These poses not only showcase the dancers' physical prowess but also bring to life the mythological narratives of Krishna's adventures.

Folk dances of Odisha

1. Chhau:

  • Chhau is an ancient dance form that originated from the mock fights of the Oriya Paikas (warriors), who performed rhythmic movements to the accompaniment of indigenous musical instruments.
  • The Chhau dance of today adheres to the basic principles of the Natya Shastra by Bharat Muni and the Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikeswara.
  • The dance form is closely linked with religion, where Chhau dancers worship Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, the presiding deities of the Tandava and Lasya styles, respectively.
  • Chhau was once performed exclusively by male dancers, who also took on female roles as needed. Today, female dancers have also mastered this art form.
  • In the Saraikela School of Chhau, dancers wear masks representing the characters they depict, while in the Mayurbhanj School, the face is left uncovered.

2. Dalkhai:

  • Dalkhai dance is a prominent Sambalpuri folk dance associated with the Dussehra festival. 
  • This dance is primarily performed by young women from the Binjhal, Kuda, Mirdha, Sama, and other tribes of Odisha.
  • The dance is accompanied by a rich orchestra of folk music played on instruments such as Dhol, Nisan, Tamki, Tasa, and Mahuri. 

3. Karma Naach:

  • It is a pastoral Sambalpuri folk dance performed during the worship of the deity of fate.
  • This dance, popular among scheduled tribes such as the Binjhal, Kharia, Kisan, and Kol in various districts of Odisha, is believed to influence good and bad fortune.  
  • The dance follows a ritualistic puja, after which participants sing and dance accompanied by drums (maandal), cymbals, and other instruments.
  • The young boys often perform with mirrors in hand, symbolizing traditional courtship during the dance.

4. Ghumura:

  • Ghumura Dance, a prominent folk dance from the Kalahandi district, is believed to have been a war dance in ancient India.
  • Depicted in the Sun Temple of Konark, this dance has evolved from a war dance to a form of social and cultural expression.
  • The dance is accompanied by instruments such as Ghumura, Nishan, Dhol, Taal, and Madal. 
  • The dance is still performed in village settings in South Western Odisha and parts of bordering Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. 

5. Paiki/Paika:

  • It is a martial folk dance that originates from the Chotanagpur plateau region, encompassing parts of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
  • This dance form is deeply rooted in the region's history and cultural identity.
  • Participants carry a sword in their right hand and a shield in their left, performing to the rhythmic beats of musical instruments such as the Nagara, Dhak, Shehnai, and Narsingh. 
  • Historically, it was performed by the Rautia community, who served as soldiers during the reign of the Nagvanshi dynasty in Chotanagpur. 

Project PARI

Context: The Ministry of Culture, Government of India, on the occasion of 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee Meeting, hosted by India for the first time, has initiated Project PARI (Public Art of India). The session of the World Heritage Committee is being held at the Bharat Mandapam International Exhibition and Convention Centre (IECC), New Delhi.

About World Heritage Committee 

  • The logo of the 46th World Heritage Committee meeting is inspired by World Heritage Site of Hampi (Karnataka). 
  • The stone chariot from the Vijaya Vittala Temple is a testament to India’s architectural grandeur and sculptural prowess.
  • The tagline of the logo is “सह नौ यशः which means in English as May our Glory Grow”. 
  • The tagline has been derived from the ancient Sanskrit scripture ‘Taittiriya Upanishad’ which is the testament to our ancestor’s wish of growth to one and all.
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  • It is a committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization that selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
  • It comprises representatives from 21 state parties, that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
  • These parties vote on decisions and proposals related to the World Heritage Convention and World Heritage List.
  • The World Heritage Committee meets once a year for an ordinary session to discuss the management of existing World Heritage Sites, and accept nominations by countries. 

About Project Public Art of India (PARI): 

image 52

Introduction: 

  • Public art spaces of India are a reflection of our Lok Kala and Lok Sanskriti. Public Art is very dynamic and is an intersection of past, present, and future.
  • The art form which is freely accessible to the public, attracts not only attention but even thoughts begin to gather as to why this work of art is here, what is its uniqueness, what material it is made up of, and what is the thought of the artist behind this artwork.
  • Thus, making it open to various interesting interpretations. 

Project PARI:

  • Lalit Kala Akademi, an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture, has invited more than 150 visual artists from all over the country.
  • The aim is to provide a platform to uplift the aesthetic and cultural outlook of Delhi while adding grandeur to the rich historical legacy of our national capital.
  • Lalit Kala Akademi and National Gallery of Modern Art seek to bring forth public art that draws inspiration from millennia of artistic heritage (lok kala/lok sanskriti) while incorporating modern themes and techniques. 
  • These expressions underscore the intrinsic value that art holds in Indian society, serving as a testament to creativity and artistic expression.
  • The proposed sculptures being created for Project PARI include wide-ranging ideas such as paying tributes to nature, ideas inspired by the Natyashastra, Gandhi ji, toys of India, hospitality, ancient knowledge, Kalpataru-the divine tree, etc.
  • Furthermore, in sync with the proposed 46th World Heritage Committee Meeting, some of the artworks and sculptures draw inspiration from World Heritage Sites such as Bhimbetka and the 7 natural World Heritage Sites in India find a special place in the proposed artworks.
image 53

The Art forms showcased: 

  • Traditional art forms as well as sculptures, murals, and installations have been created under this beautification project.
  • The creative canvas includes but is not limited to artwork inspired by and /or drawn in styles of: 
  • Phad paintings (Rajasthan); Thangka painting (Sikkim/Ladakh); Miniature painting (Himachal Pradesh); Gond art (Madhya Pradesh); Tanjore paintings (Tamil Nadu); Kalamkari (Andhra Pradesh); Alpona art (West Bengal); Cheriyal painting (Telangana); Pichhwai Painting (Rajasthan); Lanjia Saura (Odisha); Pattachitra (West Bengal); Bani Thani Painting (Rajasthan); Warli (Maharashtra); Pithora Art (Gujarat); Aipan (Uttarakhand); Kerala Murals (Kerala); Alpana art (Tripura) and more.

About Lalit Kala Akademi (Academy)/National Academy of Art: 

  • It was inaugurated in New Delhi in 1954 by the then Minister for Education, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
  • The objective was to promote fine arts/visual arts in India. The Akademi also deals with the international arts. 
  • It was registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, in 1957.
  • It is an autonomous body and is funded by the Union Ministry of Culture. 
  • Functions through General Council, Executive Board, and other Committees, as given in the Akademi’s Constitution. 
  • The Chairman of the Akademi  is appointed by the President of India. The term of office for the Chairman is three years, which can be extended.
  • Main Centre: New Delhi
  • Regional Centres: Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Shimla, Shillong and Bhubaneswar.
  • The National Art Award: One of the awards and honours in India and Asia, awarded by Lalit Kala Akademi.

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Context: From referring to the Harappan civilisation as the ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ and ‘Indus-Sarasvati’ civilisation, to multiple mentions of the ‘Sarasvati’ river, including noting its desiccation as one of the reasons for the decline of the Harappan society, to a mention of India having had a “prime meridian of its own” called the ‘Ujjayini meridian’ — the new NCERT Class 6 Social Science textbook released on Friday incorporates many new elements

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is one of the world's oldest urban cultures, dating back to around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. It was a Bronze Age civilization that flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Here, we explore key aspects of the IVC that are often the focus of UPSC Civil Services Examination (CSE) Preliminary questions.

Geographic Spread and Major Sites

The IVC extended over a vast area, encompassing parts of modern-day Pakistan and India. Key archaeological sites include:

  1. Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan): One of the first sites to be excavated, giving its name to the civilization.
  2. Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan): Known for its advanced urban planning and the Great Bath.
  3. Dholavira (Gujarat, India): Notable for its unique water conservation system.
  4. Lothal (Gujarat, India): An important port city with a dockyard.
  5. Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India): One of the largest Harappan sites.
image 51

Urban Planning and Architecture:

The urban planning of IVC cities is a testament to their advanced engineering skills. Key features include:

  • Grid Layout: Cities were laid out in a grid pattern with streets intersecting at right angles.
  • Drainage System: An elaborate drainage system with covered drains and soak pits.
  • Granaries: Large storage structures for surplus grain.
  • Houses: Built with standardized burnt bricks, featuring multiple rooms and wells.
image 9

Economy and Trade:

The Harappan economy was primarily agrarian, supplemented by trade and commerce. Key aspects include:

  • Agriculture: Wheat, barley, peas, and cotton were the main crops.
  • Trade: Extensive trade networks with Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Afghanistan, and other regions. Evidence of trade includes seals, beads, and pottery.
  • Craftsmanship: Skilled in metallurgy, bead-making, and pottery. The famous "Dancing Girl" bronze statue from Mohenjo-daro exemplifies their metallurgical prowess.

Script and Seals:

The Harappan script remains undeciphered, but numerous seals and inscriptions have been found:

  • Seals: Made of steatite, featuring animal motifs and inscriptions. The "Pashupati Seal" depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals is notable.
  • Script: Consists of pictographic signs, yet to be fully understood.

Social and Political Organization:

The social and political structure of the IVC is inferred from archaeological evidence:

  • Society: Likely egalitarian with no clear evidence of a ruling class or centralized monarchy.
  • Religion: Evidence of worship of mother goddess figures, animal worship, and possible proto-Shiva worship.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

The decline of the IVC around 1900 BCE is attributed to several factors:

  • Climate Change: Shifts in the monsoon pattern leading to reduced rainfall and droughts.
  • River Changes: Changes in the course of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers affecting agriculture and settlement patterns.
  • Invasion Theory: Earlier theories of Aryan invasions have been largely debunked in favor of environmental causes.

‘Moidams’ to be considered for World Heritage List

Context: The 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty, the Moidams from Assam, will be considered for nomination on the World Heritage List during the 46th session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) in New Delhi. If it gets nominated, it will become the first cultural site on the prestigious list from the northeastern region.

More about the news: 

  • The Prime Minister will inaugurate the 46th session of WHC, which is being held in India for the first time.
  • The event brings together culture ministers, representatives and stakeholders from around the world to discuss the preservation of shared cultural, natural and mixed heritage.
image 48

About Moidams: 

Introduction: 

  • The nomination dossier for the Moidams was sent more than a decade ago and is presently on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is the first step towards the monument becoming a part of the final list.
  • The Tai-Ahom clan upon their migration from China established their capital in different parts of the Brahmaputra River Valley between 12th to 18th CE.
    • The Ahom or Tai-Ahom is an ethnic group, presently in Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Siukapha/Sukaphaa, established the first capital of the Ahoms at the foothill of Patkai hills and named it Cheraidoi or Charaideo.
  • While the clan moved from city to city, the landscape of Cheraideo continued to retain its position as the most sacred, where the Royals used to be buried after death.
  • Their unique system of vaulted mounds continued for 700 years, till many Tai-Ahoms converted to Buddhism while others adopted the Hindu system of cremation.
  • The property and Buffer zones around Cheraideo are jointly protected and managed jointly by the Archaeological Survey of India and the State Department of Archaeology under the Ancient Monuments and Sites Remains Act 1958 (Amended in 2010) and by the Assam Ancient Monuments and Records Act 1959 respectively. 
image 49

Significant features of Moidams: 

  • The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty is a sacred landscape in eastern Assam, with more than ninety burial mounds established by the Tai-Ahom over 700 years ago.
  • The moidams of Charaideo contain the remains of the Tai-Ahom kings. They are set within a sculpted landscape that reflects Tai cosmologies. 
  • Moidams are vaulted chambers (chow-chali), often double stories entered through an arched passage.
  • On the top of the hemispherical mud-mound, layers of bricks and earth are laid, where the base of the mound is reinforced. 
  • Excavation shows that each vaulted chamber has a centrally raised platform where the body was laid.
  • Several objects used by the deceased during his life, like royal insignia, objects made in wood or ivory or iron, gold pendants, ceramic ware, weapons were also buried.  
  • The crematory rituals of the Royal Ahoms were conducted with grandeur, reflecting their hierarchy.
  • The Changrung Phukan (canonical text developed by the Ahoms) records the materials used to construct a Moidam.
    • There is a great variety in materials and systems of construction used in building a moidam.
    • From the period between 13th CE to 17th CE, wood was used as the primary material for construction whereas in the 18th CE onwards stone and burnt bricks of various sizes were used for the inner chambers. 
    • Boulders of different sizes, broken stones, bricks, and broken brick were used to construct the superstructure, whereas large stone slabs were used for the sub-substructure.

The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty is an outstanding example of a Tai-Ahom necropolis (an extensive and elaborate burial place) that represents tangibly the Tai-Ahom funerary traditions and associated cosmologies.

image 50

About Tai-Ahom Kingdom: 

  • The Ahom kingdom (1228–1826) was a late medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley (present-day Assam). 
  • Established by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from present-day Yunnan Province, China.
  • The Ahom dynasty created a new state by overpowering the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
  • By the 16th century, the Ahom empire expanded their influence and built a large state.
  • The Ahom empire followed a monarchical system of governance.
  • The kingdom became weaker with the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam.
  • With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands.

Thangka Art

Context: The Thangka painting is a work of art and also a matter of cultural identity for the Tibetans residing in Majnu Ka Tila, Delhi. The traditional Thangkas are usually small in size and many of the original ones came in sets or as a series of narrative mythological scenes.

About Thangka Art

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Origin and history: 

  • Tibetan Buddhist painting developed from widespread traditions of early Buddhist paintings which now only survive in a few sites such as the Ajanta Caves in India and the Mogao Caves in China. 
  • The thangka form developed alongside the tradition of Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings, which are or were mostly in monasteries.
    • The early history of the art form is more easily traced through these murals, which survive in greater numbers.

Features: 

  • It is a Tibetan Buddhist painting on cotton, silk applique, usually depicting a Buddhist deity, scene, or mandala.
  • Thangka means ‘thing that one unrolls’, which means unframed painting rolled up after completion. These paintings are usually called unframed. 
  • The most common is a loosely woven cotton produced in widths from 40 to 58 cm (16 - 23 inches). While some variations do exist, thangkas wider than 45 cm (17 or 18 inches) frequently have seams in the support.
  • The paint consists of pigments in a water-soluble medium of animal glue. Both mineral and organic pigments are used. 
  • Commonly painted by Holy lamas or Buddhist monks. 
    • The intricate pieces depict the life story of Buddha or other Buddhist deities and influential Lamas and serve both as devotional objects and teaching tools.
    • Most thangkas were intended for personal meditation or instruction of monastic students. 
    • A central deity is often surrounded by other identified figures in a symmetrical composition. 
    • Narrative scenes are less common, but do appear.
    • One important subject is the Wheel of Life (Bhavachakra), which is a visual representation of the Abhidharma teachings (Art of Enlightenment).
  • Two largest thangkas are displayed at Potala Palace in Tibet, which also holds a collection of 10,000 Thangka paintings dating back to 300 years.
image 43

Thangka Painting in India: 

  • Thangkas were painted in all the areas where Tibetan Buddhism flourished, which included Mongolia, Ladakh, Sikkim, and parts of Himalayan India in Arunachal Pradesh, Dharamshala, and Lahaul and Spiti district in Himachal Pradesh.
  • Thangka paintings of Himalayan North-East Zone are a sacred form of art maintained and preserved by the local Buddhist.
  • Thangka paintings are a reliable source of information and pillar of Buddhism.
  • Tibetan Thangkas have depictions of Rinpoche and Dalai Lama whereas Sikkimese Thangkas have depictions of Chogyal or last King of Sikkim along with Rinpoche and Monks.

Though Thangka art has also been influenced by industrialisation, commercialisation and mass production, it has not impacted the traditional production method unlike India’s Madhubani art, which has seen a decline in quality due to adoption of non-traditional colour schemes. 

Centre set to tweak criteria for according classical language status

Context: With many languages seeking classical status, the Central government has decided to change the criteria for classical status to any language.

About classical language

  • The term ‘Indian classical languages,’ or Shastriya Bhasha, encompasses languages in India with a rich history, significant antiquity, and a distinct literary heritage.
  • India has six classical languages as of now: Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia. The government last granted the special tag to Odia in 2014.
  • The Indian government established criteria for conferring the status of a ‘Classical Language,’ a decision implemented by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the Linguistic Experts’ Committee. This committee, formed by the government, evaluates requests for classifying languages as Classical Languages.
  • All the Classical Languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

To be recognized as a ‘Classical Language,’ a language must satisfy the following criteria:

  • Demonstrated high antiquity of its early texts or a recorded history spanning 1500–2000 years.
  • Possession of a body of ancient literature or texts considered valuable heritage by successive generations of speakers.
  • Originality of the literary tradition, not borrowed from another speech community.
  • Distinctiveness between the classical language and literature from its modern counterparts, potentially involving a discontinuity.

Benefits of Classical Status: 

  • Two major international awards annually for distinguished scholars in Classical Indian Languages.
  • Establishment of a ‘Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages.’
  • Requesting the University Grants Commission to initiate, initially in Central Universities, a designated number of Professional Chairs for Classical Languages for eminent scholars in Classical Indian Languages. 

CM Stalin releases books on folk deities, forts of Tamil Nadu

Context: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin on Tuesday released two books titled, ‘Folk Deities of Tamil Nadu: Worship, Tradition and Custom’ and ‘Forts of Tamil Nadu: A Walk-Through’.

Folk Deities of Tamil Nadu- Worship, Tradition and Custom

image 30
  • The book on folk deities, focuses on the innumerable folk deities of Tamil Nadu.
  • Some of these have a pan-regional appeal, while others are worshipped in a particular area or by certain communities and families.
  • Tamil society worshipped heroes who laid down their lives for a common cause. ‘Nadu Kal’ (hero stones ) were erected to honour those heroes.
  • Madurai Veeran, Kaathavarayan, and Muthupattan were raised to the status of deities for questioning existing norms of society and achieved martyrdom.
image 31

About Hero Stones: 

  • A hero stone (Veeragallu in Kannada and Nadukal in Tamil) is a memorial commemorating the honourable death of a hero. 
  • Creating hero stones had been prevalent since the Sangam period dating back 2600 years, and continuing until the Nayaka and post-Nayaka period to about 19th century. 
    • A vast majority were erected between the 4th century BCE to 13th centuries CE in Tamil Nadu.  
    • The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in Tamil Nadu. These hero stones are more than 2400 years old, i.e., 4th century BCE.
    • A hero stone dating to the 8th century Pandya kingdom, with a Tamil inscription in the Vatteluttu script was discovered in Tamil Nadu. 
  • Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at the bottom with a narrative of the battle. 
  • Literary works of ancient Tamil Nadu like the Tolkappiyam, Ahananuru, Purananuru, Malaipadukadam and Pattinappalai, specifically describe the hero stones which were planted in honour of men who performed some daring acts to protect their community or village.
    • The four primitive hero-stones with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, dated to third to second centuries BCE found in the upper part of the Vaigai valley, support the authenticity of the hero stone tradition described in the Sangam Tamil literature in the context of cattle raids.

Forts of Tamil Nadu-A Walk Through: 

  • The book documents the past glory of several forts in Tamil Nadu through essays. 
  • Many such structures have existed in the State for centuries.
  • These forts have been the site of political discourse, military prowess, foreign diplomacy and global trade.
  • The book features forts such as, St. George in Chennai, Gingee, Vellore, Dindigul etc. 

Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves

Context: The President of India, Droupadi Murmu visited Udayagiri caves, situated in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.

About Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves:

Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves
  • The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the Hathigumpha inscription. 
  • They have a number of finely carved caves built during the 1st century BCE.
  • Most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain ascetics during the reign of King Kharavela.
    • Kharavela was a monarch of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, who ruled during the second or first century BCE.
    • The kingdom of Kalinga was invaded by Ashoka in 262-261 BCE.
    • The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from the Maurya Empire sometime after Ashoka's death.
    • Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga. 
  • The rock cutting activities continued till the time of the Somavamsis of tenth-eleventh century A.D.
  • Most of the caves consist of a row of cells with portions opening into the courtyard. The doorway of cells has pilasters on either side with crowning animal figures and arches, decorated with flowers, creepers and animal motifs.
  • Udayagiri means 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
  • The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are called called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions.
  • The most important was Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery.
  • Other important caves include Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri Gumpha, Bagha/ Vyaghra Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha. 
  • The Caves are also listed as one of the Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India. 
    • Under the Adarsh Smarak initiative, the selected places are provided with additional facilities like wi-fi, cafeteria, interpretation centre, Braille signages and illumination among other things.
    • The scheme was launched in 2014 for providing improved visitor amenities, especially for the physically challenged. 

Some important Caves at Udayagiri: 

Rani Gumpha ‘Cave of the Queen’: 

image 25
(Rani Gumpha)
  • Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
  • This cave is double storeyed.
  • The upper portion of the central wing has relief images depicting the victory march of a king. 
  • Many of the cells have carved Dwara Pala images.

Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha: 

image 26
(Mancapuri and Swargapuri)
  • Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha are double storeyed.
  • Manchapuri cave depicts two male and two female figures worshipping the Kalinga Jina that Kharavela brought back from Magadha.
  • Kalinga Jina had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda and its restoration was considered to be a great achievement of Kharavela. 
  • There are three inscriptions: one inscription talks about the chief queen of Kharavela, and the other two refer to Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or brother of Kudepasiri.

Ganesha Gumpha: 

image 27
(Ganesha Gumpha)
  • The cave is named for the carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. It would have been carved in the later period. 
  • The carved figures of Dwara Palas are found at the entrances.

Hathigumpha: 

image 28
(Hathigumpha-1st image; Inscription-2nd Image)
  • It is a large natural cave with an inscription carved out in Brahmi Script by King Kharavela which is the main source of information about him.
  • The cave is known as Hathi Gumpha due to its exquisite carvings of elephants.

Mudras in Buddhism

Context: ‘Abhaya Mudra’, the gesture depicted with raised open palm that is commonly understood as conveying reassurance and a freedom from fear was invoked by the Leader of Opposition in his speech in Lok Sabha. The Abhaya Mudra is commonly associated with Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. 

Mudras in Buddhism - Abhaya Mudra

Introduction

  • It is one of the major religions of the world that originated from the Indian subcontinent and has now spread to large parts of South-east Asia.
  • The origin of Buddhism is attached to the  story of Siddhartha who came to be known as Buddha.
  • Gautam Buddha was born at Lumbini (in present Nepal) in 563 BC as Siddhartha Gautam. 
  • At the age of 29, he left his house to find the truth of life and he wandered as an ascetic. 
  • At Gaya (Bihar), he attained enlightenment (Nirvana) under a pipal tree and became the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
  • After attaining Nirvana, he gave his first sermon to his five companions at the Deer Park in Sarnath near Varanasi. This event was called Dharma-chakra-pravartana (Turning the wheel of Law).
  • Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (Malla Mahajanapada) in Uttar Pradesh in 483 BC. 

Mudras in Buddhism

  • In the Buddhist context, it refers to “hand and arm gestures made during the course of ritual practice or depicted in images of buddhas, bodhisattvas, tantric deities, and other Buddhist images”. 
  • Mudras are most commonly associated with visual depictions of the Buddha with different gestures conveying different moods and meanings, signifying the subtle manifestations of the Buddha’s states of realisation.
  • The earliest depictions of the Buddha in physical form date to roughly around the turn of the first millennium.
  • Depictions started appearing in the Gandhara art from the northwestern edge of the Indian subcontinent (present day Pakistan and Afghanistan), which drew on Hellenistic influences (Greek) and later in the art of the Gupta period, in the Gangetic plains.
  • In the earliest depictions of Buddha, four mudras can be found:
    • Abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness)
    • Bhumisparsha mudra (Earth-touching gesture)
    • Dharmachakra mudra (gesture of the wheel of dharma)
    • Dhyana mudra (gesture of meditation). 
  • With the evolution of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, and the proliferation of Buddhist artwork outside India, hundreds of mudras entered Buddhist iconography.
image 3

About Abhaya Mudra

  • The Abhaya mudra is typically formed with the palm of the right-hand facing outward at shoulder height and the fingers pointing up and the index, second, or third finger touches the thumb, with the remaining fingers extended upward.
  • In Buddhist tradition, the Abhaya mudra is associated with the Buddha immediately after he attained Enlightenment, ‘portraying a sense of the security, serenity, and compassion that derive from enlightenment’ 
  • This gesture identifies the moment when Shakyamuni (the Buddha) tamed the mad elephant, thus illustrating the Buddha’s ability to grant fearlessness to his followers. The elephant calmed down immediately, went down on her knees, and bowed her head to the Buddha.
  • This is why the Abhaya mudra is also seen as a ‘gesture of protection’ or ‘gesture of granting refuge’.

Other Mudras in Buddhism: 

image 4

Dharmachakra Mudra

  • It is also called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma' that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha's life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
  • It is shown with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
Dharmachakra Mudra

Dhyan Mudra

  • It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra.
  • It is shown with the help of two hands which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hands resting on each other.)
Dhyan Mudra

Bhumisparsa Mudra

  • This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’ which represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment
  • It is shown with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
Bhumisparsa Mudra

Varada Mudra

  • This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
  • It is shown with the help of both the hands with the palm of the right hand facing forward and fingers extended and the left-hand palm placed near omphalos with extended fingers.
Varada Mudra

Karana Mudra

  • This gesture signifies the warding off evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other fingers.
  • The karana mudra expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts. 
Karana Mudra

Vajra Mudra

  • This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolizes the five elements of nature, i.e. air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
  • It is shown with the help of the right fist, left-hand forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.
Vajra Mudra

Vitarka Mudra

  • It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
  • It is shown by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like to Abhaya Mudra and varada mudra but in this Mudra the thumbs touching the index fingers.

Abhaya mudra in Hindu religion:

  • Over time, the Abhaya mudra appeared in depictions of Hindu deities, and the Buddha himself was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth avatar of the Puranic god Vishnu.
  • Hindus came to regard the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu between AD 450 and the sixth century. 
  • The first mention of the Buddha avatar came in the Vishnu Purana (400-500 CE).
  • As multiple traditions, practices, and cultural influences mingled in the great melting pot of the Hindu religion, manifestations were seen in art and visual depiction of gods.
  • The Abhaya mudra was seen in the depictions, most commonly of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Ganesha.

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