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Srinagar gets tag of ‘World Craft City’

Context: Srinagar has become the fourth Indian city to be recognised as a ‘World Craft City’ by the World Craft Council (WCC) international, will bring attention to Srinagar’s crafts and showcase its ancient techniques to the world.

The achievement follows Srinagar’s recognition as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Creative City for Crafts in 2021.

About World Craft City:

Launched in 2014 by the World Crafts Council AISBL (WCC-International), to acknowledge the significant contributions of local authorities, craftspeople, and communities to cultural, economic, and social development globally.
Previously, Indian cities such as Jaipur, Malappuram, and Mysore have been honoured as World Craft Cities.

World Craft Council (WCC) international:

A Kuwait-based, non-government organisation working to empower artisans and safeguard craft heritage globally.
It was founded by Ms. Aileen Osborn Vanderbilt Webb, Ms. Margaret M. Patch, and Smt Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay in 1964.
The Council aims to promote fellowship among craftsperson by offering them encouragement, help, and advice.
It fosters and assists cultural exchange through conferences, international visits, research study, lectures, workshops, exhibitions, and other activities.
The WCC also seeks to foster wider knowledge and recognition of the crafts people’s work with due regard to the diversified cultural and national backgrounds and tradition of its members.
In carrying out these principles, the Council shall consult with governments, national and international institutions, societies, and individuals.
It has been affiliated with UNESCO under Consultative Status for many years.

Odisha style temple Architecture

Context: All four gates of the Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha were opened for devotees. The temple was closed during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown. The main entrance was opened last year in December but the other gates remained closed.

About Jagannath temple:

(Jagannath temple)

An important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu.
Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India).
Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra are deities worshipped at the temple.
The temple is sacred to all Hindus, and especially in those of the Vaishnava traditions and is one of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of the Vaishnavite tradition.
Many great Vaishnava saints, such as Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated with the temple.
- Ramanuja established the Emar Matha in the south-eastern corner of the temple.
- Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, which is the seat of one of the four Shankaracharyas.
It is also of particular significance to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, was attracted to the deity, Jagannath.
The worship is performed by the Bhil Sabar tribal priests, as well as priests of other communities in the temple.
Unlike the stone and metal icons found in most Hindu temples, the image of Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
The temple is one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites, the other being Rameshwaram, Badrinath and Dwarka.
The four gates of the temple:
- The four gates of the Jagannath temple are located on the mid-points of its boundary wall, and face the four cardinal directions.
- The main east-facing entrance is the Singhadwara (Lion's Gate), and has two stone sculptures of lions standing guard. It is believed that those who enter through this gate attain moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth-rebirth.
- The northern, southern, and western entrances are known as Hastidwara (Elephant Gate), Aswadwara (Horse Gate), and Vyaghradwara (Tiger Gate) respectively.
The Jagannath Temple is a monumental example of Nagara-style Hindu temple architecture. It is one of the finest preserved specimens of Kalinga architecture (Odisha temple architecture).

(Figure: Basic structure of a temple in Kalinga school)

Odisha school/Kalinga school of temple architecture:

The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within the Nagara style of temple architecture.
The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deul, Pidha Deul and Khakhara Deul.
- Rekha Deul and Pidha Deul are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while Khakhara Deul is mainly associated with Chamunda and Durga temples.
In general, the shikhara, called Deul in Odisha, is vertical until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
Deuls are preceded by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
The main temple's floor plan is usually square. As the temple structure rises, it becomes circular.
The walls of both the deul and the Jagmohan are intricately sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures.
Temples were surrounded by a boundary wall as in Dravidian style of temple architecture.
Examples: Sun Temple at Konark (also known as Black Pagoda as the first rays of the Sun entered the garbhagriha through the sea-facing pagoda), Jagannath temple at Puri, Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar, etc.

Virupaksha Temple

Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to commence restoration work on the collapsed ‘Saalu Mandapa or Pavilion’, of the Virupaksha temple in Hampi (Karnataka).

About Virupaksha Temple:

Virupaksha Temple is an integral part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi.
Dedicated to Sri Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) the temple was originally constructed by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Hampi, situated along the banks of the Tungabhadra River, served as the capital of this empire.
Pampadevi, associated with the Tungabhadra River is also worshipped.
The temple's history dates back to the 7th century CE, with inscriptions referring to Shiva found from the 9th and 10th centuries.
Initially a modest shrine, it expanded under Vijayanagar rule.
While additions during the late Chalukyan and Hoysala periods are evident, most of the existing structures are attributed to the Vijayanagara era.
Despite the city's destruction in 1565 (by the Bahmani Sultanate) the religious significance of the Virupaksha-Pampa sect remained, maintaining continuous worship at the temple.

Structure of the temple:

The main temple complex comprises a sanctum, a pillared hall, and an open pillared hall, all decorated with intricately carved pillars.
Surrounding the central structure are entrance gateways, courtyards, and smaller shrines.
The eastern gateway stands as the largest entrance.
Kanakagiri Gopura is another gateway leading to a small enclosure with subsidiary shrines and to the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
Krishnadevaraya, played a pivotal role as a patron of the temple.
- His contributions include the central pillared hall and the gateway tower leading to the inner courtyard.
- Inscriptions next to the pillared hall commemorate his commissioning of these structures in 1510 AD to mark his accession.

Vijayanagar Architectural features:

Blended influences from the Hoysala, Chola, and Chalukya dynasties.
Primarily granite was used for its durability and soapstone for intricate sculptures.
Influences from Dravidian architectural traditions are more pronounced.
- During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the empire saw a resurgence in Dravida style, influencing the construction of South Indian temples for centuries.
Unique elements introduced in the Vijayanagar period: fortified enclosures, elaborately pillared Kalyana Mandapas (marriage halls), towering Raya Gopurams (entrance towers), and life-size statues of deities.
In addition to temple architecture, Vijayanagara's secular buildings featured Islamic influences like arches, domes, and vaults, constructed with mortar and stone shards.
Significant features:
- Raya Gopurams: Monumental entrance gates adorned with intricate carvings.
- Pillared Pavilions: Open structures with sculpted pillars depicting motifs like horses and monolithic statues of deities.
- Kalyana Mandapa: Decorated marriage halls with elaborately carved pillars, central to temple complexes.
- Amman Shrines: Additional shrines dedicated to the consorts of the main deity.

UNESCO's Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register

Context: The inclusion of the Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sahṛdayāloka-Locana in UNESCO's Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register marks a significant milestone for India. This recognition celebrates India's profound literary heritage and cultural legacy, underscoring its global importance.

IGNCA secures historic cultural milestone:

The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) played a pivotal role in achieving a landmark moment during the 10th meeting of the Memory of the World Committee for Asia and the Pacific (MOWCAP).
The meeting of MOWCAP was held in Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia), which brought together 38 representatives from member states along with 40 observers and nominees.
IGNCA advocated for three Indian nominations, resulting in their inclusion in ‘UNESCO's Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional Register’.
This achievement highlights IGNCA's steadfast commitment to preserving and promoting India's rich cultural heritage on the global stage.
Notably, this is IGNCA's inaugural submission to the Regional Register since its establishment in 2008.

The Illustrated Manuscripts of Ramacaritamanasa, commonly known as 'Ramcharitmanas', was created by Goswami Tulsidasa in the 16th century in the Awadhi language. This monumental work is regarded as one of the foremost achievements in Hindu literature, drawing its inspiration from the epic Ramayana authored by the sage Valmiki.

The 15th Century Manuscript of the Panchatantra, authored by Pandit Vishnu Sharma, is a collection of animal fables presented in both poetry and prose. Dating back to at least the 3rd century BCE, this ancient compilation originally written in Sanskrit aims to impart practical life lessons, known as Niti, through the interactions of anthropomorphized animals.

The Sahṛdayaloka-Locana manuscript, an important text in Indian poetics, dates back to the 9th and 10th centuries AD. Authored by Acharya Anandvardhan, it comprises extensive discussions on poetics, dramaturgy, and theatrical insights in Sanskrit literature.

UNESCO's Memory of the World (MOW) Programme:

The Memory of the World (MOW) programme, initiated by UNESCO in 1992, serves as a global strategy to preserve and promote access to rare and endangered documentary heritage.
Its mission, articulated to prevent "collective amnesia," underscores the importance of safeguarding archive holdings and library collections worldwide.
The programme recognizes documentary heritage of international, regional, and national significance, maintaining registers and awarding logos to identified collections.
It advocates for preservation and equitable access, raising awareness among governments, the public, and businesses about the need for conservation and fundraising.
Inscription on the MOW register validates the cultural and historical value of documented heritage, enhancing visibility and accessibility for research, education, entertainment, and long-term preservation efforts.
The Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Committee (MOWCAP), established in 1998, specifically celebrates achievements across 43 countries in genealogy, literature, science, and more.
The MOWCAP Regional Register includes 65 items that reflect the diverse cultural richness and historical significance of the Asia-Pacific region.

Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA):

Established in 1987 under the Ministry of Culture and operates as an autonomous institution dedicated to advancing research, academic activities, and the dissemination of arts.
IGNCA plays a crucial role in supporting Project Mausam, a Ministry of Culture initiative in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- This project explores cultural routes and maritime landscapes that historically connected regions across the Indian Ocean, linking coastal centres with inland counterparts.

Swami Vivekananda

Context: The Prime Minister engaged in meditation at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.

About Swamiji

Spiritual significance of Vivekananda rock:

Located near Kanyakumari’s Vanathurai beach, at the southernmost tip of mainland India where the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal converge, Vivekananda Rock holds profound historical and spiritual importance.
In 1892, according to the disciples of Swami Vivekananda, it was at this place, he ultimately achieved enlightenment.

About Swami Vivekananda (1862-1902):

Swami Vivekananda (original name was Narendranath Datta), emerged as a prominent advocate of Ramakrishna's teachings, adapting them to contemporary Indian society and becoming a significant figure in the propagation of neo-Hinduism.
His ideology drew from the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings of the Upanishads and the Gita, as well as the examples set by Buddha and Jesus, all forming the foundation of his message on human values.
Central to Vivekananda's philosophy was Vedanta, which he viewed as a rational and superior approach to spirituality.
His mission aimed to bridge the gap between spiritual pursuits and practical life, advocating for a holistic approach to human existence encompassing both paramartha (spiritual service) and vyavahara (daily conduct).
Vivekananda stressed the unity of God and humanity, advocating for the integration of Hinduism and Islam in India for the nation's well-being.
He emphasized the importance of combining knowledge with action, criticizing the neglect of social issues by religious institutions and urging Hindus to engage actively in social reform.
At the 1893 Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Vivekananda highlighted the need for a balanced synthesis of Eastern spiritualism and Western materialism to foster global happiness and progress.
In 1897 to inspire pride in Indian culture and foster social reform, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which has since become a global organization dedicated to humanitarian relief, education, and social service, guided by the principle that service to humanity is akin to worship.
The Ramakrishna Mission, though deeply religious, does not seek to convert; instead, it embraces universal spiritual values and respects diverse religious practices.
In 1898, Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Math in Belur (Karnataka). It was open to all regardless of caste or creed, symbolizing his vision of an inclusive spiritual community committed to service and enlightenment.
In 1887, Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav Charan Basak.
He also composed ‘Khandana Bhava Bandhana’, a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna, in 1898.

Kumartuli’s famous idol-sculptors

Context: Kumartuli in North Kolkata Is renowned worldwide for its centuries-old tradition of crafting clay idols, particularly the ten-armed goddess for the vibrant Durga Puja festival. However, the idol artisans of Kumartuli are facing hurdles due to enduring infrastructural challenges.

About Kumartuli:

Kumartuli or Coomartolly is famous for its sculpting expertise.
The area produces clay idols for various festivals and exports them globally.
How did this area come into being?
- British colonization of Bengal and India (especially after Battle of Plassey) and the construction of Fort William at Gobindapur, prompted the relocation of most residents to Sutanuti.
- Under orders from the directors of the British East India Company, specific districts were assigned to the company’s artisans.
- These areas were named based on their trades, such as Suriparah (wine sellers), Collotollah (oil men), and Coomartolly (potters).
While many artisans in North Kolkata diminished or disappeared, the potters of Kumartuli survived.
Initially crafting pots sold at Sutanuti Bazar (later Burrabazar), they gradually started

Creating idols of gods and goddesses for local mansions and community pujas.

Dhakeswari temple in Kumartuli:

It is a Hindu temple in Kolkata, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River.
The temple's presiding deity is Devi Durga, whose idol was brought from the Dhakeswari Temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Bengali Hindus regard Dhakeswari as the presiding deity of Dhaka. The idol was evacuated to Calcutta during the Partition of India in 1947 and has remained there since.

Birsa Munda

Context: Ulihatu, the birthplace of Birsa Munda and a village in Jharkhand, has seen noticeable development in recent years. The Prime Minister launched the Rs 24,000 crore Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) Development Mission from this place. The Central government has designated Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary on November 15 as ‘Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas’.

Who was Birsa Munda?

Born in 1875.
Between 1886 and 1890, Birsa spent time at a place which was near the centre of the Sardari agitation, a peaceful movement led by the Oraon and Munda tribes against British rule. This experience inspired him to join the anti-missionary and anti-colonial cause.
By 1890, Birsa was deeply involved in the movement against British oppression of tribal communities.
He emerged as a prominent tribal leader, uniting people to fight for their rights. He founded the Birsait faith and became a God-like figure to his followers.
His movement attracted members from the Munda and Oraon communities, challenging British conversion efforts and reinforcing tribal unity and resistance.
The Mundas, a tribe of former nomadic hunters turned farmers in the Chota-nagpur region of present-day Jharkhand, faced significant challenges due to adverse policies and events.
- Before colonial rule, they practiced 'khuntkatti’, a land ownership system based on customary rights that excluded landlords.
- However, the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 ended this system, enabling colonial exploitation.
- The East India Company introduced the zamindari system for land revenue collection, creating a dual class system of land-owning zamindars, viewed as outsiders or ‘dikus’ by the indigenous people, and tenant farmers or ‘ryots’.
- This Act allowed the dikus to claim ownership through deeds specifying precise areas, displacing the indigenous inhabitants from their ancestral lands.
- Additionally, the community suffered from exploitative practices like the ‘begar’ system of forced labor, dependence on moneylenders for credit, and the replacement of traditional clan councils with colonial courts.
- Famines in 1896-97 and 1899-1900 further exacerbated their plight, leading to mass starvation.

The Ulgulan movement (1899-1900) and aftermath:

The Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) stands as one of the most notable tribal revolts in the history of Indian Independence.
The main cause of the Munda revolt was the 'unfair land grabbing practices’ by colonial and local authorities that demolished the tribal conventional land system.
Their exploitation included high-interest loans and withheld receipts, leading to conflict with the dikus (outsiders).
Additionally, large forest areas were declared protected, stripping the Mundas of their rights.
The Mundas desperately needed a leader to guide their struggle for justice.
Course of the rebellion:
- Birsa Munda emerged as a leader of the tribal movement.
- Birsa aimed for both religious and political independence, advocating for the Mundas' rights as the true landowners and visioned an agrarian order free from European influence.
- Birsa called on the Mundas to reject superstitions, abandon animal sacrifice, abstain from intoxicants, wear the sacred thread, and maintain traditional worship in the sarna (sacred grove).
- He wanted Munda society to get rid of foreign elements and restore its original character.
- By the 1890s, Birsa had mobilized the tribes, inciting rebellion.
- In 1894, he declared a revolt against the British and the dikus, aiming to establish a 'Munda Raj'.
- Under his leadership, villagers attacked police stations, churches, and government properties in 1899.
- However, in 1900, the rebels were defeated.
- Birsa was captured and died in jail, while nearly 350 Mundas were tried.
Aftermath:
- Demonstrated the tribal people's ability to protest against injustice and colonial rule.
- The British enacted the Chota-nagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, which restricted the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal people, recognized Khuntkatti rights, and banned begari.
- Consequently, tribals gained legal protection for their land rights.

Satnami Community

Context: Satnami community in Chhattisgarh violently protested against the desecration of a Jaitkhamb (a structure of sacred importance). The protesters were not satisfied with the way police handled the case.

Satnami sect:

The earliest Satnamis were a sect of mendicants founded by Birbhan (in Narnaul in eastern Punjab) in 1657. Birbhan’s guru was Udhodas, the pupil of Saint Ravidas and therefore, the sect is believed to be an offshoot of the Ravidassia sect.
Historically, Satnamis are also known as ‘Bairagis’.
In 1672 they defied the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and were crushed by his army.

Two broad categories of Bhakti traditions:

Saguna (with attributes): Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of God.

The sect was revived under the leadership of Jagjivandas (near Lucknow).
- He projected an image of God as ‘Nirguna’(God do not exist in a particular form or have particular properties).
- He promoted worship through a regimen of self-discipline.
- However, the elimination of caste, a central part of the Satnami creed, was not part of his message.
In 1820 in the Chhattisgarh region, Ghasidas, added significant elements to the sect and founded his own offshoot-Satnami sect. He advocated for social equality.
- His Satnam Panth succeeded in providing a religious and social identity for large numbers of lower castes people and defied the derogatory treatment by upper-caste Hindus.
- The community under the leadership of Ghasidas also defied exclusion from Hindu temple worship.
About Jaitkhamb:
- Giraudpuri is a village in the Baloda Bazar district of Chhattisgarh, which is located near the Jonk River (a tributary of Mahanadi River).
- It is the birthplace of the Ghasidas, and is a pilgrimage centre for the Satnamis
- The main landmark of the village is Guru Ghasidas Jaitkhamb, a 77-metre-high tower used as a pilgrimage centre by the Satnamis.
- A Jaitkhamb (victory pillar) is a Satnami object of worship, and a symbol of their distinct sectarian identity.
The Satnamis of Chhattisgarh also became a permanent subdivision of the Hindus in the Central Provinces, during the British period.
Presently, Satnamis live mainly in Chhattisgarh, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh.

Note:

The Ravidassia sect emerged as a distinct faith separate from Sikhism, shaped by the followers of Guru Ravidas’s teachings. It was established following an event in 2009, when Sikh militants attacked a Ravidas temple, in Vienna, Austria.

Satnami Revolt:

The Satnamis revolted during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Reasons:
- Many Hindus resented Aurangzeb’s strict Islamic policies, which included revival of Islamic Jizya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects), banning music and art, and destroying Hindu temples.
Course of the revolt:
- Began in 1672 when a Mughal soldier killed a Satnami.
- Other Satnamis took revenge on the Mughal soldiers, and in turn the Mughal soldiers repressed the Satnamis.
- In turn, 5,000 Satnamis took up arms against the Mughals.
- The Satnamis plundered many villages and seized the town of Narnaul. They even set up their own administration. Next, they marched towards Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
- The uprising gained the enthusiasm of Hindus in Agra and Ajmer also.
- It was only when Aurangzeb himself took personal command and sent 10,000 troops with artillery that the Satnamis were suppressed.

Bhil/Bheel Tribe

Context: Bharat Adivasi Party (BAP) won in Banswara, Rajasthan in the 2024 Lok Sabha election. The party has focused on the topics of formation of a ‘Bhil Pradesh’ and an increase in reservation for Scheduled Tribes. There has been a demand for the establishment of a separate state of Bhil Pradesh by combining the tribal-dominated parts of Gujarat and neighbouring states Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.

About Bhil/Bheel tribe:

The tribe live in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Tripura, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Classified as a Scheduled Tribe in: Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tripura.
Language: The commonly spoken language by Bhils is Bhili. Bhili is a subgroup of the Western Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages. Many Bhils now speak the dominant language of the region they reside in, such as Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali.
Bhil is the largest tribal group in India as per 2011 Census. They constitute approximately 38% of the total scheduled tribal population of India.

Culture:
- Pithora Painting is a well-known art form.
- These ritualistic paintings were done by Badwas or specially appointed male members.
- Ghoomar is a traditional folk dance of the Bhil tribe. Ghoomar is the symbol of womanhood. Young girls take part in this dance.
- Another folk art is Swang, which consists of storytelling combined with dancing and music.
- Baneshwar fair is the main festival celebrated among the Bhils. The fair is dedicated to Baneshwar Mahadev also known as Lord Shiva.
During the British Rule:
- The Bhils who lived in the Khandesh region of the present-day Dhule district of Maharashtra, revolted against Company rule in 1818, as they had to face famine, economic distress and misgovernment.
  - The rebellion was led by Bhil leaders: Kazi Singh and Bhima Naik.
  - It was against the deprivation of traditional rights over forest resources and land.
  - The British used both force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprising.
- During the colonial rule, the Bhils were designated as a criminal tribe by the British colonial government under the Criminal Tribes Act 1871, which meant that a Bhil could be ‘randomly picked up, tortured, maimed or even killed’ by the colonial authorities.
- A reformer, Govind Guru led the Bhils of south Rajasthan (Banswara, South states) to organise themselves to fight for a Bhil Raj by 1913.

Searching for Indraprastha

Context: Under the Ministry of Tourism’s ‘Adopt a Heritage scheme’, the Dalmia Group’s Sabhyata Foundation has adopted the Purana Qila for maintenance and operations and to promote sustainable tourism at the site. For Purana Qila, the foundation has a vision monument, i.e., ‘Indraprastha and the Mahabharata’.

More about the news:

The Purana Qila was built by the Mughal Emperor Humayun. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to begin the seventh round of excavations at the site to find evidence about the link of the fort to the ancient site of Indraprastha and the Mahabharata.

Findings in 2014:

In 1954, archaeologist B B Lal, first dug up the site.
In 2014, Grey pottery, rolled up inside a piece of soft white cotton cloth was found.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery suggests links of the site to the ancient city Indraprastha.
Painted Grey Ware:
- PGW is a fine, smooth, grey coloured pottery that’s produced by firing techniques.
- They contain mostly geometric patterns in black or deep chocolate brown and usually occur in shapes such as open-mouthed bowls and dishes.
- Mostly found in the Indo-Gangetic divide, the Sutlej Basin and the Upper Ganga plains, PGW is dated between approximately 1100 BCE and 500/400 BCE.
- 1100 BCE and 500/400 BCE: This is the timeframe that matches some of the wide estimates of when the Mahabharata was composed.
- Also, as ASI’s findings, in each of the other Mahabharata-related sites excavated by Lal, such as Hastinapur, Tilpat and Kurukshetra, PGW formed the lowest cultural deposit. So its presence at Purana Qila suggests its Mahabharata link.
- It was well established by B B Lal that PGW is associated with the Mahabharata period.
- The Purana Qila excavation proves that there has been continuous habitation in Delhi from 1200 BCE till today.
However, other archaeologists, have different views and suggest that it is hard to connect PGW with Mahabharata there is lack of evidence proving whether the events in the Mahabharata actually happened and the occurrence of PGW in itself does not necessarily mean that a site is connected with the Mahabharata story.
As per Historian Upinder Singh the presence of PGW in sites related to the story in the Mahabharata simply suggests that these sites were inhabited from about 1000 BCE onwards and that people who lived there shared a similar material culture.

About Indraprastha

Indraprastha is mentioned in ancient Indian literature as a city of the Kuru Kingdom.
During the Mauryan period, Indraprastha was known as Indapatta in Buddhist Pali literature, as the capital of the Kuru Mahajanapada.
Modern historians cite its location in the region of present-day New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila).
About Kuru kingdom:
- The Kuru kingdom appeared in the Middle Vedic period (1200 BCE), encompassing parts of the modern-day states of Haryana, Delhi, and some parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
- It declined in importance during the late Vedic period (900-500 BCE).
- It corresponds with the archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)

Context: In the last phase of Lok Sabha elections (2024), the Santhal region in Jharkhand is in the light. The region has a rich history and most notably is known for the Santhal rebellion which challenged the colonial authorities and those exploiting the tribal community.

About Santhals

Introduction:

Following the Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the British East India Company gained control over Indian provinces, including Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
In 1793, Governor-General Lord Cornwallis implemented the Permanent Settlement System in Bengal and Bihar.
The Permanent Settlement granted hereditary and lifelong rights to zamindars, who paid a fixed amount to the British government annually.
It resulted in widespread dissatisfaction among the local population and the exploitation of peasants.

Factors responsible:

The uprising was fuelled by a multitude of factors that pushed the Santhals to their breaking point.

Forced relocation and exploitation:
- The Santhals, an agrarian tribal community dependent on forests for their livelihood, were encouraged to settle in the Damin-i-Koh region (now part of Jharkhand) established by the East India Company in 1832.
- They soon discovered that the area was ruled by zamindars, who were tax-collection agents with significant economic power.
- The motive behind this relocation was to meet the demand for agricultural labor in areas where the population had significantly declined due to the devastating Bengal Famine of 1770.
Exploitation by merchants and moneylenders:
- Exploitative practices such as false measurements, usury, and fraudulent lawsuits perpetuated their subjugation and kept them trapped in cycles of debt bondage.
- The exploitative systems of bonded labor, known as “kamioti” and “harwahi,” made it practically impossible for the Santhals to repay their debts.
Tyranny of zamindars and capitalist agriculture:
- Extraction of exorbitant rents from their meagre earnings.
- Those employed in indigo plantations faced gruelling labour for meagre wages.
- The oppressive economic conditions disrupted their traditional way of life and further plunged them into poverty.
Ineffectual redress and neglect by British administration:
- The Santhals sought redressal through petitions to the British government and recourse to the courts, hoping for relief from their dire circumstances.
- However, they were met with disappointment and indifference at every turn.
Eruption of popular uprising:
- As a result of extreme oppression and neglect, social banditry emerged in 1854.
- Led by figures such as Bir Singh Manjhi, a group of Santhals targeted moneylenders and zamindars, redistributing their spoils among the impoverished Santhals.

Course of the Rebellion:

The ‘Hul,’ as this momentous insurrection was known, was led by four brothers from Bhagnadihi village: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu.
Under their leadership, around 60,000 Santhals mobilized with traditional weapons.
Despite the rebellion primarily being associated with opposition against the British, it actually originated as a revolt against the exploitation perpetrated by Indian ‘upper’ caste zamindars, moneylenders, merchants, and darogas (police officials), collectively referred to as ‘diku,’ who had established dominance over the economic aspects of Santhal life.

Impact of the Rebellion

The uprising prompted the British government to pass the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act in 1876, providing some protection to tribal members against exploitation.
The region between Bhagalpur and the Rajmahal hills in Singhbhum district was separated and designated as Santhal Pargana which was declared a non-regulation district.
The Santhal Rebellion shed light on the harshness of the zamindari system imposed by the British East India Company on the local indigenous populations.
It also exposed the exploitative practices of moneylenders, who took advantage of the Santhals’ unfamiliarity with monetary systems and charged exorbitant interest rates on loans.
The rebellion had a profound impact on the Santhali identity and resistance against persecution, contributing to the establishment of the state of Jharkhand in 2000.

The Santhal community:

Origin and Migration: The Santhals are believed to have originated from the Champa Kingdom in northern Cambodia. They led a nomadic life in the past but eventually settled in the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Towards the late 18th century, they migrated to the Santhal Parganas of Bihar and later expanded into Odisha.
The third largest Scheduled Tribe in India after the Gond and Bhil and primarily consists of agricultural people. They are predominantly located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, and West Bengal.
Compared to other tribal groups in these states, the Santhal population has a relatively high literacy rate. They speak the Santhali language, which has its own script called Ol Chiki, recognized in the Eighth Schedule of the constitution.

The Popularity of Dakhni

Context: The campaign for the Lok Sabha elections in Telangana, particularly in Hyderabad, was marked by exchange of comments and comebacks in the Dakhni language.

About Dakhni Language:

Introduction:

Dakhni shares the Persian-Arabic script with Urdu.
Dakhni people and speakers are spread across the Deccan region and speak variants of the language in Telangana, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
The language is seen as the Hyderabadi, but what Hyderabadis speak is only a variant of Dakhni.
It is a predecessor of Modern Hindustani.
Since the medieval period, it has been a language of the common man.
This was the reason why the Sufis such as those belonging to Chishti order, who arrived in the Deccan chose to use Dakhni as a literary medium.

History

It has its origins in the dialect spoken around Delhi then known as Dehlavi. In the early 14th century, this dialect was introduced in the Deccan region through the military exploits of Alauddin Khilji.
In 1327, Muhammad bin Tughluq shifted his Sultanate's capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Maharashtra), causing a mass migration of governors, soldiers and common people who brought the dialect with them.
When Bahmani Sultanate was formed in 1347, the dialect had acquired the name Dakhni, from the name of the region itself (Deccani) and had become a lingua franca for people of the region.
- The Bahmani sultans promoted Persian, and did not give much patronage to Dakhni.
- However, during their rule, local Dakhni literary culture outside the court developed.
- The Sufis were important promoters. as they used it in their preachings since regional languages were more accessible (than Persian) to the general population.
- During this period, the earliest available manuscript of the language, ‘Masnavi Kadam Rao Padam Rao’ by Fakhruddin Nizami was produced.
In the early 16th century, the Bahmani Sultanate was divided into the Deccan Sultanates.
- These were also Persianate in culture, but also patronised regional languages.
- They are largely responsible for the development of the Dakhni literary tradition and culture, centred at Golconda and Bijapur.
- The rulers themselves participated in these cultural developments. Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate produced Kitab-e-Navras (Book of the Nine Rasas), a work of musical poetry written entirely in Dakhni.
- However, the Sultanates did not use Dakhni for official purposes or as a court language, they preferred Persian as well as regional languages like Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu.
The Mughal conquest of the Deccan by Aurangzeb in the 17th century connected the southern regions of the subcontinent to the north.
- The Deccani poetry, as literary patronage in the region decreased.
- The literary centres of the Deccan had been replaced by the capital of the Mughals, so poets migrated to Delhi for better opportunities.
- A notable example is that of Wali Deccani (1667–1707), who adapted his Deccani sensibilities to the northern style.
- However, the historical form of Deccani sparked the development of Urdu literature during the late-Mughal period.