Mughal ruler Aurangzeb

Context: The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17^th century. 

About the news article: 

• Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
  • According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken. 
  • Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places. 
• Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events. 
  • As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666. 
  • As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
  • The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak. 
• Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state. 
  • In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
  • In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.

History Kashi Vishwanath temple: 

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
• It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India. 
• Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.

• Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
• The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when  Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
• In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
• It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
• Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar 
• Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
• In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
• In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
• In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.

About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb: 

• Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647. 
• He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories. 
• Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession. 
• In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat. 
• Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort. 
• The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. 
• He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India. 
• Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
• In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707. 

Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb: 

• He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
• Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land). 
• He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
• Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
• However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law. 
• He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
• He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
• The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
• Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
  • Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
    • The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
    • In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
    • Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
    • He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
  • Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions: 
    • Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
    • Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold: first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
    • For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
    • However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
  • Discriminatory toll/tax: 
    • He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. 
    • Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax. 
  • Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
    • For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
    • He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas. 
• Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
  • Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
  • Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb. 
  • Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.

Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:

Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country. 

• Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
• Conflict with the Satnamis: In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
• Conflict with the Sikhs: The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
• Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully. 

Conclusion:  

The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.