Mains Practice

In the fourth leg of his visit, the Prime Minister of India is scheduled to visit Norway for the 3rd India-Nordic Summit and bilateral engagements. The summit aims to deepen cooperation between India and the Nordic countries in areas such as green technology, renewable energy, innovation, maritime security, climate action, and sustainable development.

About Nordic Countries

The Nordic countries, collectively known as the Nordic region, are a group of countries located in Northern Europe. These include:

• Denmark
• Finland
• Iceland
• Norway
• Sweden

The region also includes autonomous territories:

• Faroe Islands and Greenland (Denmark)
• Åland Islands (Finland)

Nordic Region vs Scandinavia

The term “Nordic countries” is broader than “Scandinavia.”

Scandinavia generally includes:

• Norway
• Sweden
• Denmark

Nordic Region includes:

• Scandinavia + Finland + Iceland

Thus, while Scandinavia forms the geographical core, the Nordic region represents a wider cultural and political grouping.

Key Features of Nordic Countries

Geography and Population

• Sweden is the largest and most populous Nordic country.
• Iceland is the least populous.
• Denmark is the smallest in area among the Nordic nations.

The region experiences cold climatic conditions, fjords, glaciers, forests, and long coastlines.

Languages

Most people in the Nordic region speak North Germanic languages:

• Danish
• Norwegian
• Swedish
• Icelandic
• Faroese

Non-Germanic languages include:

• Finnish
• Greenlandic
• Sami languages

Political Systems

Constitutional Monarchies

• Denmark
• Norway
• Sweden

These countries function as parliamentary democracies.

Democratic Republics

• Finland
• Iceland

Iceland is home to the Althing, regarded as the world’s oldest parliament.

Nordic Cooperation

The countries cooperate closely through:

• Nordic Council
• Nordic Council of Ministers

These institutions promote collaboration in:

• Economy
• Environment
• Education
• Social welfare
• Research and innovation

Relation with European Union

EU Members

• Denmark
• Sweden
• Finland

European Economic Area (EEA) Members

• Norway
• Iceland

The EEA includes EU nations along with:

• Norway
• Iceland
• Liechtenstein

India-Nordic Relations

India has strengthened engagement with Nordic countries due to their expertise in:

• Green energy
• Sustainable urban planning
• Clean technology
• Digital innovation
• Arctic research
• Maritime economy

The India-Nordic Summit serves as an important platform for enhancing trade, investment, climate partnerships, and technological cooperation.

Significance for India

Green Transition

Nordic countries are global leaders in renewable energy, carbon neutrality, and sustainable development practices.

Innovation and Technology

The region has advanced capabilities in:

• Artificial Intelligence
• Clean-tech
• Biotechnology
• Smart cities
• Electric mobility

Strategic Cooperation

India seeks cooperation in:

• Arctic affairs
• Blue economy
• Maritime security
• Supply chain resilience

Conclusion

The Nordic countries represent some of the world’s most developed and sustainable societies. India’s growing partnership with the Nordic region reflects its broader objective of strengthening ties with technologically advanced and environmentally conscious nations.

Why in News?

Recently, India and Singapore explored new avenues to deepen bilateral cooperation during the 16th India-Singapore Defence Policy Dialogue, reaffirming their commitment to strengthening strategic, economic, and defence ties.

About Singapore

Singapore is a highly developed island nation located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia. Despite its small geographical size, it is one of the world's leading financial, trading, and maritime hubs.

Owing to its strategic location along major international sea routes, Singapore plays a crucial role in global trade and regional geopolitics.

Location and Boundaries

Singapore is situated between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, at one of the world's most important maritime crossroads.

Bordered By

• South China Sea to the east.
• Strait of Malacca to the west.
• Johor Strait separates Singapore from Malaysia in the north.
• Singapore Strait separates it from Indonesia in the south.
• Indonesia's Riau Islands lie to its south.

Its strategic position makes it a vital gateway connecting the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean trade routes.

Political Profile

• Capital City: Singapore
• Official Name: Republic of Singapore
• Government: Parliamentary Republic
• Member of: Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Singapore actively participates in regional organizations and plays a significant role in promoting economic integration, maritime security, and regional stability in Southeast Asia.

Geographical Features

Climate

Singapore experiences an equatorial climate characterized by:

• Uniformly high temperatures throughout the year.
• High humidity.
• Abundant rainfall.
• Absence of distinct seasons.

The climate is strongly influenced by monsoon winds and its proximity to the equator.

Highest Point

The highest natural point in Singapore is Bukit Timah Hill, which rises to approximately 162 metres above sea level.

Despite its modest elevation, the hill is known for its rich biodiversity and is protected as part of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.

Economic Importance

Singapore possesses one of the world's most competitive and open economies.

Major Strengths

• Global financial centre.
• International aviation hub.
• Major logistics and shipping centre.
• Leading destination for foreign investments.
• Advanced technology and innovation ecosystem.

Port of Singapore

Singapore hosts the largest port in Southeast Asia and one of the busiest ports globally. The port handles a substantial share of international maritime trade and serves as a crucial transshipment hub connecting Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Its strategic location along the Strait of Malacca—one of the world's busiest sea lanes—enhances its geopolitical and economic significance.

India-Singapore Relations

India and Singapore share strong ties across multiple sectors, including trade, defence, technology, education, fintech, and maritime security.

Key Areas of Cooperation

• Defence exercises and military training.
• Maritime security cooperation.
• Digital economy and fintech partnerships.
• Trade and investment.
• Semiconductor and advanced technology collaboration.
• Connectivity under India's Act East Policy.

Singapore is among India's largest trading partners and a major source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).

Conclusion

Singapore's strategic location, robust economy, and active regional role make it a key partner for India in Southeast Asia. The recent Defence Policy Dialogue underscores the growing importance of India-Singapore relations in promoting regional security, economic cooperation, and Indo-Pacific stability.

Why in News?

Recently, Qom has gained attention as it hosts one of the largest Indian communities in Iran, comprising nearly 3,000–3,500 Indian nationals, many of whom are students pursuing religious studies in seminaries and universities.

About Qom

Qom is the capital city of Qom Province located in north-central Iran. Situated south of Tehran, it acts as an important link between the Iranian capital and the country’s central provinces. The city is among the holiest places for Shia Muslims and is regarded as the spiritual centre of Shi’a Islamic scholarship.

Historical Background

Qom emerged as a major centre of Shi’ite Islam during the 8th century AD. Over time, it evolved into a prominent religious and pilgrimage destination. By the 17th century, the city had become one of the most visited pilgrimage centres in Iran.

The city gained immense political importance during the Islamic Revolution of 1979. It was in Qom that the Iranian army surrendered to revolutionary militias, accelerating the success of the revolution. Following the revolution, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the supreme leader of the Islamic Revolution, chose Qom as his residence and governed the Islamic Republic from there until his death in 1989.

Religious Significance

Qom is globally known as:

• The centre of Shia Islamic theology and scholarship
• A major destination for Islamic education
• One of the holiest pilgrimage sites in Iran

Shrine of Fatima Masumeh

The city houses the famous Shrine of Fatima Masumeh, sister of the eighth Shia Imam, Imam Reza. The shrine is one of the most sacred pilgrimage destinations for Shia Muslims and attracts millions of visitors annually.

Islamic Seminaries

Qom is home to:

• Iran’s largest theological colleges
• Major Hawzas (Islamic seminaries)
• Thousands of religious scholars and students from across the world

Many Indian students also travel to Qom for advanced studies in Islamic theology and religious sciences.

Economic Importance

Apart from its religious role, Qom is also an important economic centre. The city functions as:

• A petroleum distribution hub
• A centre for petrochemical industries
• A manufacturing region for cement, textiles, and industrial products

Its strategic location near Tehran further enhances its commercial significance.

Political Importance

Qom remains one of the most influential political and ideological centres in Iran. Religious scholars based in the city hold considerable influence over:

• Iranian politics
• Religious policies
• Social and cultural discourse

The city continues to shape the ideological foundations of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

India–Iran Connection

Qom hosts one of the largest Indian communities in Iran, particularly:

• Students enrolled in seminaries
• Religious scholars
• Indian Shia pilgrims

The city therefore plays an important role in cultural and educational exchanges between India and Iran.

Why in News?

Recently, the World Health Organization declared the ongoing Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC).

About Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC)

• A PHEIC is a formal declaration made by the WHO in response to a serious public health event that poses risks across international borders.
• It is the highest level of global health alert issued by WHO.
• The declaration signals the need for:
  • Immediate international cooperation
  • Coordinated response measures
  • Prevention of international spread of disease

Legal Basis of PHEIC

• PHEIC operates under the framework of the International Health Regulations (IHR), 2005.
• The declaration legally obligates countries to:
  • Share information
  • Strengthen surveillance
  • Implement public health measures
  • Cooperate internationally

Who Declares a PHEIC?

• The declaration is made by the WHO Director-General based on recommendations from the:
  • IHR Emergency Committee
• The committee consists of international public health experts.

Origin of the IHR Emergency Framework

• The current emergency mechanism evolved after the global spread of the SARS outbreak (2002–2004).
• The crisis exposed weaknesses in international disease response systems.

Features of PHEIC

1. Highest WHO Alert

• Indicates a major international public health risk.

2. International Coordination

• Encourages global cooperation in:
  • Disease surveillance
  • Research
  • Vaccine development
  • Border health measures

3. Periodic Review

• The declaration is reviewed every three months and renewed if necessary.

4. Wider Scope

A PHEIC may be declared not only for infectious diseases but also for:

• Chemical hazards
• Radioactive emergencies
• Other serious public health threats

International Health Regulations (IHR)

About IHR

• The International Health Regulations are legally binding global health rules adopted by WHO member states.

Historical Background

• Initially adopted in 1969 by the World Health Assembly.
• Revised extensively after the SARS outbreak.
• The updated IHR 2005was adopted at the:
  • 58th World Health Assembly

Key Features of IHR 2005

• International agreement involving 196 countries.
• Aims to strengthen:
  • Global health security
  • Disease reporting systems
  • International preparedness

WHO’s Role

• WHO acts as the coordinating authority under the IHR framework.

Importance of PHEIC

Global Disease Control

• Helps contain outbreaks before they spread internationally.

Early Warning System

• Enables rapid mobilization of:
  • Resources
  • Medical aid
  • International expertise

Strengthening Health Governance

• Enhances cooperation between countries and global institutions.

Public Awareness

• Raises global attention regarding emerging health threats.

Challenges Associated with PHEIC

Economic Impact

• Travel restrictions and trade disruptions may affect economies.

Unequal Healthcare Capacity

• Developing nations may struggle to implement IHR obligations.

Delayed Reporting

• Some countries may hesitate to report outbreaks due to economic or political concerns.

Recent Major PHEIC Declarations

WHO has previously declared PHEICs for:

• H1N1 Influenza (2009)
• Ebola outbreaks
• Zika Virus (2016)
• COVID-19 (2020)
• Mpox (Monkeypox)

Conclusion

The declaration of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern reflects the seriousness of global disease outbreaks and the need for coordinated international action. In an interconnected world, mechanisms such as the PHEIC and the International Health Regulations play a crucial role in strengthening global health security and preventing large-scale public health crises.

Introduction

Lavan Island is a strategically important Iranian island located in the Persian Gulf near the Strait of Hormuz. It recently came into news following reports alleging that the UAE secretly carried out military strikes on Iranian targets during the recent Middle East conflict, including an attack on a refinery at Lavan Island.

The island is highly significant due to its role in Iran’s offshore oil production and export infrastructure.

Location and Geography

• Located in the Persian Gulf near the strategically important Strait of Hormuz
• Situated about 40 km west of Qeshm Island
• Falls under Hormozgan Province of Iran
• Approximately:
  • 25 km long
  • 5 km wide

The island’s location near one of the world’s busiest oil shipping routes gives it major geopolitical and economic importance.

Why is Lavan Island Important?

Oil and Energy Hub

Lavan Island is one of Iran’s most important offshore oil export terminals.

It serves as the operating base for three major offshore oil fields:

• Salman Field
• Resalat Field
• Reshadat Field

Among these, the Salman oil field, located around 144 km south of Lavan Island, is one of the largest offshore oil complexes in the Persian Gulf.

Produced crude oil from offshore platforms is transferred to Lavan Island for:

• Final processing
• Storage
• Export

Infrastructure on the Island

The island contains major oil-related infrastructure such as:

• Processing plants
• Oil storage facilities
• Export terminals
• Utility and maintenance systems
• Storehouses
• Loading jetty for oil tankers

This makes the island critical for Iran’s energy exports and maritime trade.

Economic Activities

Historically, Lavan Island was famous for:

• Pearl fishing
• Marine activities

It was often referred to as the “Hidden Pearl Island.”

Today, the local economy mainly depends on:

• Oil industry employment
• Fishing activities

Strategic Importance

Lavan Island’s importance arises from:

• Proximity to the Strait of Hormuz
• Offshore oil infrastructure
• Role in Iran’s crude oil exports
• Presence in a geopolitically sensitive region

Any disruption around the island can impact:

• Global oil prices
• Maritime security
• Energy supply chains

The Strait of Hormuz itself is one of the world’s most critical chokepoints for global energy transportation.

Introduction

The Indus Waters Treaty has once again become a major point of tension between India and Pakistan after India decided to keep the Treaty “in abeyance” following the 2025 Pahalgam terror attack.

India has stated that the Treaty will remain suspended until Pakistan credibly ends cross-border terrorism. The development has triggered diplomatic, legal, and geopolitical debates regarding transboundary river governance, international law, and regional security.

About the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT)

The Indus Waters Treaty was signed on 19 September 1960 between India and Pakistan, with the World Bank acting as a facilitator.

The Treaty was signed by:

• Jawaharlal Nehru
• Mohammad Ayub Khan

after nearly nine years of negotiations.

River Allocation under the Treaty

The Treaty governs six rivers of the Indus basin:

Eastern Rivers – Allocated to India

• Ravi
• Beas
• Sutlej

India has unrestricted use over these rivers.

Western Rivers – Primarily for Pakistan

• Indus
• Jhelum
• Chenab

India is allowed limited non-consumptive use for:

• Hydropower generation
• Irrigation
• Navigation
• Domestic use

Institutional Mechanism

The Treaty established the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) consisting of one commissioner from each country.

Three-Tier Dispute Resolution System

1. Permanent Indus Commission – Routine issues
2. Neutral Expert – Technical disputes
3. Court of Arbitration – Legal disputes

The Treaty is often regarded as one of the world’s most durable water-sharing agreements because it survived wars and prolonged political tensions between the two countries.

Significance of the Treaty

For India

The Indus system supports:

• Agriculture
• Hydropower
• Development needs of Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan

For Pakistan

The river system is critical for:

• Irrigation
• Food security
• Agriculture

Over 70% of Pakistan’s irrigation needs depend on the Indus basin.

Thus, the Treaty has historically ensured predictability in water sharing and reduced the possibility of water-related conflict.

India’s Decision to Hold the Treaty in Abeyance

Following the Pahalgam terror attack and Operation Sindoor in 2025, India announced that it would keep the Treaty “in abeyance.”

This means:

• India no longer considers itself fully bound by Treaty obligations temporarily
• Data-sharing mechanisms have been disrupted
• Meetings of Indus Commissioners have stopped

The move has affected Pakistan’s:

• Water planning
• Flood forecasting
• Drought preparedness

Pakistan’s International Strategy

Being the downstream country, Pakistan has attempted to internationalise the issue through multiple forums.

Pakistan’s Approaches

• United Nations Security Council
• International Court of Justice
• World Bank
• United Nations Human Rights Council

Pakistan argues:

• The Treaty contains no clause permitting suspension or abeyance
• India’s move violates international law

India, however, has rejected external intervention and refused participation in certain arbitration proceedings.

India’s Strategic Response

1. Infrastructure Development

India is accelerating long-delayed projects on the Indus basin rivers to utilise its legitimate share under the Treaty.

Projects focus on:

• Hydropower generation
• Storage capacity
• Better utilisation of eastern rivers

India argues Pakistan repeatedly delayed projects through legal objections.

2. Strengthening the Techno-Legal Case

India has formed expert committees and argues that circumstances have changed significantly since 1960 due to:

• Population growth
• Climate change
• Increased water demand
• Developmental needs of Jammu & Kashmir
• Technological advancements

India believes the Treaty framework needs renegotiation or modernisation.

Challenges and Concerns

Diplomatic Tensions

The dispute may escalate into a prolonged diplomatic and legal confrontation.

Security Risks

Pakistan has warned of serious consequences, raising concerns about regional stability.

Climate Change

Changing rainfall patterns and glacier melt make fixed water-sharing arrangements increasingly difficult.

International Precedent

India’s decision links water cooperation with terrorism-related national security concerns, creating an important international precedent.

Conclusion

The Indus Waters Treaty remains one of the most significant examples of transboundary water cooperation in the world. However, changing geopolitical realities, terrorism concerns, climate change, and developmental pressures have strained the framework.

India’s decision to keep the Treaty in abeyance reflects a broader shift in strategic thinking where national security concerns increasingly influence international agreements.

Going forward, both countries will need to balance security interests, humanitarian concerns, and sustainable river management while avoiding further regional instability.

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister of India emphasized that India and Australia will continue working together to ensure a free, open, secure, and prosperous Indo-Pacific region, reflecting the growing strategic partnership between the two countries.

About Australia

Australia is both the smallest continent and the sixth-largest country in the world by area. Located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere, it occupies a unique geopolitical and geographical position between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, making it a key player in Indo-Pacific affairs.

The country is surrounded by important maritime regions. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and the South Pacific Ocean to the east. Australia is separated from Papua New Guinea by the Coral Sea and Torres Strait, from Indonesia by the Timor and Arafura Seas, and from New Zealand by the Tasman Sea. The Great Barrier Reef, one of the world’s largest coral reef systems, lies off Australia’s northeastern coast.

The capital city of Australia is Canberra, while major cities include Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.

Geographical Features

Australia possesses highly diverse geographical and climatic conditions due to its vast latitudinal extent and varied terrain.

Climate

The country experiences a wide range of climatic conditions, including tropical climates in the northern regions, temperate climates in the southeast and southwest, and arid desert climates across the interior. Northern Australia experiences monsoonal rainfall, while large central regions remain dry and sparsely populated.

Mountains and Highlands

The highest point in mainland Australia is Mount Kosciuszko, located in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, with an elevation of 2,228 metres. The Great Dividing Range, extending along the eastern coast, is Australia’s most significant mountain system and influences the country’s drainage and climate patterns.

Rivers

Australia’s river systems are relatively limited because of its dry climate. The Murray-Darling Basin forms the country’s most important river network and supports agriculture, irrigation, and settlements across southeastern Australia.

Major rivers include:

• Murray River
• Darling River
• Murrumbidgee River
• Lachlan River

The Murray-Darling Basin is economically significant but also faces environmental challenges such as salinity, over-extraction, and climate-induced droughts.

Deserts

A large portion of Australia’s interior consists of arid and semi-arid deserts. Major deserts include:

• Great Victoria Desert
• Gibson Desert
• Simpson Desert

These regions are characterized by sparse vegetation, extreme temperatures, and low population density.

Natural Resources

Australia is one of the world’s leading resource-rich economies and possesses abundant mineral wealth. The country is a major global exporter of iron ore, coal, gold, and natural gas.

Important natural resources include:

• Iron ore
• Gold
• Uranium
• Lithium
• Copper
• Nickel
• Zinc
• Silver
• Cobalt
• Brown coal
• Tungsten
• Vanadium

Australia has also emerged as a critical supplier of lithium and rare minerals essential for renewable energy technologies, electric vehicles, and battery manufacturing.

Biodiversity and Environment

Australia is known for its exceptional biodiversity and high level of endemic species. Geographic isolation over millions of years has resulted in the evolution of unique flora and fauna.

Important species include:

• Kangaroo
• Koala
• Platypus
• Emu
• Tasmanian Devil

The country also hosts globally important ecosystems such as the Great Barrier Reef, tropical rainforests, eucalyptus forests, and coral reef systems.

However, Australia faces major environmental challenges including bushfires, droughts, coral bleaching, invasive species, and climate change impacts.

India–Australia Relations

India and Australia have witnessed rapidly expanding strategic, economic, and defence cooperation in recent years. Both countries are important members of the Quad grouping along with the United States and Japan.

Key areas of cooperation include:

• Indo-Pacific security
• Maritime cooperation
• Trade and critical minerals
• Defence exercises
• Education and technology
• Renewable energy collaboration

The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) has further strengthened bilateral economic engagement.

Australia is also an important partner for India in securing supply chains of critical minerals necessary for clean energy transitions and advanced technologies.

Strategic Importance in the Indo-Pacific

Australia occupies a central position in the Indo-Pacific region and plays an important role in maintaining maritime security, freedom of navigation, and regional stability.

Its strategic geography, advanced naval capabilities, and strong partnerships with countries such as India, Japan, and the United States make it a major actor in regional geopolitics.

Increasing cooperation between India and Australia reflects the growing importance of democratic partnerships in ensuring a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific.

Conclusion

Australia is a geographically diverse, resource-rich, and strategically important nation in the Indo-Pacific region. Its growing partnership with India spans defence, trade, critical minerals, and maritime security, making the relationship increasingly significant in shaping regional stability and global economic cooperation.

Latest News

The Prime Minister of India is set to hold bilateral talks with the President of Cyprus in New Delhi. The meeting is expected to strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, maritime affairs, and regional security.

Cyprus

Cyprus is a Eurasian island country located in the northeastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Due to its strategic location connecting Europe, Asia, and Africa, Cyprus has historically been an important centre for trade and geopolitics.

It is a member of the European Union (EU) and plays a significant role in regional diplomacy and maritime connectivity in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Geographical Location

• Located south of the Anatolian Peninsula (Turkey)
• Surrounded by:
  • Turkey in the north
  • Syria in the east
  • Lebanon in the southeast
• Capital: Nicosia

Cyprus is the third-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea after Sicily and Sardinia.

Major Geographical Features

Climate

Cyprus experiences a temperate Mediterranean climate with:

• Hot and dry summers
• Mild and rainy winters

The climate supports tourism and agriculture, especially citrus fruits and olives.

Mountain Ranges

Two important mountain ranges dominate the island:

• Kyrenia Mountains in the north
• Troodos Mountains in the southwest

Highest Peak

• Mount Olympus (1,952 m) located in the Troodos range

Rivers

• Pedieos River is the longest river of Cyprus.

Major Cities

• Limassol
• Larnaca
• Famagusta
• Paphos

These cities are important centres for tourism, shipping, and trade.

Natural Resources

Cyprus possesses several mineral resources, including:

• Copper
• Pyrites
• Gypsum
• Marble
• Salt
• Timber
• Clay earth pigments

Historically, Cyprus was famous for copper production. In fact, the word “copper” is believed to have originated from the Latin term Cyprium, meaning “metal of Cyprus”.

Strategic Importance of Cyprus

Cyprus holds immense geopolitical significance because of its location in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Key Significance:

• Acts as a bridge between Europe, Asia, and Africa
• Important for maritime trade routes
• Strategic location near the Suez Canal region
• Emerging hub for energy exploration in the Mediterranean

The island has also been at the centre of regional tensions due to the division between the Greek Cypriot south and Turkish-controlled north since 1974.

India–Cyprus Relations

India and Cyprus share warm diplomatic relations based on democracy, international law, and economic cooperation.

Areas of Cooperation:

• Trade and investment
• Shipping and maritime services
• Information technology
• Tourism
• Support in international forums

Cyprus has consistently supported India on issues such as:

• Permanent membership in the UN Security Council
• Counter-terrorism cooperation

For India, Cyprus serves as an important gateway to Europe and the Mediterranean region.

Conclusion

Cyprus is a strategically important island nation in the Mediterranean with strong geopolitical and economic relevance. Its location, EU membership, and maritime significance make it an important partner for India in Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean region.

India continues to expand its defence diplomacy in Southeast Asia with the second edition of the bilateral military exercise CINBAX-II. Recently, a contingent of the Indian Army departed for Cambodia to participate in this joint exercise with the Cambodian Army. The exercise reflects India’s commitment to strengthening military partnerships under its Act East Policy and enhancing regional security cooperation.

About Exercise CINBAX-II

CINBAX (Cambodia–India Bilateral Army Exercise) is a joint military exercise conducted between India and Cambodia. The second edition is being held in Kampong Speu Province, Cambodia.

The Indian contingent comprises approximately 120 personnel, primarily from a battalion of the Maratha Light Infantry Regiment, known for its operational expertise and distinguished service history.

The exercise is conducted under the framework of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, which deals with peace enforcement operations, including actions to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Key Objectives of the Exercise

CINBAX-II focuses on enhancing operational cooperation between the two armies through:

• Interoperability: Improving the ability of both forces to operate jointly in real-time scenarios.
• Coordination: Streamlining communication and command structures during operations.
• Operational Synergy: Building cohesive combat capabilities in complex environments.

The exercise also provides a platform for exchange of best practices, tactical knowledge, and operational experiences.

Focus Areas of Training

The exercise is designed as a company-level joint training programme and will focus on:

1. Counter-Terrorism Operations

The troops will train for neutralising terrorist threats in semi-urban environments. This includes:

• Room intervention drills
• Cordon and search operations
• Hostage rescue simulations

2. Sub-Conventional Warfare

Sub-conventional operations refer to conflicts that fall below traditional warfare thresholds, such as insurgency and terrorism. CINBAX-II prepares troops for such challenges through realistic combat simulations.

3. UN Peacekeeping Scenarios

The training aligns with real-world United Nations peacekeeping missions, where troops often operate in volatile environments requiring precision, restraint, and coordination.

Importance of Semi-Urban Combat Training

Modern conflicts are increasingly taking place in semi-urban and urban settings. These environments are complex due to:

• Dense population
• Civilian presence
• Infrastructure constraints

Training in such conditions enhances soldiers’ ability to operate effectively while minimising collateral damage.

Strategic Significance

1. Strengthening Bilateral Defence Ties

CINBAX-II highlights the growing defence relationship between India and Cambodia. It reflects mutual trust and a shared commitment to regional stability.

2. Boosting India’s Act East Policy

The exercise aligns with India’s broader strategic objective of engaging with Southeast Asian nations. Defence cooperation acts as a key pillar of this policy.

3. Enhancing Regional Security

By improving joint operational capabilities, the exercise contributes to maintaining peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

4. Capacity Building

It helps both armies enhance their readiness to tackle emerging security threats, including terrorism and insurgency.

Conclusion

Exercise CINBAX-II represents a significant step in India’s defence diplomacy, combining military training with strategic engagement. By focusing on interoperability, counter-terrorism, and UN peacekeeping operations, the exercise strengthens not only bilateral ties but also contributes to broader regional security objectives.

As global security challenges evolve, such joint exercises play a crucial role in preparing armed forces for coordinated and effective responses in complex operational environments.

Why in News?

India and Vietnam elevated their bilateral ties to an “Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership” during the visit of Vietnamese President To Lam to India in May 2026.

Both countries also set an ambitious target of achieving $25 billion bilateral trade by 2030, reflecting growing strategic convergence in the Indo-Pacific region.

Historical Background of India–Vietnam Relations

India and Vietnam established diplomatic relations in 1972, though their engagement dates back to anti-colonial struggles and civilisational linkages.

Key milestones include:

• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited Vietnam in 1954, becoming the first foreign leader to visit Hanoi after liberation.
• India supported Vietnam’s sovereignty during the Vietnam War.
• India recognised unified Vietnam soon after reunification in 1975.
• Relations were upgraded to a Strategic Partnership in 2007.
• In 2016, ties were elevated to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.

Vietnam became India’s first Strategic Partner within the ASEAN region.

Economic and Trade Relations

India–Vietnam trade crossed USD 16 billion in 2025–26, recording over 10% annual growth.

Trade Composition

• India’s exports: ~USD 6.11 billion
• Vietnam’s exports: ~USD 10.35 billion

Key Areas of Cooperation

Pharmaceuticals

Indian generic medicines have a growing market in Vietnam.

Agriculture and Fisheries

• Indian grapes and pomegranates received market access.
• Vietnamese durians and pomelos gained entry into Indian markets.

Manufacturing and Electronics

Vietnam is emerging as a major hub for high-tech manufacturing and electronics.

Renewable Energy and EVs

Cooperation is expanding in:

• Clean energy transition
• Solar and wind energy
• Electric mobility

Digital Economy

Collaboration includes:

• Digital payments
• E-commerce
• MSME integration into global supply chains

Vietnam’s membership in ASEAN and participation in the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) makes it a gateway to Southeast Asian markets.

Defence and Security Cooperation

Defence cooperation is a major pillar of bilateral relations.

Both countries share concerns regarding:

• Maritime security
• Freedom of navigation
• Stability in the Indo-Pacific
• Developments in the South China Sea

Major Areas of Defence Cooperation

Defence Lines of Credit

India has extended defence Lines of Credit for:

• Patrol vessels
• Defence equipment
• Maritime capability enhancement

Joint Exercises and Training

Regular:

• Military exchanges
• Naval exercises
• Staff talks
• Capacity-building programmes

Maritime Security

India invited Vietnam to station a liaison officer at the Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region.

Defence Industrial Cooperation

Focus areas include:

• Co-production
• Joint research
• Defence technology collaboration

Coast Guard Cooperation

Enhanced coordination in:

• Maritime safety
• Search and rescue operations

Vietnam also joined the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative during the visit.

Cultural and Civilisational Linkages

India and Vietnam share strong civilisational ties rooted in:

• Buddhism
• Hindu cultural influences
• Maritime trade connections

The My Son Sanctuary, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, reflects ancient Indian cultural influence through the Cham civilisation.

The Indian community in Vietnam numbers around 8,000 people, mainly engaged in:

• Business
• IT
• Professional services

India has also implemented 66 Quick Impact Projects across Vietnamese provinces focusing on:

• Education
• Healthcare
• Community infrastructure

Key Outcomes of President To Lam’s Visit

Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership

The relationship was elevated to the highest diplomatic category India extends to partner nations.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that cooperation would deepen across:

• Connectivity
• Security
• Sustainability
• Supply chain resilience
• Capacity building

Trade Target of $25 Billion by 2030

Both sides agreed to:

• Expand market access
• Strengthen supply chains
• Facilitate trade in agricultural and pharmaceutical products

South China Sea and UNCLOS

Both countries reaffirmed commitment to:

• Freedom of navigation
• Peaceful dispute resolution
• Non-militarisation
• UNCLOS principles

They also supported an early conclusion of the South China Sea Code of Conduct.

Agreements Signed

A total of 13 agreements were signed covering:

• Digital payments and QR-based transactions
• Rare earth minerals
• Urban governance
• AI and 6G
• Space cooperation
• Digital Public Infrastructure

The RBI and State Bank of Vietnam also signed an MoU on digital payment connectivity.

Significance for India

Vietnam is a crucial pillar of:

• India’s Act East Policy
• Indo-Pacific strategy
• Supply chain diversification efforts

The partnership strengthens:

• ASEAN engagement
• Maritime cooperation
• Strategic balancing in the Indo-Pacific

It also supports India’s efforts to emerge as a trusted development and security partner in Southeast Asia.

Conclusion

India–Vietnam relations have evolved from historical solidarity to a multidimensional strategic partnership. The elevation to an “Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership” reflects deepening convergence in trade, defence, connectivity, and Indo-Pacific security. As both countries navigate an increasingly uncertain geopolitical environment, the partnership is expected to play a major role in shaping a stable, rules-based, and multipolar Indo-Pacific order.

Recently, the 10th edition of the Indian Ocean Dialogue was organised by India’s Ministry of External Affairs in collaboration with the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) Secretariat. The dialogue highlighted the growing importance of the Indian Ocean region in global trade, maritime security, and sustainable development.

About IORA

The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) was established in 1997 as an intergovernmental organisation of countries located along the Indian Ocean rim. Earlier known as the Indian Ocean Rim Initiative and later the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC), it aims to strengthen regional cooperation among member states.

The organisation currently has 23 member states and 12 dialogue partners spanning Asia, Africa, Europe, and Oceania. India is a founding member and plays a key role in promoting regional stability and economic cooperation.

Objectives of IORA

• Promote sustainable growth and balanced development.
• Enhance economic cooperation among member countries.
• Encourage freer flow of trade, services, and investment.
• Strengthen maritime safety and regional security.
• Promote cooperation in blue economy and disaster management.

Key Priority Areas

IORA focuses on six major priority areas:

1. Trade and Investment
2. Maritime Safety and Security
3. Fisheries Management
4. Disaster Risk Management
5. Blue Economy
6. Academic, Science and Technology Cooperation

Governance Structure

The apex decision-making body of IORA is the Council of Foreign Ministers (COM), which meets annually. The organisation’s Secretariat is located in Ebène, Mauritius, and is headed by a Secretary-General appointed for a three-year term.

Significance for India

For India, IORA is strategically important due to the Indian Ocean’s role in global trade and energy transportation. Through IORA, India promotes the vision of SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region), maritime cooperation, disaster resilience, and sustainable use of ocean resources. It also helps India strengthen ties with African, Southeast Asian, and Indo-Pacific countries amid growing geopolitical competition in the region.