Mains Exhaustive

Healing the Soil

Context: Earth Day observed annually on April 22 since 1970, marked by millions supporting environmental conservation.

Agriculture and Sustainability

  • Earth day originated in the US under Senator Gaylord Nelson's leadership due to concerns about environmental damage from rapid development.
  • Over 50 years later, numerous COPs were held, including COP 28 in Dubai (Nov-Dec 2023) where agriculture was included.
  • For the first time, agriculture was brought into this agreement.
    •  But India did not sign it, unlike most G20 countries like the US, and China. 
    • The reason behind India not signing it was that the government thought it would involve significant changes in agricultural policies and farming practices.

Challenges in Environmental Sustainability

  • Rising human population's demand for food contributes to biodiversity loss.
    • It took homo sapiens more than 2,00,000 years to become one billion in 1804. But the next billion was added in just 123 years by 1927. 
    • And now, within less than 100 years, humanity has multiplied from two billion to more than eight billion.
  • As Norman Borlaug, the father of the Green Revolution, once said, this planet can four billion people at the most on its own. 
    • If science had not come to rescue the situation, many would have starved to death.
    • Green Revolution increased food production but led to environmental consequences.
  • In fact, as per FAO, 30 per cent of the food produced never reaches our stomachs due to high food losses in the journey from harvest to retail and high waste at the consumer end.
    • To ensure that people do not die of hunger, each country has to devise its own policies.
    •  India has the largest food subsidy programme in the world, the PM-Garib Kalyan Yojana, under which 813 million people get free rice/wheat.

Policy Challenges

  •  The policy of heavily subsidising the use of chemical fertilisers, especially urea, has led to skewed use of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P) and potash (K).
  • The soils have been damaged and are starving for organic carbon.
    •  The optimal level of soil organic carbon (SOC) as per the World Food Laureate, Rattan Lal, should be between 1.5 to 2 per cent. 
    • The reality of Indian soils, however, is that more than 60 per cent have SOC of less than 0.5 per cent. 
    • Our soils are literally in the ICU, but our policymakers appear to be blind to it.

Suggestions to reform policies 

  • A simple directional change from heavily subsidising the pricing of N, P and K to direct income transfer to farmers and then letting the prices of N, P and K be decided by the market forces can change a lot. 
  • But this needs advance preparations in terms of land records of farmers, the crops they are growing, irrigation, etc.

Groundwater depletion 

  • In Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, the situation is particularly serious, largely because free power for irrigation, minimum support prices and open-ended procurement of paddy (rice) have encouraged rampant groundwater exploitation. 
  • All this has led to an ecological disaster in this belt with the water table receding year by year, and paddy fields emitting carbon at the rate of almost 5 tons/ha.

Reduced Crop Diversity

  • Focus on rice cultivation in Punjab displaces other crops, reducing crop diversity.
    • For example, in 1960 in Punjab, only 4.8 per cent of the cropped area was under rice. Today, it is more than 40 per cent, displacing maize, millets, pulses and many oilseeds. Successful high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat also lead to loss of varietal diversity.

Urgent need for policies balancing agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability. Climate change and extreme weather events require resilient food systems and environmental conservation efforts. Call to action to prioritize planet-positive policies to safeguard future generations.

Tughlaq-era Dam structure - Satpula

Context: Satpula is located east of the Khirki Masjid, that is integral to the compound wall of the medieval fourth city of the Jahanpanah in Delhi.

About Satpula: 

image 85
  • Built in 1340 by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) of the Tughlaq dynasty, the dam served two purposes:
    • Providing a reliable source of water for irrigation, and acting as a defence against possible intruders (such as Mongol invasions). 
    • Served as a boundary wall for Jahapanah, the fourth city of Delhi.
  • The dam got its name from the seven arches through which water used to flow from a canal originating from the Aravalli. 
  • During British rule, the stream over which the dam was built was diverted, which reduced the water body to a mere drain flowing on one side.
  • Spiritual significance: 
    • Sufi saint Nasiruddin Mahmud (popularly known as Chirag Dehlavi/Chirag-e-Dilli) used to live nearby.
    • People used to believe that the canal water had healing properties.
    • For centuries, the area used to host a Diwali mela.
  • Why was the dam built?
    • During the rule of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, the economic conditions of the Delhi Sultanate was in distress: 
      • Due to very high expenses incurred on the war campaign in Deccan.
      • Also, due to the Sultan establishing his southern capital at Daulatabad (in 1329). 
      • Between 1334 and 1344, repeated droughts caused famines, adding to the suffering of the people.
    • Urgent solutions had to be found. 
      • One of the viable options planned was of building the Satpula, the seven arches bridge or gate-controlled dam, to tap the water resources of the local  stream feeding the Yamuna River.
      • This brought large areas of land under controlled irrigated agriculture to grow food crops. 
  • Structure:
    • Built using quartz (stone found in the Aravalli).
    • It has been constructed in stone masonry.
    • The eleven bays consist of eleven water tunnels and these are located at different levels, with seven main bays at the lowest level.
    • When built, wooden vertical gates made of heavy boards were operated by a rope and pulley arrangement to control flow of water. 
  • It connected four principal cities: the Qila Rai Pithora, Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Jahanpanah. 
image 86

About Khirki Masjid: 

  • Built by Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, the prime minister of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388). 
  • It is constructed in Jahanpanah city. 
  • There are no specific inscriptions on the Mosque on its construction date. The name of the builder is inscribed on the eastern gate of the Mosque as 'Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah'. 
  • Structure: 
    • There are four open courtyards encircled by arcades.
    • The main gate, leading to the qibla on the western wall, has a projecting mihrab.
      • Qibla wall is the wall in a mosque that faces Mecca.
      • Mihrab is a niche in the qibla wall indicating the direction of Mecca
    • Arch windows with perforated screens or jalis  known as ‘Khirkis’, are seen on the second floor.
    • The mosque's walls are of rubble masonry construction with plastered surface on the outside. 
image 87

Seven Cities of Delhi: 

  • Indraprastha:
    • As per the mythology, the city of Indraprastha, which is believed to be around the Purana Qila area, was founded by the Pandavas from the epic Mahabharata.
    • Mentioned in ancient texts like the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
    • Buddhist texts mention Indraprastha as Indapatta. 
  • Qila Rai Pithora:
    • Anangpal Tomar founded Delhi of Lal Kot in 1052.
    • Chauhan kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.
  • Siri:
    • It was built by Alauddin Khilji and expanded by subsequent rulers.
    • He constructed Siri between 1297 and 1307 to defend India and Delhi against Mongol raids.
    • Structures inside the Siri fort: Hauz Khas reservoir; Hazar Sultan palace.
    • Subsequent rulers expanded the city with other urban centres like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, and Firozabad.
  • Tughlaqabad:
    • Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the fortified city of Tughlaqabad in the 14th century.
    • Walled city included seven rainwater tanks.
  • Jahanpanah:   
    • The fourth city of Delhi established in 1326–1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.  
    • To address the constant threat of the Mongols, the Sultan, built the fortified city of Jahanpanah, which subsumed the Adilabad fort and also all the establishments lying between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri Fort.
    • Partially surviving structures: Bijay Mandal, Begumpur Mosque, Serai Shaji Mahal, Lal Gumbad, Baradari.
    • The accounts of Ibn Battuta’s mention that, Lal Kot (Qutb complex) was then the urban area and Siri was the military cantonment.
  • Firozabad:
    • Built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, near the Yamuna River. 
    • Included Firoz Shah Kotla.
  • Sher-garh or Purana Qila:
    • Humayun built the city of Dinpanah. 
    • But he was ousted by the Suri Dynasty in the Battle of Chausa and the Battle of Kannauj.
    • Sher Shah Suri demolished it and renamed it Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shahi.
    • It is known as Purana Qila now.
  • Shahjahanabad:
    • Shahjahanabad was founded by Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century.
    • Famous monuments: Red Fort and the Jama Masjid.

For more information, follow the links: 

Tughlaqabad Fort
Tughlaq Dynasty

IMF, World Bank debt revamp process needs a relook

Context: The recent Global Sovereign Debt Roundtable (GSDR) meeting held on the sidelines of the IMF and World Bank Meetings offered solutions for low-and middle-income countries (LMICs), burdened by mounting debt. The world is facing a global debt challenge that reached a staggering $235 trillion in 2022, with low-income developing countries particularly vulnerable.

Challenges in dealing with debt vulnerabilities: 

  • IMF and World Bank acknowledged significant progress in tackling global debt vulnerabilities.
  • Key challenge: debt restructuring processes and ensuring fair treatment across creditors.
  • United Nation Conference on Trade and Development Least Developed Countries Report 2023: 
    • Total external debt of Least Developed Countries hit a record $570 billion in 2022-more than four times higher than in 2006.
    • These countries are spending five times more on debt servicing than a decade ago.
    • Number of sovereign debt defaults in these countries have increased in recent years. 
    • Low-Income Countries: 60 per cent are currently in debt distress or having defaulted on their obligations.
  • Unsustainable debt situation creates a vicious cycle.
    • LMICs rely on borrowing to finance crucial infrastructure projects and social programmes.
    • Excessive debt can become a major drag on economic growth.
    • High debt servicing costs divert resources away from productive investments, hindering long-term development prospects.
    • Conditions of loans:
      • The IMF and World Bank through tools like Debt Sustainability Frameworks (DSFs), assess a country’s ability to repay its loans and offer financial assistance and policy advice for reforms that promote economic growth.
      • However, a study of 81 developing countries from 1986 to 2016 shows that IMF loan arrangements containing structural reforms led to rise in unemployment, lower government revenue, increased costs of basic services, and decreased investment in social security programmes. 
      • Also, groups like Paris Club, only negotiate debt restructurings with debtor countries that have demonstrated a track record of implementing reforms under an IMF program.
      • This means country must have a current program supported by an appropriate arrangement with the IMF, example: Extended Fund Facility, Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility. 
  • Lengthy time frame associated with debt restructuring processes:
    • Delayed resolutions create uncertainty for debtor countries increasing  economic hardship. 
      • Example: Delay in finalising the IMF programme and debt restructuring package for Ethiopia under the G20 Common Framework for debt treatments.
      • Stakeholders have specifically sought clarification over the efficacy of the IMF’s Ethiopia package and the reasons for its delay.
      • Hence, transparency will benefit Ethiopia and also strengthen confidence in the IMF's role as a facilitator of debt resolution.
  • Another issue pertains to the absence of adequate representation, influence, and voice for developing countries in the decision-making processes of MDBs.

Way forward:

  • Need to set target of programme approval within 2-3 months for future debt restructuring cases, also included under the G20 Common Framework for debt treatments.
  • Streamlining communication and information sharing between debtor countries, official bilateral creditors (government-to-government loans), and private creditors.
  • Ensuring comparability of treatment (CoT) between different creditor groups, which means that all creditors holding similar claims should receive comparable treatment in terms of debt relief.
  • Enhanced information exchange and coordination between official bilateral creditors and private creditors will allow debtor countries to negotiate with full knowledge of CoT. This will facilitate a more efficient and equitable resolution.
  • The IMF and World Bank should prioritize programs identified by national governments with a sectoral focus and long-term transformation plans. This approach aligns more closely with the developmental priorities of individual nations and encourages the co-creation of multi-year programs.
  • Countries are encouraged to create bankable projects that can compete for finance on the country platforms. Technical support can help in developing asset specifics, measurement, disclosure, and appropriate incentives. Transparency and competition are key factors in reducing the impact of geopolitics in project decisions.
  • Global South representation to ensure that the voices and perspectives of the Global South, including countries such as India, are not only heard but also advocated for in decision-making processes. This ensures a more inclusive and equitable approach to their operations.

The IMF and World Bank must continue to play a proactive role in facilitating communication, promoting transparency, and advocating for faster and fairer debt restructuring processes.

Andaman and Nicobar, through a strategic lens

Context: The transformation of India's Look East policy into a robust Act East policy and the critical importance of ocean power, have brought a degree of seriousness to the imperative of developing Indian island territories in general, and the Andaman and Nicobar group in particular.

Strategic importance of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: 

image 53
  • Located: 700 nautical miles southeast of the Indian mainland.
  • The Malacca Strait, connecting the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, is situated nearby. 
  • Sabang in Indonesia is 90 nautical miles southeast of Indira Point (on Great-Nicobar Island), and Coco Island (Myanmar) is barely 18 nautical miles from the northernmost tip of the Andamans.
    • Myanmar has leased Coco Islands to China for the purpose of setting up a listening post.
  • Share four of India's international maritime zone delimitations with Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and Bangladesh.
  • Give India substantial ocean space under the United Nations Conference on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) in terms of exclusive economic zone and continental shelf.
  • These islands dominate the Bay of Bengal and the Six Degree and Ten Degree channels which more than 60,000 commercial vessels traverse each year.
  • Other countries, notably China, have expanded their presence in the region.
    • Naval vessels camouflaged as fishing boats have been sighted.
  • Serious challenge: Build-up of Chinese maritime forces at the eastern choke points of the Indo-Pacific.
    • Malacca (between Sumatra and the Malay peninsula),
    • Sunda (between Java and Sumatra),
    • Lombok (between Bali and Lombok),
    • Ombai- Wetar (off East Timor) straits.
  • Against such challenges, A&N Islands should be the first line of offence against any attempt from the East to undermine India's maritime security.

Development of strategic infrastructure in A&N has been slow: 

  • Distance from the mainland have been used as an excuse to delay and stall various projects.
  • Complex procedures for obtaining environmental clearances even for small projects have been a dampener.
  • Regulations on the conservation of forests and native tribes have complicated issues of land acquisition.
  • Coordination challenges: Development of islands and strategic infrastructure is a multi-dimensional project involving several ministries, departments, and agencies. 

Strategic infrastructures that are needed: 

  • Surveillance is required in a vast area around the islands. 
  • Strong element of deterrence must be ensured against any naval misadventure from the East.
  • Infrastructure that can bolster India's maritime economy must be built on the southern group of islands that is strategically located vis-v-vis the main shipping lane from the Indian Ocean to South East Asia.
  • Ease of travel to and between the islands, for rapid movement of people and goods, to increase the pace of development.
  • Improved transportation to create and sustain the tourism potential of the islands.
  • Islands' dependence on mainland support (foodstuffs) or dependence of local industries must be reduced to the extent possible.

The infrastructure that should be prioritised: 

  • The sea area of the islands needs to be monitored and patrolled by aircraft and surface platforms. Example: Separate airfields that can operate aircraft are essential.
  • Ports and fuel storages must be built in both the northern and southern groups of the islands for ships' operational turnaround.
  • The Army, Navy, and Air Force must not only commit more forces, but station the right mix of assets.
  • Work on the Galathea Bay (Great Nicobar Island) transhipment port must be expedited. 
  • Maritime services such as repair and logistics must be developed for international and Indian shipping.
  • Need for developed road networks, high-speed inter-island ferry services, and a seaplane terminal must be developed.
  • Forest and environmental clearances must be accorded with minimum red tape.
  • Concessions for defence infrastructure allowed along India's northern borders must be extended to the A&N Islands.
  • Planned habitation of uninhabited islands should be considered by providing incentives such as free or subsidised land, where eco-friendly entrepreneurial efforts could be encouraged.
  • Leverage international arrangements in the Indo-Pacific such as the Quad and the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) to catalyse development efforts. 

Caste and Urbanisation

Context: While transition to city life might have weakened some structures of caste oppression, they have morphed through language, state sanction and policy, and have evolved to allow caste to thrive in Indian cities.

About Caste and Urbanization

image 45

Views on village life: 

  • Mahatma Gandhi saw the Indian village as a self-reliant, equitable and just non-violent order, and argued for the decentralisation of power to the villages through Gram Swaraj.
  • B.R. Ambedkar rejected village life and encouraged Dalits to move to the city. 
    • Ambedkar said that an Indian village is “the working plant of the Hindu social order” and argued that it is the ideal place to understand caste. 
    • Ambedkar believed that the idealisation of Indian village life emerged either from the colonial romanticisation of the rural population or from the desire of Hindus to retain caste domination.
    • In the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar opposed the idea that villages should be recognised as autonomous administrative units and felt relieved that the Assembly rejected the idea.

Views on Urbanisation 

  • Ambedkar: In the process of urbanisation, Ambedkar saw an opportunity for Dalit liberation. He believed that the systems of caste oppression that thrive in Indian villages become weaker in cities. These included segregation of Dalits into ghettos, restrictions on economic activities, and denial of land ownership. 
  • Jyotirao Phule: He had also admired city life for being liberal and enabling him to earn a living. Cities offer an opportunity to become a stranger among a sea of strangers and transition from a caste-based order to a class-based order. One defined not by genealogy but by accumulation of resources or capital. 

Caste discrimination in urban India: 

  • Language of purity-pollution: Caste translates into a city’s spatiality through the language of ‘purity-pollution’. A consumer survey in 2021 revealed that eating non-vegetarian food is the biggest deal-breaker in finding rental housing in India. 
    • Gopal Guru (Indian political scientist) says that the ghetto is not merely a space but also forms the constitution of the body of the ghetto dweller. The language of purity-pollution that identifies the savarna space as ‘pure’ and one that can be polluted by the Dalit body, extends to the logic of the city. 
    • Example: The language of caste has been imposed on public spaces of the city by various governments. In March 2017, the Uttar Pradesh government, issued regulations for meat shops that included, for example, a ban on selling meat near religious places and black paint or curtains in the facade of the shop to hide the sight of meat from pedestrians. In 2021, several municipal corporations in Gujarat banned the sale of meat-based street food on the city’s main roads citing “religious sentiments”. 
  • Ghettoisation of caste: Urban governance policies and housing crises have also sustained caste-based segregation.
    • A large-scale study found that public services and access to municipal infrastructure such as clean drinking water are the worst in Dalit and Muslim ghettos. 
    • Research in sacrifice zones regions marked for severe environmental pollution such as landfills shows that such areas are overwhelmingly inhabited by Dalits and Muslims. 
    • A recent report by the Housing and Land Rights Network on forced evictions in India also shows that Dalits and Muslims are the most impacted by slum demolition drives.
  • Apartmentisation: In some cities, caste discrimination still affects how people live. For example, in residential areas, Dalits often have separate access to facilities like elevators and toilets. Domestic workers who live with their employers usually have small rooms and bathrooms, or just a bed in a corner. Sometimes, they even have their own separate entrances.
  • Employment opportunities: OBCs and SCs end up working in the informal sector due to a combination of limited job options and societal pressures linked to caste. E.g. Some occupations are linked to caste such as manual scavenging.
  • Economic discrimination and school choice: Lower castes often face economic hardship, making private schools with higher fees out of reach. This limits their access to potentially better educational resources.
    • Students from backward castes might be ostracized by classmates or teachers due to their caste background. e.g. Dalit students shunned during midday meals in Gujarat’s Morbi district.
  • Caste based matrimonial: In urban areas, caste-based matrimonial practices such as Rajput matrimony, Baniya Matrimony contribute significantly to sustaining caste discrimination, despite the modern and cosmopolitan facade of cities. Such matrimonial preferences reinforce caste identities and boundaries, limiting social interaction and integration across different caste groups. This perpetuation of caste lines through marriage not only entrenches social and economic inequalities but also normalizes the preference for intra-caste relationships, thereby obstructing efforts towards social cohesion.

Way forward to deal with caste discrimination: 

  • Economic empowerment: Provide more economic opportunities, fair employment practices and skill development programs to uplift marginalized caste communities in urban areas.
  • Housing policies: Develop housing policies that promote mixed-caste neighbourhoods and discourage segregation based on caste.
  • Social inclusion initiatives: Support community-led initiatives that foster social cohesion and inclusion, including inter-caste dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and community-building activities.
  • Promote inter-caste interactions: Platforms can encourage users to connect with potential partners from different castes.
  • Tenant support services: Establish tenant support services to assist those facing caste discrimination in finding housing and enforcing their rights.

Tiger Triumph Joint defence exercise

Context: India and the United States have conducted a bilateral tri-service humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) exercise on Kakinada Beach, Andhra Pradesh, as part of ‘Tiger Triumph-24’.

About Tiger Triumph Exercise: 

image 41
  • Aim: enhancing readiness during natural disasters and cooperation between the two forces.
  • Part of the ongoing partnership between India and the United States.
  • It improved interoperability for conducting Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations and refined Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to enable rapid and smooth coordination. 
  • INS Jalashwa of the Indian Navy and the USS Somerset of the US Navy along with other vessels including the USS Halsey, the INS Airavat and the INS Kesari participated. 

For more information: INDO- US RELATIONS

image 43

Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) activities undertaken by India: 

  • India launched Operation Karuna in 2023 to assist cyclone-hit Myanmar, where Indian naval ships carried emergency relief materials to Yangon.
  • India became one of the first countries to assist the Turkish government in humanitarian efforts through Operation Dost following the deadly earthquakes in the country. 
  • New Delhi offered a helping hand to Pakistan in wake of its devastating floods in 2022 and during the COVID-19 pandemic India was one of the first to deploy capacities across the West Asian region. 
  • India through its Operation Insaniyat in 2017, sent aid to Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. 
  • These operations remind the world that humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) is a key element of Indian foreign policy.
image 42

History of HADR: 

  • HADR came in focus of foreign policy in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004, when the Indian Navy provided holistic intervention in the form of reconnaissance, rescue and relief operations of survivors in Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia.
  • This initiative enabled India to project its soft power and it had the prerequisite resources and manpower to manage the crisis.
  • To navigate through the crisis, India employed indigenous resources in the form of Indian naval ships, aircraft, and helicopters and the Indian Navy became the first international navy to commence rescue operations within 12 hours of the tsunami.
  • India was eventually invited to be a part of the Tsunami Core Group, put together by the United States to provide relief and assistance.
  • India provided humanitarian assistance during natural calamities (Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka) and security conflicts (Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka) over the last decade, thus, cementing its position as a first responder in crisis.

Securitization of HADR: 

  • While Indian HADR efforts are usually non-intrusive, China has offered humanitarian assistance on an ad hoc basis to increase its influence. 
  • China has often disregarded abiding by the principles of military participation in HADR, such as multilateral coordination with other foreign militaries and other civilian organizations.
  • China has used HADR to increase its influence in South Asia as well. Chinese humanitarian intervention during the Nepal earthquakes in 2015 was a matter of concern for India.
    • China potentially compromised Nepali sovereignty.
    • In order to appease China, Nepal not only refused aid from Taiwan but also asked the Indian Army rescue team not to fly near China’s airspace.
  • HADR operations have also led China to increase its interregional port calls.
    • China’s military pact with the Solomon Islands.
    • The security agreement includes HADR as one of the main areas of security cooperation.

Indian response:

  • India is worried about a growing Chinese presence in South Asia and the Indo-Pacific and India views two regions as its natural backyard and believes in the ideal of a ‘free and open Indo-Pacific.’ 
    • China may potentially use HADR to subvert Indian influence in South Asia and the IOR.
  • India’s flagship maritime policy of Security and Growth for All’ (SAGAR), 2015: 
    • India has constituted the Annual Joint HADR Exercise (AJHE)-Operation Chakravat, to demonstrate India’s capabilities in disaster risk mitigation, and disaster risk response within the IOR.
  • India has instituted Operation Tiger Triumph exercise with the United States to foster tri-services engagement while having the ability to conduct amphibious HADR operations in the advent of a natural calamity.
  • Multilateral exercises with various multilateral organisations: HADR exercise PANEX 21 for BIMSTEC 2021; SMANVAY 22 for ASEAN members in 2022.
  • Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD): 
    • Quad has deliberated on providing coordinated responses to climate disasters while expanding its capacity, capability, and interoperability within the Indo-Pacific.
    • Quad sherpas organized the first Quad HADR in New Delhi in December 2022.

Way Forward

  • India should invest in suitable platforms to enhance its HADR missions through the acquisition of utility helicopters, Landing Platform Helicopters (LPHs), and Landing Platform Docks (LPDs) to ensure faster deployments.
  • India and China must engage in confidence building measures (CBMs):
    • These measures are important, so that overt securitization of HADR does not contribute to the creation of new security dilemmas in the IOR.
    • Benign actions of one nation should not be deemed as a threat by another.
  • Specific initiatives could include a greater focus on: 
    • Quadrilateral dialogue with the United States, Australia and Japan with more focus on HADR exercises and capacity-building;
    • bilateral dialogues and exercises with Indonesia, other ASEAN members, France and the European Union on disaster management and relief.
    • Capacity-building for Indian Ocean-island and littoral states.

Conclusion

HADR being a relatively non-controversial point of agenda can act as a tool for strengthening India’s ties with its neighbours, along with reviving regional cooperation, whether through SAARC, BIMSTEC or other forums.

History of Sulthan Bathery

Context: Sulthan Bathery in Wayanad, Kerala, is home to a temple that was partly destroyed by Tipu Sultan and used as a store for arms in the 1700s. There have been political debates going on regarding the question of changing its name to Ganapathyvattam.

About Ganapathyvattam temple: 

image 28
  • Sulthan Bathery has a Jain stone temple that was once known as Ganapathyvattam.
    • Built in the Vijayanagara architectural style was constructed by Jains who migrated to Wayanad from areas in present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century.
    • The temple was partly destroyed during the invasions of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore in the second half of the 18th century.
    • The temple is part of the Jain circuit of Kerala. 
    • Presently, it is under Archaeological Survey of India as a monument of national importance.

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  • The erstwhile Hindu temple: 
    • During the time of Kulashekara (an Indian dynasty ruling over parts of Kerala from 9th to 12th century), the Ganapathyvattam temple was situated here.
    • There are beliefs that the kings of Purakizha completed the construction of the temple.
    • Later, the temple came under the rulers of Kottayam. 
    • Tipu destroyed the Temple and used the stones for building a Fort.
    • The remains or site of this fort does not exist now. 
    • Chief deity: Ganapathi (Lord Ganesh)
    • Other deities: Baghavathi, Ayyappan, Nagaraja and Shiva.

History of Sultan Bathery: 

  • 930 AD: ruler Erayappa of the Ganga dynasty led his troops to the south-west of Mysore and, after conquering it, called it Bayalnad, meaning the land of swamps.
  • 12th century AD: The Ganga dynasty was dethroned by the Kadamba dynasty of North Canara.
  • 1104 AD: Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala invaded Bayalnad followed by the Vijayanagara dynasty in the 16th century.
  • 1610 AD: Udaiyar Raja Wadiyar of Mysore drove out Vijayanagara and became the ruler of Bayalnad. 
  • Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan: 
    • Between 1750 and 1790, northern Kerala was invaded several times by the rulers of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu.
    • The armies of Tipu destroyed temples and churches. 
    • Tipu Sultan used the Maha Ganapathy temple in Sulthan Bathery as a battery or store for weapons for his army in the Malabar region.
    • This led to the British recording Ganapathyvattam as Tipu Sultan’s Battery, and the name survived as Sulthan Bathery.
  • Under British rule:
    • East India Company (EIC) seized Wayanad from Pazhassi Raja.
    • EIC administered the district until it was superseded by the British Raj in 1858.

About Mysore Kingdom: 

  • Independent state created as a result of the Mughal Empire’s fall.
  • Wadiyars were in charge of this region. 
  • Became a never-ending battleground as a result of several powers’ interest in this land.
  • Haider Ali gained control over the state.

Haider Ali: 

  • Nanjaraj (the sarvadhikari) and Devaraj Dulwai), reduced Krishnaraja Wadiyar to the status of a puppet.
  • Under the leadership of the ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj, Haidar Ali began his career in the Mysore army.
  • Introduced Western training techniques for his army.
  • Enlisted assistance from the French to establish a weapons factory in Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu).
  • Involved in the First and Second Carnatic Wars in South India. 
  • Mysore sided with the French in the Carnatic Wars.
  • Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English formed an alliance against Haider Ali, the king of Mysore, in the first Anglo-Mysore war (1767–69). English had to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769.
  • Treaty of Mangalore, signed in 1784: ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784).
  • Tipu Sultan succeeded his father Haider Ali after his death.

About Tipu Sultan: 

  • Last Muslim ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. 
  • Navy:
    • Defeat in the Third Anglo-Mysore War convinced Tipu to take measures to build a navy.
    • Issued a Hukmnanah (ordinance) in 1796 for a strong naval force.
    • The Navy was put under command of 11 Mir Yam (Lords of Admiralty), with headquarters at Seringapatam.
    • Naval divisions or Kachehris at Jamalabad (Mangalore), Wajidabad and Majidabad.
  • Ammunitions: munitions industry in Nagar, which were regarded as equal in quality to those produced in Europe.
  • Rocket technology: Pioneer of rocket technology; expanded iron cased Mysorean rockets; commissioned a military manual Fathul Mujahidin. 
  • Economy:
    • Attempted to revive commerce and forged commercial linkages with other parts of India and West Asia
    • Built a public sector company with state finance. 
    • He introduced sericulture. 
    • Member of the Jacobin club; planted a liberty tree at Seringapatam.
  • Agriculture and Revenue Settlement:
    • Modified land revenue management.
    • Laid down rules for distribution of arable land among old and new ryots;
    • Preference given to hereditary ownership of land and rent was fixed.
    • These became the basis for the Ryotwari Settlement introduced by the East India Company in South India.
    • Captain Alexander Read first introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Baramahal district surrendered by Tipu after his defeat in 1792.
  • Calendar: Introduced a new calendar in 1784; known as Mauludi Era and had 354 days; first year from the year of birth of Prophet Muhammad.
  • Administrative innovations: a new coinage system.
  • Deployed rockets during Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Seringapatam.
  • Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92): Defeated by EIC and the Treaty Seringapatam was concluded. Under the treaty, Tipu lost half of Mysore’s territory.
  • Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799): conclusive; led to the fall of Seringapatam. English chose a Hindu boy from the earlier ruling royal family i.e., Wadiyars, as the Maharaja and imposed subsidiary alliance on him.

Rakhigarhi findings in NCERT Books

Context: Among the latest set of revisions that the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed in school textbooks are additions about findings from the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at the archaeological site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana.

More information from the news:

  • NCERT has stated that study of ancient DNA from archaeological sources in Rakhigarhi, Haryana suggests that the genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE.
  • The DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of the south Asian population appears to be their descendants.
  • Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
  • The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large-scale immigration of the so-called Aryans.
  • The research indicated that the people coming from the bordering areas and distant regions were absorbed in the Indian society.
  • At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or broken.
  • As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread in those regions.
  • The finding suggests that the reconstructed facial features of the Harappans, male and female, show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana. This implies unbroken continuity for 5000 years in this region.
image 15

About Rakhigarhi

  • It is one of the five biggest townships of Harappan Civilization, located in Rakhigarhi, Hisar in Haryana. According to archaeologists, it is the largest site in terms of area in the Indus Valley Civilisation Sites.
  • Five interconnected mounds spread in a huge area to form the Rakhigarhi’s unique site.
  • This site was excavated by Amarendra Nath of the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Rakhigarhi presents existence of civilisation from the early phase, mature phase and late phase of Indus Valley Civilisation.
  • The site has both mudbrick as well as burnt-brick houses with a proper drainage system.
  • The ceramic industry was represented by red ware, which included dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jar, goblet and ‘handis’ (pans).
  • Other antiquities included blades; terracotta and shell bangles; beads of semi precious stones, terracotta, shell and copper objects; animal figurines, toy cart frame and wheel of terracotta; bone points; inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
  • Necropolis: The excavations have yielded a few extended burials, which certainly belong to a very late stage, may be the medieval times. A rare grave having double burial of a male and female has been found here.
  • Ritual system: Animal sacrificial pit lined with mud brick and triangular and circular fire altars on the mud floor have also been excavated pointing to the ritual system of Harappans.
  • A cylindrical seal with 5 Harappan characters on one side and a symbol of an alligator on the other side is an important find from this site.
  • A site has been found which is believed to be a jewellery making unit.

Harappan Civilisation:

  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history.
  • It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.

Societal Features:

  • The society of the IVC displayed distinct urban characteristics, organized into three primary segments:
    • an affluent elite residing in the fortified citadel region. 
    • a prosperous middle class consisting of merchants.
    • a less privileged segment comprising laborers dwelling in the lower areas of the cities.
  • This societal structure was underpinned by a complex division of labor, leading to a diversified and stratified community comprising scholars, artisans, traders, warriors. 
  • Evidence from archaeological findings suggests that the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant reverence for the feminine aspect of divinity, indicative of a matriarchal influence. 
  • Abundance of terracotta female figurines discovered across various sites, symbolizing the respect of the Great Mother Goddess.
  • Garments within the IVC were crafted from diverse materials such as cotton, silk, and wool.
  • Furthermore, the presence of woven cloth at the Great bath in Mohenjodaro suggests a sophisticated understanding of spinning and weaving among the inhabitants.
  • The Civilization IVC relied predominantly on copper and bronze, with no knowledge of iron usage at the time.
    • Copper was primarily sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin likely originated from Afghanistan.
  • Harappans possessed minimal armaments and weaponry. Instead, their focus lay on technological and cultural pursuits.
  • The presence of massive brick structures across various sites indicates a specialized class of masons and underscores the significance of brick-laying as a vital craft in civilization.
  • People engaged in a diverse area of crafts, including boat-making, bead-making, and seal-making.
    • Excavations at sites such as Chanhudaro and Lothal have revealed workshops dedicated to bead-making.
  • Seals, primarily crafted from steatite, were a prominent feature of IVC culture.
    • While many seals were fashioned from steatite, others were crafted from materials such as gold, ivory, chert, and agate.
    • Played a crucial role in trade activities, serving as markers of authenticity and authority in commercial transactions.

Polity: 

  • Conclusive evidence is lacking.
  • Some scholars suggest that the absence of clear evidence implies a society where all individuals enjoyed equal status, without centralized rulership.
  • Conversely, another perspective explains the presence of multiple rulers, each representing different urban centres, rather than a single overarching authority.
  • However, the remarkable uniformity in tools, weapons, brickwork, seals, and urban architecture hints at the potential existence of a centralized political authority.
    • The planning evident in street layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and citadels suggests the presence of a robust central government overseeing urban planning and administration.
    • This authority might have been wielded by a class of merchants, which is supported by the notable absence of temples in Indus Valley Civilization sites. 
  • However, it's essential to acknowledge that without any conclusive evidence, the precise nature of political organization in the Indus Valley Civilization is open to interpretation.

Economy: 

  • Agriculture thrived in the IVC due to favourable climatic conditions and fertile land.
    • Cultivated: rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melons, peas, lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, and jowar.
    • Rainfed agriculture predominated, relying on seasonal rains for irrigation.
    • Agricultural artifacts: wooden plough in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), the granary in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan), and evidence of barley cultivation in Banawali (Rajasthan) underscore the significance of agriculture in the civilization.
    • The Indus people were pioneers in cotton cultivation and employed bulls and oxen for ploughing.
  • The Harappans engaged in extensive trade involving stone, metals, and shells, both within and beyond their region.
    • Trade routes facilitated both inter-regional and intra-regional commerce.
    • Unlike metal currency, trade relied on a barter system.
    • The IVC maintained maritime trade routes along the Arabian Sea coast, with a trading outpost established in northern Afghanistan, facilitating trade with Central Asia.
    • Economic ties were also established with regions such as Tigris and Euphrates, Mesopotamia, and Persia, as evidenced by Mesopotamian records mentioning trade relations with 'Meluha' (the ancient name for the Indus region) and trading ports like 'Dilmun' and 'Makan'.
    • Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls, and ebony from Meluha and exported garments, perfumes, leather goods, and silver to the IVC.

Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley:

Context: The Rock art sites of the Chambal Valley have been included in the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites. 

About Chambal Site:

image 6

(Battle scene, on a rock painting from Chambal Valley)

  • Chambal Basin and Central India region contain the largest concentration of known rock art sites in the world.
  • Rock art sites have thrived in the hilly areas: Vindhyan, Satpura, and Kaimur ranges.
  • These rock art sites are from: Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Megalithic, and Proto Historic periods. 
  • Currently, only Chaturbhujnath Nala is partially protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
  • Chambal River:
    • Known as Charmavati in ancient times, it originates from the Malwa trap zone.
    • Covers: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
  • Earliest traces of human habitation in the region are Acheulean tools, including cleavers, hand axes, scrapers, cores, have been found here.
  • Chambal basin rock art includes: Cupules, with the oldest ones found at Darki, Madhya Pradesh. 

Note: 

  • Rock cupules are artificially made depressions on rock surfaces that resemble the shape of an inverse spherical cap or dome. 
  • They were made by direct percussion with hand-held hammer-stones, on vertical, sloping or horizontal rock surfaces.
  • Petroglyphs (cupules) discovered at Chattaneshwar and Kanyadeh (Rajasthan). 
  • Bhanpura (Madhya Pradesh) area also boasts a significant collection of petroglyphs.
  • Engraved ostrich egg shells found at Chandrasel in Kota district (Rajasthan) date back approximately 40,000 years B.P.
  • Rock art themes during the Mesolithic period:
    • Scenes from the lives of simple hunting and gathering societies. 
    • Painted animals in this period were adorned with abstract designs like triangles.
    • Bichrome paintings (in two colours) were a notable feature of Mesolithic rock art.
  • Chalcolithic period: 
    • Pastoralism and cattle herding became prominent themes
    • Economic importance of Humped cattle: It is appearing in about ninety percent of the rock art depictions.
    • Cattle were also depicted in other art forms like terracotta bull figures, seals, and sealings.
    • Red and its variants were the most commonly used pigments.
  • Chalcolithic sites in Chambal basin: 
    • Ahar (Rajasthan), Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh) and Malwa (Malwa region of Central India and parts of Maharashtra in the Deccan Peninsula.
    • Ahar culture, dating around 3600-1500 B.C.E., is believed to be the first to settle in the Basin and establish settlements.
    • Ahar culture sites: Balathal, Gilund, and Ojiyana (Rajasthan). 
  • Not much information about the rock paintings from the Megalithic phase have been found: 
    • However, a few dolmens with cup marks have been discovered. 
    • Also, cup marks were found on the capstones of dolmens and on boulders within stone circles from the Kotra Vihar (Madhya Pradesh). 
  • Early Historical period: 
    • Rock art is typically found in isolated locations near perennial water sources.
    • These locations also contain remnants of ancient temples or mounds from this historical era.
    • Many of these sites have temples dedicated to deities like Shiva or mother goddesses.
    • Significant social, political, and economic change: 
      • Establishment of states, organized religions, and the use of written scripts, all of which are reflected in the rock art of this era.
      • Rock art from this period is work of warriors, war refugees, elite hunters, or local tribal communities who sought refuge or temporary shelter in these rock shelters during wars or hunting expeditions.
    • Symbols and designs with religious significance in rock art: fire altars, kalashas, swastikas, triratna, and alpana patterns.
    • Art reflects themes and designs from local traditions, including rangoli patterns and depictions of human forms.
    • Rock art includes representations of Hindu deities like Ganesha, Rama.  
    • Religious Sites in the Chambal Basin: Bhimlat Mahadev, Chatturbhuj Nath Nala, Garadia Mahadev, Bukki Mata, Chattaneshwar, Kanyadeh, Narsinghgarh, Kotra Vihar Jogania Mata, and Gepadnath. 

Mesolithic Culture: 

  • Mesolithic sites are found in most parts of India.
  • Sites: Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka).
  • Rock shelter sites: Lekhakia and Baghai Khor in Uttar Pradesh; Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. 
  • Rock paintings: Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Raisin and Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh and South Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh are some of the sites. 
  • Coastal sites: Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. 
  • In India, Mesolithic cultures appeared around 10,000 BCE.
  • In certain parts of India including Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it continued up to 1000 BCE, till the beginning of the Iron Age. 
  • Hunting wild animals and gathering plant food and fishing were people’s main occupation during this age. 
  • Agriculture was not practised in the early stages. At the end of the Mesolithic period, humans domesticated animals and paved the way for the Neolithic way of life.
  • They made temporary huts and also used caves and rock shelters.
    • Many caves and shelters feature paintings.
    • Circular huts are seen in rock paintings.
    • Traces of oval and circular huts and possible wattle daub are found in Chopani Mando and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh and Bagor and Tilwara in Rajasthan.
  • Mesolithic people buried the dead.
    • Suggests their beliefs and humane relationships.
    • Human skeletons have been found in Mahadaha, Damdama and Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh.
    • One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave good.

Chalcolithic Culture: 

  • The Pre Harappan cultures are the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India, and they are found in the time before the beginning of the mature phase of the Harappan culture, and continued to exist in the later period.
  • Unlike the mature urban phase of the Harappan civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on farming, generally rural in nature.
  • They used copper and stone blades and pottery and also low-grade iron in the later period.
  • Their settlements were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
  • In the north western and western regions of India, the early farming cultures are associated with the Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.
  • The Chalcolithic people also began to domesticate animals in addition to agriculture.
  • The houses were made of stone, mud bricks, mud and perishable wooden materials, and built on a stone foundation.
  • People used black and red ware and black on red ware pottery.
  • These sites have produced a large quantity of copper objects, such as flat axes, bangles, rings, knives, blades, socket-less axes, barbed and tanged arrowheads, choppers and chisels. 

Ahar-Banas Culture: 

  • A Chalcolithic archaeological culture on the banks of the Ahar River of southeastern Rajasthan.
  • Dated: from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE.
  • Contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley civilization.
  • Sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley.
  • More than 90 sites of the Ahar culture have been identified to date.
  • A number of sites with Ahar culture level are also found from Jawad, Mandsaur, Kayatha and Dangwada in Madhya Pradesh state.
  • Rajasthan: Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara, Ajmer, Tonk and Bhilwara districts.
  • Based on the pottery excavated here, this site is considered as a separate archaeological culture. 
  • Ahar pottery is a Black-and-red ware (BRW) with linear and dotted designs painted on it in white pigment.

For more information: 

  1. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/history/fusion-of-rock-art/
  2. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/paleolithic-tool-mulugu-district-telangana/
  3. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/neolithic-era-celt-found/
  4. https://compass.rauias.com/ancient-history/megalithic/

Gwalior Fort added in UNESCO’s tentative list of World Heritage Sites

Context: The historic Gwalior fort in Madhya Pradesh has recently been added to the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites.

Introduction:

image 3
  • Initiated by Raja Sourya Sena who finished the fortification around the plateau in 773CE.
  • Early rulers of this region included:
    • Mauryas, Sungas, Kushanas, and Nagas, who held power there until the fourth century CE.
    • Guptas ruled over this place till the 5th century CE. 
  • Inscriptions on the Chaturbhuja temple (dated 875 and 876 CE): Shows that Gwalior was included in the kingdom of Kannauj. 
  • From 1398 AD -1516 CE:
    • Gwalior came under the Rajput Dynasty of Tomars.
    • It was extensively constructed in the reign of Raja Mansingh Tomar.
    • After his death, the fortress fell to Ibrahim Lodi. 
  • Mughal rule: 
    • Mughals succeeded the Lodi dynasty at Delhi (Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat in 1526). 
    • Within a decade, the Mughal Emperor Babur captured the fort from the Delhi Sultanate. 
    • Mughals lost the fort to Sher Shah Suri in 1542.
    • Afterwards, the fort was captured and used by Hemu, the Hindu general and, later, the last Hindu ruler of Delhi, but Akbar recaptured it in 1558. 
    • With the decline of the Mughal empire, Gwalior passed into the hands of the rising Maratha power represented by Scindias in Central India.
image 4

(Man Mandir)

About Gwalior Fort (a hill fort): 

  • It is a hill Fort.
  • Protected under the Archaeological Survey of India and the Madhya Pradesh State Archaeology. 
  • The fort consists of a defensive structure and two main palaces, Man Mandir and Gujari Mahal, built by Tomar Rajput ruler Man Singh Tomar (reigned 1486–1516 CE).
    • Glimpses of the Bagh Paintings are found.
    • Main entrance of the Man Mandir is the Hathi Pol Gate (or Hathiya Paur). 
  • The monuments at the fort show an architectural blend of Mughal and Rajput elements.
    • Examples: mosaic tiles, stone jali patterns, stone columns and brackets and domed turrets; chhatris placed on the gates and corner bastions. 
  • The fort has impressive ramparts and gateways.
    • Gwalior gate is the main entrance to the fort connecting the historic city of Gwalior to the fort.
    • Also known as the Alamgiri gate, it is attributed to the reign of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
  • The Fort also houses impressive palace structures constructed later by the Sultanate and Mughal rulers.
  • Among the water management systems, the fort has access to water with a number of reservoirs such as Mansarovar Tal, Gangola Tal, Ek Khamba Tal, Katora Tal, Rani Tal, Chedi Tal, and Jauhar Kund. 
  • The Scindia School, founded in 1897 CE by Maharaja Madho Rao Scindia, is also located within the fort complex.

Temples within the Gwalior fort complex: 

  • An inscription found here describes a sun temple built during the reign of the Hun dynasty king Mihirakula in 6th century. 
  • Teli ka Mandir: 
    • Dedicated to lord Shiva, Vishnu, and Matrikas (group of mother goddesses who are always depicted together in Hinduism).
    • Built by the Mihira Bhoja (Gurjara-Pratiharas in the 9th century). 
    • It is the oldest part of the fort. 
    • Rectangular structure is a shrine with no pillared pavilions (mandapa) and a South Indian style vaulted roof on top.
    • It integrates the architectural elements of the Nagara style and the Valabhi prasada.
  • Chaturbhuj temple: 
    • Holds a position of significance because of its mathematical connection.
    • The second oldest record of numeric ‘zero’ (Symbol ‘0’) in the world was found here in the stone inscription. The inscription is around 1500 years old.
    • It has an inscription that opens with a praise for Vishnu (Vaishnavism), then Shiva (Shaivism) and nine Durgas (Shaktism).
    • The inscription also states that it was excavated in 876 CE. 
  • Sas Bahu temples or Harisadanam temple: 
    • 11th-century twin temple. 
    • Dedicated to Vishnu in his Padmanabha form.
    • It was built in 1093 by King Mahipala of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty. 
    • It had a North Indian Bhumija style architecture. 
    • The temple is covered with carvings, notably four idols of Brahma, Vishnu and Saraswati.
    • The pillars show Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism related carvings. 
  • Siddhachal Jain Temple Caves (Urvashi/Urwahi valley): 
    • Built between 7th to 15th century.
    • Jain temples inside Gwalior fort dedicated to the Jain Tirthankaras.
    • Many of the statues were defaced and destroyed under the orders of the Muslim Emperor Babur of the Mughal dynasty in the 16th century. 
    • The statues depict all 24 Tirthankaras.
    • They are shown in both seated Padmasana posture as well as standing Kayotsarga posture. 
    • The largest of these are for Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), identifiable by the bull emblem carved on the pedestal under his foot. 
    • Other statues include a seated Neminatha (shell icon on his pedestal), Parshavnatha with serpent cover over his head and Mahavira (lion icon on his pedestal). 
    • It is one of the Archaeological Survey of India's Adarsh Smarak Monument along with other monuments in the Gwalior Fort. 
image 5

(Teli ka Mandir)

Tomaras of Gwalior: 

  • The Tomaras of Gwalior were a Rajput dynasty who ruled the Gwalior Fort and its surrounding region in central India during 14th–16th centuries.
  • Originally were feudatories of the Tughluq dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.
  • In the 1390s, they gained control of Gwalior, and became independent in the subsequent years.
  • Displaced from Gwalior by Ibrahim Lodi in the first quarter of the 16th century. 

About Raja Man Singh Tomara: 

  • Ascended the throne in 1486 CE. 
  • One of the nine gems of his court was the Hindustani classical musician Tansen.
  • Man Singh revived Indian classical music and also invented and popularised the classical genre of dhrupad (of Hindustani classical music). 
  • Musicians like Tansen and Baiju Bawra had their music education at Sangeet Vidyapeeth Gwalior opened by Raja Mansingh Tomara. 
  • During the 15th century, under his patronage, the Gwalior gharana, flourished.
  • Raja Man Singh authored a book named as Mankautuhal. This was translated into Persian in 1673 by Faquirullah by the name, ‘Raga Darpan’. 
  • To make Indian music more accessible, Man Singh replaced Sanskrit songs with those in simple Hindi, fostering a broader understanding of high art.
  • Raja Man Singh composed some new Ragas like Gurjari Todi, MalGujari and Gurjari.
  • 15th century Gujari Mahal:
  • Built by Raja Man Singh Tomar for his queen, Mrignayani.

About Scindias of Gwalior: 

  • Ruled the erstwhile Gwalior State in central India.
  • Founded by Ranoji Shinde, who started as a personal attendant and soldier of the Peshwa Bajirao I.
    • Ranoji was in charge of the Maratha conquests in Malwa in 1726.
    • Capital: at Ujjain in 1731.
    • Successors included: Jayajirao, Jyotiba Rao, Dattajirao, Jankojirao, Mahadji Shinde and Daulatrao Scindia.
  • 1818:
    • After accepting the terms of a subsidiary alliance with the British (after the third Anglo Maratha war), the family shifted their base from Ujjain to the Gwalior. 
    • Daulatrao Shinde was forced to accept local autonomy as a princely state within British-occupied India and to give up Ajmer to the British.
  • Accession of Gwalior state into Independent India:
    • Gwalior was merged with a number of other princely states to become the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat.
    • Jivajirao Scindia served as the state's rajpramukh, till 1956, when Madhya Bharat was merged into Madhya Pradesh. 

Confederate states of Marathas: 

  • Third battle Panipat, 1761: Rapid expansion of Marathas was halted after they faced defeat by the Afghans. 
  • However, within a decade they recovered most of the territories under Peshwa Madhavrao I. 
  • After his death in 1772, the effective control of peshwas ended as well.
  • The confederate states led by five chiefs each, under the nominal leadership of the Peshwa at Poona (now Pune) in western India, became more dominant. 
  • These confederate states came to be known as: 
    • Gaekwads of Baroda
    • Holkars of Indore and Malwa
    • Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain
    • Bhonsles of Nagpur.
    • Poona was under Peshwa. 
  • Though united on occasion, such as against the East India Company (1775–1782), more often they were involved in internal conflicts. 
  • Peshwa Baji Rao II, after facing defeat at the hands of Holkars in 1802, sought protection from the Company.
  • The company’s intervention destroyed the confederacy by 1818. 

Khooni Bhandara in Burhanpur added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

Context: Khooni Bhandara, built in the historic city of Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, has been included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites. 

Architecture of Khooni Bhandara: 

  • It is an ingenious network of 103 well-like structures called Kundis (aqueducts). As the entire system was essentially based on the law of gravity, it ensured a smooth course of water from the first to the last Kundi. 
  • The water recharging system devised for the canal is based on the principle of intercepting the run-off in the subsoil groundwater level through underground channels and collecting it in structures, partly underground and partly above ground, called ‘Bhandaras’. 
  • An underground water management system which is built on Persian qanat approach, in 1615 CE. Out of eight sets of these subterraneous channels, six are still intact.
  • The groundwater is collected from the underground springs flowing from the adjacent Satpura hills towards the Tapti.
  • The water coming from the reservoirs: Mool-bhandara, Chintaharan, and Sookha bhandara, are collected at a common point to flow towards Khooni-bhandara from where it was transported to Jali Karanj or Jal bhandara.
  • Water stored here was then distributed through pipelines to the entire city. 
  • Khooni bhandara provided water to the entire city for as long as 300 years before it collapsed in 1977.
  • The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, gave it the name khooni (bloody).
  • It has been declared as a state protected structure by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Archives and Museums.
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(Khandesh Sultanate 1526, with neighbouring polities)

History of Khooni Bhandara

  • Commencement of Mughal rule in late 16th century: 
    • Burhanpur became the centre of military activities and commerce as well as the base for the expansion of Mughals in South India.  
    • Abdul-Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the Governor of the Subah of Khandesh during the reign of Jahangir. His capital was Burhanpur. 
    • He planned to excavate an underground canal in the vicinity of Burhanpur, to augment the potable water supply of the city.
    • The canal was constructed under the supervision of Tabaqat-al-Ardh or the Department of Earth (sciences), which looked after such constructions.
    • A Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz, was invited to investigate the valley in the Tapti plains. After the investigation, he devised a system. 
      • This was based on the ancient water supply system that in Arabic is called Qanat (originated 3000 years ago in Persia).
    • Qanat or Kariz system: It is built for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct. 
  • Need of an underground water management system: 
    • Burhanpur was situated on the river banks of the Tapti and Utavali, but its banks were so high that it was difficult and expensive to service water to different parts of Burhanpur city. 
    • Huge Mughal armies camped here for a prolonged period and caravans engaged in transportation of goods often stopped here.
    • Some alternative was urgently needed to overcome the problem of water shortage.
    • Since the area also received a fair amount of rainfall, the real issue was to devise a system to effectively tap these sources for an adequate supply of clean water. 
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About history city of Burhanpur: 

Situated: North Bank of Tapti River.

Pre-Mughal period: 

  • Important town under the Rashtrakuta Dynasty from 753–982.
  • In 1388, Malik Nasir Khan (Faruqi dynasty Sultan of Khandesh), founded Burhanpur (named it after a medieval Sufi saint, Burhan-ud-Din).
  • Burhanpur became the capital of the Khandesh sultanate (1382-1601). 
  • Miran Adil Khan II of Faruqi dynasty, built a citadel and a number of palaces in Burhanpur. 
  • The city became a major centre for trade and textile production.

Under the Mughals: 

  • Khandesh Sultanate was annexed by Akbar in 1601.
  • Burhanpur became the capital of Khandesh Subah. 
  • It grew in importance because it was considered the gateway to south India.
  • Described in the Ain-i-Akbari (the chronicle of the rule of Akbar), by Abul Fazl, as a city of gardens, some of which boasted of sandalwood trees.
  • Burhanpur was the residence of Khandesh's Mughal governor, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, during Akbar and Jahangir's rule.
  • He constructed a new water supply for the town, as well as several gardens.

Maratha conquest: 

  • 1705: Santaji Ghorpade attacked Khandesh (during the reign of Rajaram I), which forced the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to deploy more army in Khandesh.
  • 1720s: the town was attacked by the Maratha Peshwa Bajirao during his expedition to Malwa and Delhi.
  • 1750s: Maratha army under Sadashivrao Bhau, who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, took control of the town.
  • Downfall of the Maratha Empire: the town was given to Maratha Sardar Holkar, then Scindia, and finally in 1818, Burhanpur was handed over to the British by the Marathas. 

Mughal Water Management works:  

  • The Mughal era brought significant advances in water management due to the need to efficiently utilize scarce water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.
  • Qanat system: Played a crucial role in the use of groundwater.
  • A developed irrigation system was made possible by storing well water, surface water as well rain water.
  • Water from these sources was stored in tanks and then distributed across the vast agricultural lands through a large network of canals.
  • Some water-lifting devices were also used for utilising the stored water.
  • In the Doab and Haryana region, the role of canal irrigation became quite significant by the closing decades of the nineteenth century. 

Water Management during Akbar’s Rule (reigned 1556-1605)

  • Hydraulic systems employed to control summer temperature, such as in Fatehpur Siri. Here, the Rahat/Rehat/Rehant system (sometimes called the Persian wheel) was used. 
    • The technology employed to raise water, had been used in India prior to Mughal rule.
    • Thus, the achievement was an engineering feat of scale rather than innovative technology.
  • Innovation occurred in placing inhabitable water buildings within the two supply systems for raising water, creating buildings that were simultaneously pieces of machinery and social spaces.
  • ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ mentioned that most of the province of Lahore was cultivated with the help of well-irrigation using technologies such as Arhat or Rahat/Saqiya (‘Persian wheel’) to lift water.
  • Around Agra, the ‘charas’, or the leather bucket lifted out of water by oxen, pulling rope thrown over a pulley was most common.
  • Dhenkli/Shadoof/Tula/lat/Latha, based on the level principle, was generally used wherever the water-level was close to the surface.
  • Most of the wells were ‘kachcha’, i.e., made without use of masonry.

Water Management during Shahjahan’s rule (reigned 1628-1658): 

  • Proposed to advance nearly Rs.40,000 to cultivators in Khandesh and the Painghat portion of Berar for the purpose of erecting dams or bunds.
  • The old channel of the eastern Yamuna Canal was dug in the reign of Shahjahan. Shahjahan decided to re-open it from Khizrabad, to serve the new city of Shahjahanabad at Delhi. This was the famous ‘Nahr-I-Bihist’ or ‘Nahr-i-Faiz’ which irrigated a considerable area.
  • In Punjab, a small system of canals was brought into existence in the Upper Bari doab. The best known of these was the ‘Shahnahr’. 
  • Taj Mahal originally had sophisticated waterworks to irrigate the garden and an elaborate water channel system was created in the Khan-i-Alam complex on the western side of Taj Mahal.
    • The fountain pipes were not connected directly with the copper pipes feeding them, as this would have resulted in gradual decrease of volume and pressure of water. 
    • Instead, a copper pitcher was provided under each fountain pipe and the same was connected with the water supply line.
    • The water first filled the pitcher and rose in the fountains simultaneously.
  • Excavations at Mehtab Bagh (Charbagh complex in Agra) supposed to have been constructed by Shah Jahan, brought to light a huge tank of octagonal shape.
    • The digging of pits revealed that they were built of Lakhauri brick in lime mortar for installing a fountain shaft.
    • Lakhauri brick: Red burnt-clay bricks, originating from the Indian subcontinent;   became popular element of Mughal architecture during Shah Jahan. 

Water Management during Aurangzeb’s rule (reigned 1658-1707): 

  • The Bibi-ka-maqbara, built for Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad also had a remarkable water management system.
  • There is a huge water tank on the south-east corner of the complex which is known as Hati Haud.
  • The water channels run on the enclosure walls from the Hati Haud and the water is distributed from the channels to various parts of the complex through terracotta pipes.

The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Context: The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur, in Madhya Pradesh, has been included into UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites. 

Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

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Introduction: 

  • Situated: along the Betwa and Kaliasot Rivers, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
  • Constructed: during the 11th century
  • Patronage of: Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty
  • Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
  • Paramara dynasty:
    • Reigned over the Malwa region and adjacent territories from the 9th to the 14th century.
    • Raja Bhoj emerged as a celebrated monarch.
    • He was renowned for his architectural treatise, the “Samaranganasutradhara”.
    • Inscriptions and literary works attribute King Bhoj with an extensive temple building initiative, dedicated to various aspects of Shiva. 
    • However, the Bhojpur temple remains the sole surviving shrine definitively linked to Bhoja. 
  • The temple has been designated as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
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Architectural features of the temple: 

  • Architectural style reflects the evolution of temple design during the Paramara period. 
  • Elements of the Bhumija style emerged in the 9th century and flourished until the 13th century.
  • Bhumija style is an evolved form of the Nagara temples.
  • The main structure and the shikhara in this style harmoniously blend influences from the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
  • The temple does not have a mandapa, which have led researchers to propose the hypothesis of it being a funerary monument.
  • The unfinished shikhara is decorated with small sub-shrines or kuta-stambhas and corner bands known as Lata. 
  • The temple has a square plan and it is built on a raised plinth with ornate carvings and sculptures in its exterior.
  • In the centre, the garbhagriha is constructed which houses a massive lingam, carved from a single stone.
  • Projecting balconies are built on three sides of the temple.
  • The northern wall features a makara-pranala, which provided a drainage outlet for the liquid used to bathe the lingam. 
  • The four brackets supporting the cornerstones feature four different divine couples: Shiva-Parvati, Brahma-Shakti, Rama-Sita, and Vishnu-Lakshmi.
image 106

About Paramara Dynasty (9th-14th Century): 

Introduction: 

  • Exerted dominion over Malwa and adjacent territories in west-central India. 
  • Originated from the Parmara clan of Rajputs.
  • Initially served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
  • They rose to sovereign power around 972 CE when Siyaka, one of the rulers, sacked Manyakheta and established Paramaras as an independent authority.
  • Capital: Dhara (modern-day Dhar)
  • The dynasty faced repeated conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms such as the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti.
  • Due to the challenges, the capital was shifted to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu).
  • Religion:
    • Predominantly followers of the Shaivite tradition.
    • Also supported Jain scholars

Rulers: 

  • Earliest known king Siyaka:
    • Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE), mentions him as vassal to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
    • As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Siyaka engaged in military campaigns against the Pratiharas and Hunas. 
    • He secured victory over Krishna III's successor, Khottiga, in 972 CE.
  • Munja (Siyaka's successor):
    • Munja attained victory over various neighbouring kingdoms, such as Chahamanas, Guhilas, Hunas, and Kalachuris.
    • He was defeated by Western Chalukya king Tailapa II. This resulted in loss of southern territories to the Chalukyas.
  • Sindhuraja (Munja’s successor):
    • He reclaimed the lost territories by defeating the Western Chalukya king Satyashraya.
    • He expanded the dominion by defeating Shilaharas, Somvanshi, and rulers of Lata (now South Gujarat). 
    • His court poet, Padma Gupta, wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
  • King Bhoja (Sindhuraja’s son and successor): 
    • Reigned from 1010–1055 CE. 
    • The dynasty reached its zenith during his reign.
    • Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara. 
    • Extended control from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
    • He founded the town of Bhojpur. 

Cultural Contributions of King Bhoja: 

  • Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India.
  • Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by his court poet Dasabala.
  • Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple, he also construction of three dams in Bhojpur. 
    • The first dam, built on Betwa River. 
    • A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills.
    • A third dam diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river. 
  • Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Saraswati in Dhar.
  • Bhoja was renowned as a scholar king, and several books are attributed to him. He was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was authored by him. 
  • Some of his surviving works in Sanskrit language:
    • Bhujabala-bhima, a work on astrology
    • Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu, a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry (champu genre)
    • Govinda-vilasa, poem
    • Raja-Martaṅda or Patanjali Yogasutra Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
    • Raja Mriganka Karana, a treatise on chemistry, dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs.
    • Samarangana-Sutradhara, a treatise on architecture and iconography.
    • Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions.
    • Tattva-Prakasha, a treatise on Shaivite philosophy.
    • Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy.
    • Vyavahara-Manjari, a work on dharmasastra or Hindu law
    • Yukti-Kalpataru, a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building etc.
  • His Prakrit language poems are: Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka.
    • The Kodanda-Kavya was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.
    • The Kurma-Sataka was found inscribed at the BhojShala in Dhar.

The Paramara Dynasty experienced a decline in their power, ultimately leading to the defeat and death of the final recorded ruler, Mahalakadeva, by the forces of Alauddin Khilji of Delhi in 1305 CE. However, despite this, inscriptions indicate that Paramara authority persisted for some time following Mahalakadeva's downfall.