Mains Exhaustive

Importance of both Quad and BRICS

Context: The foreign ministers’ meeting of QUAD nations to be held comes at a time when the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is weakened and its reform nowhere in sight.

Current geostrategic realities and dilemmas

Both the Ukraine war and Israel's actions in Gaza demonstrate blatant disregard for international law.
An axis of Russia, China, North Korea, and Iran is gaining momentum and Chinese influence is growing not just in the Indo-Pacific, but regions like West Asia too.
The U.S. has realised that it needs not just allies, but also credible partners in its security architecture, including in the Indo-Pacific, and reached countries like India to partner with them in smaller pluri-lateral groupings and joint security initiatives.
Further, ASEAN countries are getting increasingly vulnerable, with the South China Sea remaining a conflict point.
While India is a member of many pluri-lateral groups on both sides of the geo-strategic ‘divide’, its engagement in Quad and with BRICS present the country with interesting, and sometimes contrasting, dilemmas.
- India has enthusiastically embraced Quad and its strategic objectives.
- The fact that India, during its presidency of the UNSC in 2021, held a high-level virtual event on ‘Enhancing Maritime Security’, which was attended by the Russian President, among others, indicates the importance India attaches to strengthening maritime security in the Indo-Pacific and beyond.
- India was an enthusiastic founder of BRICS. In fact, at the 10th annual summit of the BRICS in 2018, India reminded the BRICS members of its ‘reformed multilateralism’ vision.

In the backdrop of this, let us understand the significance of QUAD and BRICS and their importance for India.

What is QUAD?

The occurrence of a Tsunami in the Indian Ocean led to India, Japan, Australia, and the US to build an informal alliance for collaborating on disaster relief efforts.
In 2007, Japan formalised it into the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue or the QUAD.
The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD), the Quad is an informal strategic forum comprising, United States of America (USA), India, Australia and Japan.
One of the primary objectives of the Quad is to work for a free, open, prosperous and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
The group met for the first time in 2007 on the sidelines of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
The Quad regained momentum in 2017, driven by shared concerns regarding the assertiveness of China in the Indo-Pacific region and a desire to uphold peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific.
It was in 2017 when the first official talks under the Quad took place in the Philippines.
Quad Summit in 2022 (Tokyo):
- The Quad summit witnessed the launch of a new initiative for continuous collaboration in the maritime domain, space, climate change, health, and cyber security.
- The member countries pledged to meet challenges for ensuring rules-based maritime order, including in the East and South China Seas.
- The members strongly opposed any coercive, provocative, or unilateral actions that seek to change the status quo.

Significance of Quad:

Delivering outcomes for the Indo-Pacific: In response to the region's priorities and most pressing challenges, including health security, climate change, infrastructure, critical and emerging technology, cyber security, disaster relief, maritime security, countering-terrorism, etc.
- In the face of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the Quad gained further relevance as the group shifted its focus to vaccine diplomacy, health security, and economic recovery.
ASEAN centrality: Quad partners work closely to ensure efforts complement wider engagement in the Indo-Pacific, both bilaterally and through regional institutions.
- All Quad partners are long-standing ASEAN Dialogue Partners and steadfast supporters of ASEAN centrality, the ASEAN-led regional architecture and the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific.
Strengthened bilateral relationships among Quad nations:
- India now has ministerial-level ‘2+2’ (defence and foreign minister) meetings with Japan and the United States and Australia.
- India and the United States further signed a communications compatibility and security agreement (COMCASA) in 2015 and a logistics exchange memorandum of agreement (LEMOA) in 2016.
- A major obstacle to closer Japan-India relations was removed with the passage of the landmark Japan-India civil nuclear cooperation agreement in May 2017.
- Japan became a permanent member of the formerly bilateral U.S.-India naval exercise, Malabar, in 2015.
- The AUSINDEX exercise between Australia and India grew in size and scope.
- The function of these bilateral and mini-lateral exercises was to create trust among the militaries of the Quad nations, promote interoperability, and set the foundation for political ties at a deeper level.
Grappling with geopolitics:
- Japan’s foreign policy has become more explicitly anti-Chinese, with emphasis on the physical security of its territorial space and linking defence of Northeast Asia to the rest of the Indo-Pacific.
- Australia views China as a strategic rival and seeks security through partnerships, both formal and informal, with other powers, rather than having to balance relationships with China.
- As for the U.S., it benefits from the Quad principally because, until the emergence of the framework, Washington lacked any overarching instrument to manage its many security relationships in the Indo-Pacific.
  - The U.S. is now party to a structure that oversees all the key lines of communication from Northeast Asia through the Indian Ocean, and stands to gain from intelligence sharing.
Significance for India:
- It is believed that the forum strategically counters China’s economic and military rise. Interestingly, if Chinese hostilities rise on the borders, India can take the support of the other Quad nations to counter the communist nation.
- India can even take the help of its naval front and conduct strategic explorations in the Indo-Pacific region.
- From a security perspective, New Delhi’s relationship with Washington delivers effective balance against China at both the strategic (nuclear deterrence) and conventional levels.
- On the diplomatic field, a U.S. partnership adds weight to India’s geopolitical heft. As India strives to grow its economy, it needs the U.S. military presence to ease its defence spending burden.
- Being a strategic partner of the U.S. helps India attain better access to the lucrative U.S. market and thereby build its citizens’ affluence.
- India’s vision goes beyond viewing Quad as a geopolitical security objective vis-à-vis China.
  - India aims to redraw the security and techno-economic architecture of the Indo-Pacific region.
  - With Quad now working on reorientation of global supply chains of critical technologies and on a range of areas of direct strategic relevance to the region, including digital, telecom, health, power, and semiconductors, it has underlined that development too has a security perspective which cannot be ignored.

What is BRICS?

The BRICS countries are considered the foremost geopolitical rival to the G7 bloc of leading advanced economies, implementing competing initiatives such as the New Development Bank, the BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement, the BRICS pay, the BRICS Joint Statistical Publication and the BRICS basket reserve currency.

Initially termed BRIC in 2001, the acronym BRICS was coined by Jim O’Neill, a Goldman Sachs economist, to encompass Brazil, China, India, and Russia.
The BRIC grouping’s first formal summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia, commenced in 2009. During this summit, BRIC Leaders issued a Joint Statement elucidating the objectives of the BRIC collaboration.
South Africa officially became a member nation in 2010. The group was renamed BRICS – with the “S” standing for South Africa – to reflect the group’s expanded membership.
In 2023, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia and UAE joined BRICS.
These BRICS nations possess a notable competitive advantage owing to their economical labor costs, advantageous demographics, and copious natural resources, particularly during the era of the global commodities upswing.

Significance of BRICS:

BRICS has evolved into a unified and purposive entity, championing the cause of reforms in major multilateral institutions with a clear intention of democratising global governance.

Establishment of the New Development Bank (NDB) in 2013:
- Endowed with an initial capital of US$50 billion, the NDB was conceived as a credible alternative to existing financial institutions (like IMF and World Bank which are dominated by the western powers).
- The equitable distribution of the initial subscribed capital among BRICS members underscores the commitment to collective action.
Trade and investment landscape within BRICS:
- Promising dynamics between India and China within the broader BRICS umbrella.
- The bilateral trade between India and China reached a historic high of US$ 135.98 billion in 2022.
- The contribution of BRICS members to global exports has been on the rise, with the growth rate of exports between BRICS member states surpassing the global average.
- This has yielded concrete advantages and played a pivotal role in fostering increased investment within the bloc.
- The intra-BRICS integration encompasses free trade agreements and export-oriented strategies, including tariff exemptions, tariff reductions, across various goods and service sectors. This proactive approach has led to substantial growth, expanding trade, and a rise in both inward and outward foreign direct investment (FDI).
- According to UNCTAD data, cumulative foreign direct investment (FDI) holdings within the BRICS nations substantially increased from US$ 27 billion in 2010 to US$ 167 billion in 2020.
- This shift collectively represented 1.3 percent to 4.7 percent of their total FDI assets, marking considerable growth.
- Notably, China played a predominant role, being the most significant contributor and recipient of FDI among BRICS nations.
- Moreover, Brazil and India also observed robust investment expansions from fellow BRICS members.
BRICS Contact Group on Economic and Trade Issues (CGETI):
- Acknowledging the significance of enhancing BRICS nations' attractiveness as investment destinations, even amid the challenges posed during the COVID-19 pandemic, CGETI has urged additional measures to create a conducive atmosphere for sustainable development-oriented investments.
- This includes initiatives to improve transparency and simplify national administrative processes and prerequisites.

Significance of the inclusion of new members:

Enhanced inclusivity:
- Including more countries from Africa and Asia will enhance BRICS' representation of developing nations and diversify its geographical reach.
- A more diverse BRICS gains legitimacy advocating for Global South issues like fair-trade, climate justice, and technology access.
- Formerly representing 40% of the world’s population and a quarter of GDP, expanded BRICS now covers nearly half the global population.

Economic strength:
- BRICS, earlier represented 24% of global GDP and now with the inclusion of five new economies, it could increase its influence in IMF and World Bank forums.
- In 2022, intra-BRICS trade reached $500 billion and the expansion could enhance trade and investment, strengthening economic ties and bargaining power.
- Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the UAE, among the world's top-10 oil producing countries, enhance BRICS' global influence in shaping energy policies and market dynamics, strengthening its role as a Global South champion.

Advocacy for reforms:
- BRICS have collectively called for reforms to the UN Security Council to include more representation from the Global South.
- An expanded BRICS can bolster the Global South's political voice in international forums, advocating for reforms aligned with their interests.
- BRICS nations agreed to promote use of local currencies in trade to reduce dependence on major global currencies.
- The expanded BRICS could provide grounds for this practice. The UAE and India have agreed to trade in Rupees and Dirhams instead of the US Dollar.

With India being the only country common to both Quad and BRICS, the country has immense opportunities at its doorsteps which can be explored with the right strategic policies to serve its larger goals.

Choosing the right track to cut post-harvest losses

Context: India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹ 1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.

What are post-harvest losses?

The post-harvest system should be thought of as encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of consumption.
The expression "post-harvest losses" means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in a given product. These losses can occur during any of the various phases of the post-harvest system.
From the harvest onward, then, the grain undergoes a series of operations during the course of which quantitative and qualitative losses can occur.

What is the present status of India’s high post-harvest losses?

India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.
The biggest loss is from perishable commodities, which include livestock produce such as eggs, fish and meat.
During the export of perishables, approximately 19% of food is lost.

What are the causes behind India’s huge post-harvest losses?

Direct Causes

Premature harvest result in lower quality and quantity.
Poor threshing: Inefficient separation of grain from stalks results in loss of produce.
Insufficient drying lead to spoilage and mold growth.
Insufficient cleaning-> contamination and quality degradation.
Bird, Rodent, and Insect Attacks
Improper storage conditions
Poor handling and transportation can lead to physical damage and loss.

Indirect Causes

Inadequate capital: Farmers often lack the financial resources to invest in modern equipment, storage facilities and modern machinery for harvesting, threshing, drying, and cleaning.
Lack of professionalism: Limited access to training and education on best post-harvest practices.
Lack of Organization: Fragmented supply chains and lack of coordination among stakeholders.
Social Constraints: Issues such as land fragmentation and small farm sizes affect efficiency.
Economic Constraints: Market inefficiencies and price volatility impact farmers' ability to invest in post-harvest technologies.
Political Constraints: Inadequate policy support and lack of investment in agricultural infrastructure.

Why we should reduce post-harvest losses?

To maintain the quality of the product.
To increase the agro-export potential.
To double the farm income.
To ensure food security in the country.
To reduce price volatility.
To reduce the waste and make agriculture environment friendly.

A report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) using the life cycle perspective, estimated about 3.3 G tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions due to food that was produced but not eaten, without even considering the land use change

What steps should be taken to reduce Post harvest losses?

Investing In adequate storage facilities
- India’s tropical climate can be bad news for the quality of perishable crops, and there need to be proper climate-controlled storage facilities as well as cold-storage facilities.
Ensuring appropriate harvesting methods at the right stage
- when the produce has completed its natural growth and is all set for harvesting. It is also important to use the most suitable harvesting methods to prevent losses from premature or delayed harvesting.
Effective handling and transportation to reduce damage
- as the majority of the losses take place during the transportation stage. Rough handling can also cause damage to the crops. They should be properly packed for better protection, ventilation, and labeling. This along with choosing the right vehicle and other tools can go a long way in preserving the produce during transportation.
Following the process of sorting & grading for better quality control
- There need to be higher standards for post-harvest handling and grading. This helps in identifying damaged or low-quality produce, following which the produce can be sorted, which is essentially the removal of bad crops from healthy ones. The continuous check on quality control invariably helps in reducing post-harvest loss.
Upgradation of grain drying equipment
This assistance encompasses a range of options, including the provision of basic materials like tarpaulins and covers, as well as more advanced grain drying equipment and shelters that offer protection against rainfall. By enabling farmers to access improved drying solutions, we can effectively reduce food losses and improve overall grain quality.

The Case for a Caste Census

Context: Peter Drucker famously said, “Only what gets measured gets managed.” The problems of social groups that have been historically discriminated against (be it by caste, race, religion, gender, disability etc.) cannot be resolved without collecting data group-identity wise. Doing so is not a capitulation to identity politics but a vital step towards informed policymaking and inclusive development.

Caste-Based Census Timeline

Pre-Independence: 1871 Census was the first attempt to measure the population and enumerate caste data across India. 1931 Census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data.

Post-Independence:

Union of India after Independence, decided as a matter of policy not to enumerate caste wise population other than SCs and STs.
Thus, India’s largest caste bloc – Other Backward Classes – have not figured in the any census from 1951-2011.
There is no proper estimate for the population of OBCs, various groups within the OBCs, and others.
In 1961, the GOI advised States to conduct their own surveys and draw up State-specific OBC lists if they so desired.

Aftermath of Mandal Commission:

In 1979, Mandal commission (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission) suggested expansion of affirmative action to include other backward classes.
OBCs, as per 1931 census, amounted to 52% of Indian population. Based on which a 27% reservation was given to the OBCs in 1990.
Later appeared demand for introduction OBC category in the decennial census to count them.

Socio-Economic Caste Census 2011:

SECC 2011 was first caste-based census since 1931.
It was conducted by Ministry of rural development (MoRD) and Ministry of housing and urban poverty alleviation in rural and urban areas respectively.
This was first time such a comprehensive exercise has been carried out for both rural and urban India, which included caste-wise population data.
2011 SECC data, excluding the caste data, was finalised and published by the government.
Demand being raised to enumerate castes as part of Census 2021 itself. To make available authentic data on caste-wise population and their socio-economic conditions.

Need For Caste-Based Census

Social imperative : Caste continues to be a foundational social construct in India. Only about 5% of Indian marriages were inter-caste as of 2011-12. The use of caste surnames and caste marks is still widespread. Residential segregation by caste persists. Choices of candidates for elections and ministers for Cabinets continue to be dictated by caste considerations.
Legal imperative : Constitutionally-mandated policies of social justice which include reservations in electoral constituencies, education and public employment cannot be pursued effectively without detailed caste-wise data. Even though the Constitution uses the word class instead of caste, various rulings of the Supreme Court have held caste as a ‘relevant criterion’, ‘sole criterion’ or ‘dominant criterion’ for defining a backward class, and have demanded detailed caste-wise data for upholding reservation policies.
Administrative imperative : Detailed caste-wise data is necessary to avoid/correct wrongful inclusions of undeserving castes and exclusions of deserving castes, and to guard against a few dominant castes in a reserved category crowding out others. It is also needed for sub-categorising castes within a reserved category and to determine the income/wealth criterion for the creamy layer.
Moral imperative: The absence of detailed caste-wise data has helped a coterie of elites, among upper castes and dominant Other Backward Classes (OBCs), to corner a disproportionate share of the nation’s assets, incomes, and positions of power. Such situation leads to the demands of OBC subcategorization for ensuring a more equitable distribution of benefits. - The Justice Rohini Commission is working on sub-categorization within OBCs to address this issue.
Estimate change in demography: The current reservations and welfare schemes for OBCs (Other Backward Classes) are based on population estimates from the 1931 census. Since then, India's demographic landscape has significantly changed. A caste-based census can provide updated data to ensure that policies and schemes are aligned with the current population dynamics.
Rationalize Reservation Policy: Land fragmentation and agricultural stagnation have turned many upper-caste landowners into marginal farmers, while rising rural wages have benefited some backward classes, including Dalits. This shift necessitates a review and rationalization of the reservation policy. Accurate data can ensure that reservations are based on the current socio-economic realities of different castes. For example, the Patidar agitation in Gujarat and the Jat agitation in Haryana highlight the demand for reservations based on contemporary socio-economic conditions
Assess impact of Affirmative action: A socio-economic caste census can help assess the impact of reservations on OBCs and identify the relative deprivation of some castes. This assessment can inform future policy decisions and ensure that affirmative action achieves its intended goals. For example, data from such a census could reveal whether reservations have improved educational and employment outcomes for specific OBC groups.

Concerns Against Caste Based Census

Reinforces Caste Identities: Enumerating castes in a census might reinforce the caste identities prevalent in society, which could perpetuate social divisions. For instance, identifying individuals by caste in official documents could entrench these identities and exacerbate caste-based discrimination.
Vote bank politics: Caste-wise data could be used as a tool for caste-based political mobilization, leading to vote bank politics. Politicians might exploit this data to garner support from specific caste groups, undermining the broader goals of social cohesion and national integration. For example, political parties might promise caste-specific benefits to secure votes, leading to divisive politics.
New demands for Reservation: Numbers about OBCs might provide a new issue for regional parties to pressure the central government for an OBC quota in central government jobs and educational institutions. This could lead to increased demands for reservations, potentially beyond the current 50% cap. For instance, if the census reveals a higher OBC population, it could lead to demands for a higher reservation quota, as seen with the recent protests by various communities.
Federal concerns: According to the 7th Schedule of the Constitution, the census is under the domain of the Union government. State governments conducting their own caste censuses could be against the constitutional spirit and create conflicts between the center and states. For example, the Bihar government's decision to conduct its own caste census led to debates on constitutional propriety and federal authority.

Concerns lack logical backing (As per the Article)

Socially divisive exercise: Critics argue that a caste census could be socially divisive. However, India's census already enumerates religion, language, and region, which are as divisive as caste, if not more. Casteism will not disappear by avoiding its enumeration any more than communalism or regionalism will by ignoring religion or language.
Administrative nightmare: While some claim that a caste census is an administrative nightmare, India's census has successfully enumerated 1,234 castes in the SC category and 698 tribes in the ST category. Therefore, it is difficult to understand why the enumeration of the 4,000-odd other castes, most of which are State-specific, should pose an intractable problem.
Demands for increased reservations : On the contrary, the availability of caste-wise Census data would help curb arbitrary demands from caste groups and capricious decision-making by governments. Policy makers would be able to objectively debate and address the claims of, say, the Marathas, Patidars, Jats, or any other groups for reservations.
But governments prefer fuzzy data because it gives them the latitude to implement reservations arbitrarily for electoral considerations.

Conclusion A caste-based census has the potential to provide valuable data for social justice and policy formulation.

However, it also poses significant risks, including reinforcing caste identities and promoting divisive politics.

A balanced approach, with robust safeguards and a focus on using the data to promote equality and social cohesion, is essential.

Key Take Away from Article

Why caste-wise Census data of the OBCs is essential?

Inclusion of OBCs in the Census

The OBCs, like SCs and STs, have constitutional provisions for reservations in education(Article-15(4)) and public employment(Article 16(4)).
However, there is no reservation for OBCs in electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. For this, caste-wise Census data of the OBCs is essential, which should have been included in the 2001 Census, but it was not.
Further, When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc attempted to implement OBC reservations in local body elections, the High Courts and Supreme Court stayed these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise data. The judiciary demands such data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
Authority of Census Data: While the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008 allows states and local bodies to gather necessary statistics. So Census data carries more authority and is less contested. How an Attempt at Caste Census Failed
In 2010, after lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census.o However, the Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC)-2011 was poorly executed, resulting in an unreliable figure of 46 lakh castes, and the results were never released.
The SECC-2011's failure stemmed from its execution outside the Census Act, 1948, by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in sociological surveys.
Despite the 2010 resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.

The Way Forward

To ensure an effective and reliable caste census, the following steps are recommended:

Amend the Census Act, 1948 to make caste enumeration mandatory.
Enlist sociological and anthropological experts to draft state-specific caste lists.
Design a detailed questionnaire to capture sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname.
Utilize internet-enabled hand-held devices to facilitate accurate data collection.
Review and improve upon the SECC-2011 approach based on lessons learned.

Inequality among caste

Context: India has made remarkable strides in lifting millions out of multidimensional poverty, yet inequality among various caste groups persists.

Despite the Constitution’s abolition of caste discrimination and the launch of affirmative action programmes, the shadow of caste continues to shape economic realities.

Disparities in consumption patterns among different socio-economic groups

According to the World Inequality Lab:

In 2022-23, while STs accounted for 9 per cent of the population, their consumption share stood at only 7 per cent.
Similarly, SCs constituted 20 percent of the population and their consumption share was 16 per cent.
The OBCs accounted for 43 per cent of the population, their consumption share of 41 percent.
General category accounted for 28 percent of the population, their consumption share of 36 percent.

These findings underscore the persistent disparities in the distribution of consumption across various social groups. Despite minimal fluctuations over time, SCs and STs consistently lag behind people from the General and OBC categories.

The overall Gini coefficient decreased from 0.359 in 2017-18 to 0.309 in 2022-23, indicating a reduction in overall income inequality during this period by 0.050.

Key Areas Impacted by caste:

Employment opportunities: Discrimination in hiring and occupational segregation often restrict lower-caste individuals to menial and low-paying jobs.
Education: While affirmative action policies have improved access to education for lower-caste individuals, disparities in the quality of education received still exist. Between 2017-18 and 2021-22, the SC category growth in number of students enrolled in higher educational institutes is 25.43% (ministry of education report).
- Higher dropout rates among lower-caste students are attributed to economic pressures, social discrimination, and a lack of support systems. Over 8,000 students from the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, OBC, and minority communities have dropped out of technical institutes, including IITs, IIMs, IIITs, NITs, and IISERs, in the last five years up to 2023 (Ministry of Education).
Income disparities: On average, individuals from lower castes earn less than their upper-caste counterparts. SCs/STs earned significantly lesser than their non-SC/ST counterparts. (Deshpande and Sharma)
Entrepreneurship: Lower-caste entrepreneurs often face difficulties in securing loans and investments due to discriminatory practices by financial institutions.

Efforts should concentrate on augmenting income generation and consumption abilities among the lower deciles, particularly within the ST and SC communities. This is also essential for fostering social harmony and economic stability across society. Continued monitoring of trends and targeted interventions addressing specific socio-economic challenges faced by different groups are necessary to ensure sustained progress towards greater economic equity.

What is the Internet Archive?

Context: Internet Archive (IA) is embroiled in a major legal challenge as it faces off against traditional publishers accusing it of copyright violations. The free digital library is fighting the forced removal of around half a million books from its platform, which it argues functions like a library.

Internet Archive

It is an American nonprofit digital library founded in 1996 by Brewster Kahle.
It provides free access to collections of digitized materials including websites, software applications, music, audiovisual, and print materials.
The Archive also advocates for a free and open Internet.
Its mission is to provide ‘universal access to all knowledge’.
The Internet Archive allows the public to upload and download digital material to its data cluster, but the bulk of its data is collected automatically by its web crawlers, which work to preserve as much of the public web as possible.
Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains hundreds of billions of web captures.
The Archive provides specialized services relating to the information access needs of the print-disabled. Publicly accessible books were made available in a protected Digital Accessible Information System (DAISY) format.
DAISY is designed as a complete audio substitute for print material.

Case against Internet Archive:

Many traditional publishers have alleged that Internet Archive violated their copyrights and illegally made their books available to the public, by scanning physical copies and distributing the digital files.
Traditional publishers were against IA’s temporary ‘National Emergency Library’ (NEL) initiative that it launched during the COVID-19 pandemic. This was to allow more users to access the e-books in its collection while physical libraries were locked down.
- During the NEL, IA lifted the technical controls enforcing its one-to-one owned-to-loaned ratio and allowed up to ten thousand patrons at a time to borrow each e-book on the Website.
- In general, IA uses a system known as ‘controlled digital lending’ to limit the number of people who can access an ebook.
- It ended its emergency library system after being hit with the lawsuit.
- Internet Archive used the doctrine of fair use to defend itself in the case, but this did not hold up.
Hachette vs Internet Archive Case (2020):
- Traditional publishers Hachette, HarperCollins, Wiley, and Penguin Random House sued Internet Archive.
- In 2023, an order was issued in favour of the publishers.
- The order stated: IA’s Website includes millions of public domain e-books that users can download for free and read without restrictions. However, the Website also includes 3.6 million books protected by valid copyrights.

Why are books being removed?

As a result of the lawsuit, IA was forced to remove over half a million books from its database.
While IA identifies itself as a library, it has been compared to a shadow library or a piracy database by traditional publishers, who disagree with its ‘controlled digital lending’ approach.
Despite the removal, however, the Internet Archive is still home to a rich collection.
- It still contains 835 billion web pages, 44 million books and texts, 15 million audio recordings, 10.6 million videos, 4.8 million images, and 1 million software programs.
- Live concerts and television programs also make up part of this collection.

Wayback Machine:

The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web founded by the Internet Archive in 1996 and launched to the public in 2001, it allows the user to go ‘back in time’ to see how websites looked in the past.
The Wayback Machine was created as a joint effort between Alexa Internet (owned by Amazon.com) and the Internet Archive.
Hundreds of billions of web sites and their associated data (images, source code, documents, etc.) are saved in a database.
There is a good chance of finding content such as old websites that no longer exist today, earlier versions of existing websites, deleted social media posts, archived versions of paywalled articles, and archived versions of content that is blocked or censored in some jurisdictions.
Wayback Machine is useful for personal research or to access information sources, but users should be cautious about relying on the data obtained through such sources, as the saved information can sometimes be outdated or inaccurate.
This has created more than 28 years of web history accessible through the Wayback Machine.
The platform claims users can explore over 866 billion saved web pages through its own search service.
‘Archive-It’ program identifies important web pages on the Internet Archive’s website.
- Archive-It: Created in early 2006, Archive-It is a web archiving subscription service that allows institutions and individuals to build and preserve collections of digital content and create digital archives.
- Archive-It allows the user to customize their capture or exclusion of web content they want to preserve for cultural heritage reasons.
- Through a web application, Archive-It partners can search, catalogue, manage, browse, and view their archived collections.
- Periodically, the data captured through Archive-It is indexed into the Internet Archive's general archive.
Not all web sites are available because many web site owners choose to exclude their sites.

Bihar, Andhra Pradesh likely to demand for special category status (SCS)

Context: The talks over special category status for the states of Bihar and Andhra Pradesh have once again gained momentum after the victory of the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance (NDA) in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

About Special Category Status (SCS):

It is a classiﬁcation granted by the Centre to assist the development of States that face geographical or socioeconomic disadvantages.
Also to safeguard the interest and aspirations of certain backward regions or to protect cultural and economic interests of the tribal people or to deal with the disturbed law and order in some parts of India.
It was introduced in 1969 on the recommendation of the Fourth Finance Commission (FC).
The criteria for SCS are based on Gadgil Mukherjee formula:
- Hilly and diﬃcult terrain
- Low population density and/or sizeable share of tribal population
- Strategic location along international borders
- Economic and infrastructural backwardness and
- Nonviable nature of state ﬁnances.
The 14th and 15th Finance Commissions have increased the devolution of divisible pool funds to states from 32% to 41%. However, 14^th FC did not consider special category states in its recommendations even 15^th FC made no mention of the SCS.
14^th FC proposed the continuation of higher grants and lower cost sharing for central government and centrally sponsored projects.

Constitutional provision of SCS:

The Indian Constitution does not provide for 'special category states.' However, states have special provisions under Articles 371, 371-A to 371-H, and 371-J.

States under SCS:

Assam, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttarakhand, and Telangana, have been designated as special category states.

Why are Bihar and Andhra Pradesh demanding Special Category Status?

Bihar: Bihar has been asking for it ever since the mineral-rich Jharkhand was carved out of it back in 2000.
- Bihar has been ranked as the poorest state in India, according to the Centre's ‘Multidimensional Poverty Index’ (MPI) report. It is estimated to have nearly 52% of its population, without having proper access to requisite health, education and living standards.
- While the state meets most of the criteria for the Special Category Status, it does not fulfil the criteria of hilly terrain and geographically difficult areas.
Andhra Pradesh:
- After its bifurcation in 2014, Andhra Pradesh has also seen many of its political leaders demanding a Special Category Status on the grounds of revenue loss due to the city of Hyderabad going to Telangana.

Benefits provided to SCS:

For Special Category States 90% of the Central assistance is given as grant and 10% as Loan. In the case of Non-Special Category States, however only 30% of NCA is given as grant and 70% as Loan.
Special packages are purely discretionary. They may be need-based, but the need is not the proximate reason for granting a special package, which is an additional grant under Article 282, which falls under ‘Miscellaneous Financial Provisions’.
Tax sops such as concession on Customs duty, income tax and corporate tax etc. for industrial development.
Special category states can carry forward unspent money from one financial year to the next without it lapsing.

Benefits for Special category status:

To preserve cultural identity (Goa).
To address socio-economic and infrastructural backwardness (Bihar).
To compensate for the loss of taxation rights under the GST mechanism.
To provide special support for recovery and resilient infrastructure due to frequent natural calamities, such as earthquakes, floods, or cyclones (Odisha).
To enhance infrastructure for national security, particularly in areas near international borders (Rajasthan).

Challenges associated with SCS:

It places an additional economic burden on the center and fosters a culture of economic dependency among states.
Granting special status to one state often prompts similar requests from other states.
It will weaken the foundations of fiscal federalism, as it will result in diverting national resources away from other States, which too may have pressing needs.
May be driven by political motives instead of objective criteria and become a tool of political bargaining.

Way forward

Recommendations of Raghuram Rajan Committee:

Suggested "multi-dimensional index" of backwardness is proposed, based on per capita consumption according to National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) data, poverty ratios, and other measures aligned with the multi-dimensional approach to defining poverty in the 12th Five-Year Plan.
States that score 0.6 and above on the Index may be classified as "least developed"; States that score below 0.6 and above 0.4 may be classified as "less developed"; and States that score below 0.4 may be classified as "relatively developed".
Each state should get a basic fixed allocation and an additional allocation depending on its development needs and development performance.
Design specialized programs that address the needs of vulnerable groups with a focus on preserving their cultural identities.

Will the Agnipath scheme be revamped?

Context: After the election results, NDA allies raised the issue of Agnipath and called for a discussion on it. The government is open to changes and discussions are on.

About Agnipath Yojana:

Launched in: 2022
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Defence
Aim: To ensure a youthful profile for the forces.
Eligibility: 17.5 to 21 years.
Key features: Replaces the permanent recruitment process in the armed forces.
- It is a new human resource management scheme for the Armed Forces. Candidates inducted through this scheme will be called Agniveers.
- Agniveers are recruited for four years on completion of which, up to 25% would be selected into the regular ranks on a permanent basis.
- The Army is inducting 40,000 Agniveers per year and the Navy and Air Force are recruiting around 3,000 Agniveers each.
- Agniveers during their tenure can get class 12 certificates or a Bachelor’s degree in addition to other skill certificates and when leaving after four years will get a lumpsum amount but are not eligible for pension.
- On completion of the engagement period of four years, Agniveers will be paid a one-time ‘SevaNidhi’ package which shall comprise their contribution including accrued interest thereon and a matching contribution from the Government equal to the accumulated amount of their contribution

Benefits of Agnipath Scheme:

It will inculcate values of discipline, sacrifice, teamwork, physical fitness, ingrained loyalty for the country and brotherhood.
- They will be provided with adequate re-employment opportunities for those returning to society and could emerge as role models for the youth. Agniveers will get preference in PSUs, and State Governments’ jobs.
After serving the tenure, youth will be able to contribute to other sectors more effectively. Trained personnel will be available to boost national security in times of external threats, internal threats and natural disasters.
Modernize the military and provide army with youthful tech savvy soldiers.
Across the globe, there is a trend towards reduction in the number of personnel and emphasis on increasing capital expenditure on modern weapons and equipment.

Why is the Agnipath scheme being revamped?

The Army faces a personnel shortage, as 60,000 annual retirements and only 40,000 new recruits yearly, a deficiency exacerbated by the COVID-19 recruitment halt for over two and a half years.
- The 25% conversion rate to regular soldiers may worsen the shortage.
The focus on recruiting a large number of individuals for a short period may compromise the quality of personnel and will dilute professionalism, military ethos & fighting spirit.
Takes 7-8 years to become a fully trained combat-ready soldiers. Agniveers will be risk-averse, will lead to the bulk looking for a second career. It may also hit the basic ethos of ‘Naam, Namak and Nishaan’ (reputation of battalion, fidelity & ensign/colours) for which soldiers fight
Lead to militarisation of society with around 35,000 combat-trained youth being rendered jobless every year.

Way forward:

For enhancing intake numbers, increasing the permanent recruitment from 25% to at least 50%.
Increase the age limit for entry though the technical route from 21 to 23 years to attract enough technically qualified individuals.
The Indian Army suggested increasing the service period for Agniveers from 4 years to 7-8 years.
Agniveers should receive a contributory pension plan, a generous gratuity, and compensation for any disabilities incurred during training.
Comprehensive training and skill programs should be provided to help Agniveers smoothly transition into civilian life.

Virupaksha Temple

Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to commence restoration work on the collapsed ‘Saalu Mandapa or Pavilion’, of the Virupaksha temple in Hampi (Karnataka).

About Virupaksha Temple:

Virupaksha Temple is an integral part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi.
Dedicated to Sri Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) the temple was originally constructed by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Hampi, situated along the banks of the Tungabhadra River, served as the capital of this empire.
Pampadevi, associated with the Tungabhadra River is also worshipped.
The temple's history dates back to the 7th century CE, with inscriptions referring to Shiva found from the 9th and 10th centuries.
Initially a modest shrine, it expanded under Vijayanagar rule.
While additions during the late Chalukyan and Hoysala periods are evident, most of the existing structures are attributed to the Vijayanagara era.
Despite the city's destruction in 1565 (by the Bahmani Sultanate) the religious significance of the Virupaksha-Pampa sect remained, maintaining continuous worship at the temple.

Structure of the temple:

The main temple complex comprises a sanctum, a pillared hall, and an open pillared hall, all decorated with intricately carved pillars.
Surrounding the central structure are entrance gateways, courtyards, and smaller shrines.
The eastern gateway stands as the largest entrance.
Kanakagiri Gopura is another gateway leading to a small enclosure with subsidiary shrines and to the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
Krishnadevaraya, played a pivotal role as a patron of the temple.
- His contributions include the central pillared hall and the gateway tower leading to the inner courtyard.
- Inscriptions next to the pillared hall commemorate his commissioning of these structures in 1510 AD to mark his accession.

Vijayanagar Architectural features:

Blended influences from the Hoysala, Chola, and Chalukya dynasties.
Primarily granite was used for its durability and soapstone for intricate sculptures.
Influences from Dravidian architectural traditions are more pronounced.
- During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the empire saw a resurgence in Dravida style, influencing the construction of South Indian temples for centuries.
Unique elements introduced in the Vijayanagar period: fortified enclosures, elaborately pillared Kalyana Mandapas (marriage halls), towering Raya Gopurams (entrance towers), and life-size statues of deities.
In addition to temple architecture, Vijayanagara's secular buildings featured Islamic influences like arches, domes, and vaults, constructed with mortar and stone shards.
Significant features:
- Raya Gopurams: Monumental entrance gates adorned with intricate carvings.
- Pillared Pavilions: Open structures with sculpted pillars depicting motifs like horses and monolithic statues of deities.
- Kalyana Mandapa: Decorated marriage halls with elaborately carved pillars, central to temple complexes.
- Amman Shrines: Additional shrines dedicated to the consorts of the main deity.

Swami Vivekananda

Context: The Prime Minister engaged in meditation at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.

About Swamiji

Spiritual significance of Vivekananda rock:

Located near Kanyakumari’s Vanathurai beach, at the southernmost tip of mainland India where the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal converge, Vivekananda Rock holds profound historical and spiritual importance.
In 1892, according to the disciples of Swami Vivekananda, it was at this place, he ultimately achieved enlightenment.

About Swami Vivekananda (1862-1902):

Swami Vivekananda (original name was Narendranath Datta), emerged as a prominent advocate of Ramakrishna's teachings, adapting them to contemporary Indian society and becoming a significant figure in the propagation of neo-Hinduism.
His ideology drew from the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings of the Upanishads and the Gita, as well as the examples set by Buddha and Jesus, all forming the foundation of his message on human values.
Central to Vivekananda's philosophy was Vedanta, which he viewed as a rational and superior approach to spirituality.
His mission aimed to bridge the gap between spiritual pursuits and practical life, advocating for a holistic approach to human existence encompassing both paramartha (spiritual service) and vyavahara (daily conduct).
Vivekananda stressed the unity of God and humanity, advocating for the integration of Hinduism and Islam in India for the nation's well-being.
He emphasized the importance of combining knowledge with action, criticizing the neglect of social issues by religious institutions and urging Hindus to engage actively in social reform.
At the 1893 Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Vivekananda highlighted the need for a balanced synthesis of Eastern spiritualism and Western materialism to foster global happiness and progress.
In 1897 to inspire pride in Indian culture and foster social reform, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which has since become a global organization dedicated to humanitarian relief, education, and social service, guided by the principle that service to humanity is akin to worship.
The Ramakrishna Mission, though deeply religious, does not seek to convert; instead, it embraces universal spiritual values and respects diverse religious practices.
In 1898, Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Math in Belur (Karnataka). It was open to all regardless of caste or creed, symbolizing his vision of an inclusive spiritual community committed to service and enlightenment.
In 1887, Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav Charan Basak.
He also composed ‘Khandana Bhava Bandhana’, a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna, in 1898.

Birsa Munda

Context: Ulihatu, the birthplace of Birsa Munda and a village in Jharkhand, has seen noticeable development in recent years. The Prime Minister launched the Rs 24,000 crore Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) Development Mission from this place. The Central government has designated Birsa Munda’s birth anniversary on November 15 as ‘Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas’.

Who was Birsa Munda?

Born in 1875.
Between 1886 and 1890, Birsa spent time at a place which was near the centre of the Sardari agitation, a peaceful movement led by the Oraon and Munda tribes against British rule. This experience inspired him to join the anti-missionary and anti-colonial cause.
By 1890, Birsa was deeply involved in the movement against British oppression of tribal communities.
He emerged as a prominent tribal leader, uniting people to fight for their rights. He founded the Birsait faith and became a God-like figure to his followers.
His movement attracted members from the Munda and Oraon communities, challenging British conversion efforts and reinforcing tribal unity and resistance.
The Mundas, a tribe of former nomadic hunters turned farmers in the Chota-nagpur region of present-day Jharkhand, faced significant challenges due to adverse policies and events.
- Before colonial rule, they practiced 'khuntkatti’, a land ownership system based on customary rights that excluded landlords.
- However, the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 ended this system, enabling colonial exploitation.
- The East India Company introduced the zamindari system for land revenue collection, creating a dual class system of land-owning zamindars, viewed as outsiders or ‘dikus’ by the indigenous people, and tenant farmers or ‘ryots’.
- This Act allowed the dikus to claim ownership through deeds specifying precise areas, displacing the indigenous inhabitants from their ancestral lands.
- Additionally, the community suffered from exploitative practices like the ‘begar’ system of forced labor, dependence on moneylenders for credit, and the replacement of traditional clan councils with colonial courts.
- Famines in 1896-97 and 1899-1900 further exacerbated their plight, leading to mass starvation.

The Ulgulan movement (1899-1900) and aftermath:

The Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) stands as one of the most notable tribal revolts in the history of Indian Independence.
The main cause of the Munda revolt was the 'unfair land grabbing practices’ by colonial and local authorities that demolished the tribal conventional land system.
Their exploitation included high-interest loans and withheld receipts, leading to conflict with the dikus (outsiders).
Additionally, large forest areas were declared protected, stripping the Mundas of their rights.
The Mundas desperately needed a leader to guide their struggle for justice.
Course of the rebellion:
- Birsa Munda emerged as a leader of the tribal movement.
- Birsa aimed for both religious and political independence, advocating for the Mundas' rights as the true landowners and visioned an agrarian order free from European influence.
- Birsa called on the Mundas to reject superstitions, abandon animal sacrifice, abstain from intoxicants, wear the sacred thread, and maintain traditional worship in the sarna (sacred grove).
- He wanted Munda society to get rid of foreign elements and restore its original character.
- By the 1890s, Birsa had mobilized the tribes, inciting rebellion.
- In 1894, he declared a revolt against the British and the dikus, aiming to establish a 'Munda Raj'.
- Under his leadership, villagers attacked police stations, churches, and government properties in 1899.
- However, in 1900, the rebels were defeated.
- Birsa was captured and died in jail, while nearly 350 Mundas were tried.
Aftermath:
- Demonstrated the tribal people's ability to protest against injustice and colonial rule.
- The British enacted the Chota-nagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, which restricted the transfer of tribal land to non-tribal people, recognized Khuntkatti rights, and banned begari.
- Consequently, tribals gained legal protection for their land rights.

National Testing Agency

Context: The National Testing Agency (NTA) submitted to the Supreme Court that the score cards of 1,563 candidates who were given compensatory marks in the common undergraduate medical entrance examination, NEET-UG 2024, will be cancelled.

About National Testing Agency

Charges against NEET 2024 conducted by NTA:

There have been charges, including the slow distribution of question papers; providing the wrong question paper; wrong OMR sheets; and technical delays.
There have been complaints about the unusually high number of students (67) who hit the perfect score, 720/720.
Other cases pertaining to the question paper leak are still to be heard by the Supreme Court.

Experts and students pointed to how the very idea of starting NEET as a common entrance exam to regulate medical admissions in the country and ensure quality-control of the process would be defeated in the light of all the reported violations.

Need for National Testing Agency

Entrance exams play a key role in admission(s) criteria of various bodies.
Previously, all national entrance exams were conducted by different boards with different members and sometimes there were problems with question paper leakage etc., and therefore, the need was to have one body which organizes all the entrance exams.
To assess competence of candidates for admissions and recruitment has always been a challenge in terms of matching with research based international standards, efficiency, transparency and error free delivery.
The National Testing Agency is entrusted to address all such issues using best in every field, from test preparation, to test delivery and to test marking.
It was established to improve the equity and quality in education by administering research based valid, reliable, efficient, transparent, fair and international level assessments.
The best subject matter experts, psychometricians and IT delivery and security professionals will ensure that the current gaps in existing assessment systems are properly identified and bridged.
NTA is established to create a system which will promote teaching (by teachers), learning (by students) and assessment (by parents and institutions).
To practice these values, NTA will constantly engage with its stakeholders, viz. students, parents, teachers, experts and partner institutions.

National Testing Agency details

An autonomous agency under the Department of Higher Education of the Ministry of Education of India.
Established: 2017
It is a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
It is responsible for conducting numerous national-level exams for admission and fellowship in higher educational institutions related to engineering, medicine, management and pharmacy.
Origin:
- The roots of the agency can be traced to the Programme of Action 1992, related to the National Policy of Education 1986, which mentioned conducting national-level common entrance tests to professional and non-professional programmes of study.
In 2017, an announcement about the NTA was made in the budget speech, and this was followed by Cabinet approval.
The agency is administered by a governing body which includes a chairperson, a secretary and eight or more officials representing different national level institutes.
- The Governing Body is chaired by the Secretary, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education.
- The Governing Body is responsible for the overall policy and direction of the NTA.
Some of the exams conducted by the NTA every year:
- NTA NEET (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test)
- CMAT (Common Management Admission Test)
- Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (GPAT)
- IGNOU PHD OPENMAT (MBA) Exam

Objectives of National Testing Agency:

To conduct efficient, transparent and international standards tests in order to assess the competency of candidates for admission, and recruitment purposes.
To undertake research on educational, professional and testing systems to identify gaps in the knowledge systems and take steps for bridging them.
To identify experts and institutions in setting examination questions.
To produce and disseminate information and research on education and professional development standards.

Functions of National Testing Agency:

To identify partner institutions with adequate infrastructure from the existing schools and higher education institutions which would facilitate conduct of online examinations without adversely impacting their academic routine.
To create a question bank for all subjects using the modern techniques
To establish a strong R&D culture as well as a pool of experts in different aspects of testing
To help individual colleges and universities in the field of testing and to provide training and advisory services to the institutions in India. To provide quality testing services to the academic institutions in India.
To develop a State of Art culture of testing in India by using domestic and international expertise.
To undertake any other examination that is entrusted to it by the Ministries/Departments of Government of India/State Governments.
To undertake the reforms and training of school boards as well as other bodies where the testing standards should be comparable with the entrance examinations.

Centre to assist construction of 3 crore houses under PMAY

Context: Of the 3 crore houses, two crore will be constructed under PMAY-Gramin, while 1 crore under PMAY-Urban. The newly formed NDA government in its first cabinet meeting decided to provide assistance to 3 crore additional rural and urban households for the construction of houses, to meet the housing requirements arising out of the increase in the number of eligible families.

What is affordable housing?

Per the government’s definition, affordable housing properties are those with an area not more than 60 sq.m, with the price capped at ₹45 lakh.
Government benchmark established in 2008 defines housing as affordable if monthly payments do not exceed 30% of a household's gross income.

India’s present housing scenario:

According to a Government of India report in 2012, an estimated 18.78 million more houses were required to cater to the housing demand in the country.
Post this, a study by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) in 2020 found that India’s urban housing shortage rose by 54% from 2012 to become 29 million in 2018.

Issues and challenges:

Irrational method: The expenditure method overlooks critical factors such as housing price fluctuations and the limited disposable income among lower-income brackets.
Under estimation of crisis: With an estimated shortfall of 18.78 million households needing housing, according to the technical group on urban housing shortage, and independent studies indicate a demand for 29 to 50 million homes.
Decline in selling: Share of affordable housing in overall sales has witnessed a substantial decline which not only has impacted the poor but also the real estate sector as a whole.
Increase in slums: The rural population that migrates to urban areas are not finding housing they can afford. Hence, there is an increased number of slums, informal settlements and shadow rental market.
Housing has become an investment: As per 2011 census, 17% of urban population live in slums. There was a shortage of 18.78 million homes between

2012-2017. As per the Economic survey there are 11 million vacant homes. The question that needs answer for is, why there is a shortage of houses while there are vacant homes. The situation has raised since homes have been built and sold to buyers who consider housing as an investment. Homes that are been bought from the real estate companies are neither self-occupied nor put on rental market. They are being kept vacant by the new owners to be sold later for a profit.

What needs to be done?

Revamping of criteria taking into account the factors like regional price variations, fluctuations in rent, disposable income variation etc.
Reducing the interest rates: One of the most concerning consequences of the rising interest rates is that homebuyers’ EMI payments are primarily going towards interest rather than the principal amount.
Educate the weaker sections: Educate the low income groups, the weaker sections of society and the middle income groups about the financial schemes and the support given by the government.
Incentivize builders: In order to encourage developers and builders (Bhiwadi) to invest in this initiative, any form of government tax, and fees applied on this tax should be removed.

Pradhan Mantri Awas yojana

The Standing Committee on Housing and Urban Affairs (Chair: Mr. Rajiv Ranjan Singh) submitted its report on ‘Evaluation of Implementation of Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).

PMAY-URBAN:

Launched in: 2015
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
Objective: To provide all weather pucca houses to all eligible beneficiaries in the urban areas of the country through States/UTs/Central Nodal Agencies.
Eligible beneficiaries: Economically Weaker Section (EWS)/Low Income Group (LIG), Middle Income Groupincluding the slum dwellers.
Coverage: Covers the entire urban area of the country, i.e., all statutory towns as per Census 2011 and towns notified subsequently, including Notified Planning/ Development Areas.
Components: Implemented through four verticals:
- Beneficiary Led Construction/ Enhancement (BLC):
- Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP):
- In-situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR):
- Credit Linked Subsidy Scheme (CLSS):

Initiative of this scheme:
- Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs) for Migrant Workers/ Urban Poor: A sub-scheme under PMAY-U to provide ease of living to urban migrants/ poor in Industrial Sector as well as in non-formal urban economy to get access to dignified affordable rental housing close to their workplace.
- CLSS Awas Portal (CLAP): A common platform where all stakeholders are integrated in real time environment. The portal facilitates processing of applications along with tracking of subsidy status by beneficiaries. CLSS tracker has also been incorporated in PMAY(U) mobile App and UMANG platform.
- ANGIKAAR- A campaign for change management: Focuses on adopting best practices such as water & energy conservation, waste management, health, sanitation and hygiene for PMAY(U) beneficiaries.
- Technology Sub Mission (TSM): It facilitates adoption of modern, innovative and green technologies and building materials for faster and quality construction of houses.
- Global Housing Technology Challenge - India: To identify and mainstream a basket of innovative construction technologies from across the globe for housing construction sector that are sustainable, eco-friendly and disaster-resilient.
Expected completion: December 2024 with all verticals, except CLSS.
Significance: The Mission promotes women empowerment by providing the ownership of houses in name of female member or in joint name.
- Preference has also been given to differently abled persons, senior citizens, SCs, STs, OBCs, Minority, single women, transgender and other weaker & vulnerable sections of the society.
- All houses under PMAY-U have basic amenities like toilet, water supply, electricity and kitchen.

PMAY-GRAMIN

Background: Indira Awaas yojana (IAY) has been restructured into PMAY-G.
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Rural Development
Launched in: 2016.
Type of scheme: Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
Aim: To ensure the provision of pucca housing for all individuals who are homeless or living in dilapidated houses in rural areas except Delhi and Chandigarh by 2024, instead of the previous goal of 2022.
Target: Construction of 2.95 crore houses by March 2024.
Funding pattern: Shared between Central and State Governments in the ratio 60:40 in plain areas and 90: 10 for North Eastern and Himalayan States.
Eligible Beneficiaries: All the houseless households living in zero, one, or two-room houses with kutcha walls and kutcha roofs.
Criteria for Automatic/Compulsory Inclusion:
- Households without shelter
- Destitute/ living on alms
- Manual scavengers
- Primitive Tribal Groups
- Legally released bonded labourer.
Selection of Beneficiaries: Through a three stage validation - Socio Economic Caste Census 2011, Gram Sabha, and geo-tagging.
Benefits: Financial Assistance of ₹ 1,20,000 per unit for plain areas, and ₹ 1,30,000 per unit for hilly areas, difficult areas, and Integrated Action Plan districts.
- Can avail of institutional finance (loan) of up to ₹ 70,000 at 3% lower interest rate. o The minimum size of the house shall be is 25 sq m including a dedicated area for hygienic cooking. o In convergence with Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin (SBM-G), get financial assistance of up to ₹ 12,000 for the construction of toilets.
- In convergence with MGNREGA, the beneficiary is entitled to employment as unskilled labour at ₹ 90.95 per day for 95 days.
- In convergence with Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, one LPG connection per house is provided. o Payments are made electronically directly to bank accounts or post office accounts that are linked to Aadhaar.
Exclusion: Candidates that have:
- motorised two wheeler, three-wheeler, four-wheeler and agriculture equipment or fishing boat, Kisan Credit Card (KCC) with a limit greater or equal to Rs.50,000, at least one member that is employed with the government or earning more than Rs. 10,000 per month, that pays Income Tax, professional tax or owns a refrigerator or landline phone connection.

Key observations & recommendations by Standing committee:

Gap in housing demand assessment: Under PMAY-U, initially the total housing shortage was estimated at two crore houses. However, the actual demand for housing under the scheme stands at 1.23 crore. The Ministry informed the Committee that the initial figure for housing shortage was based on estimates whereas the scheme was demand driven. The Committee observed that since it is a demand driven scheme, some homeless people might not have availed its benefits due to non-fulfilment of eligibility conditions or requirement of land. It recommended the Ministry to conduct an impact assessment and accordingly extend the scheme with necessary changes or formulate another scheme to provide housing for the urban poor.
Lack of basic amenities: As per PMAY-U guidelines, all houses under the affordable housing in partnership with private and public sectors and in-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR) verticals should have basic facilities like water, sanitation, and electricity. Further, urban local bodies (ULBs) should ensure that houses under credit linked subsidy scheme and beneficiary led construction (BLC) verticals have access to such basic services. The Committee noted that as of December 2022, 5.6 lakh houses were not delivered to beneficiaries due to lack of basic services.
Timeline for grounding and completion: Under PMAY-U, of the total 123 lakh sanctioned houses, 107 lakh houses (87%) have been grounded till December 2022 and 61 lakh houses have been delivered to beneficiaries. Further, as of October 2022, less than 50% of houses have been completed in north eastern states (except Tripura) due to geographical and economic reasons. The Committee recommended that in order to achieve the scheme’s target by December 31, 2024, the Ministry should ensure strict timelines for starting and completing the construction of houses.
Low sanctioning of houses under ISSR vertical: Under the ISSR vertical, slum dwellers are rehabilitated. The Committee noted that despite being an important vertical, as it provides housing to landless people, the number of houses sanctioned under it are low. Against a demand of 14.35 lakh houses, only 4.33 lakh were sanctioned. Further, as of December 2022, only 99,000 houses have been delivered and 1.08 lakh houses are non-starter (not grounded/ construction not started). Reasons for such poor performance under the ISSR vertical include availability of land, seeking statutory clearances, and clearing slums.