Mains Exhaustive

Maldives: Debt and dependence

Context: The International Monetary Fund, in Article IV consultation reports following the Covid pandemic year 2020, underlined vulnerability of Maldives to external and overall debt distress.

Evolution of the debt situation:

Growing distance between Maldives and India:
- India was asked to withdraw its uniformed personnel stationed in Maldives, which has caused strains in the bilateral relations, although India’s presence on the economic and regional security fronts has been larger.
- Formation of Anti-India Platform: President Mohamed Muizzu’s policy is more tilted towards Chinese support to increase trade, capital flows, tourism and overall economic stability.
Concerns:
- Following the Covid Pandemic, India raised bilateral disbursements of long-term credit and grants to Maldives, including, swap arrangements with the Reserve Bank of India ($400 million in 2020), which was paid back in two tranches.
- However, India’s share in Maldivian debt has been less than 10% since 2018.
- The rising presence of China in Maldives’ economy, which is located in the Indian Ocean region, is a concern for both India and the United States.
Rise in Debt:
- Increased gradually from $942 million in 2012 to $1,465.7 million in 2017
- Stock of external debt increased to $2,322.9 million in 2018; to $4,163.4 million in 2021 and to $4,033.8 million in 2022.
- The shift to the higher debt strategy for development was due to the increased financial flows from China.
The Government of Maldives, followed the examples of other small developed countries.
- Issuing sovereign bonds by exploiting the interest of yield-seeking global investors with access to cheap liquidity.
- Stock of Maldivian external debt held by bondholders rose from $250 million in 2017 to $350 million in 2020; reached $850 million 2021 and $600 million in 2022.
China’s share in Maldivian external debt:
- Increased from 7.5 per cent in 2012 to 14.9 per cent in 2015; 26.9 per cent in 2016; 39.9 per cent in 2018 and 43.5 per cent in. However, emergence of bondholder debt and increase in flows from India, brought China’s share down to 32.1 per cent in 2022.
- India’s share was 15.4 per cent in 2016 which fell to 3.8 per cent in 2021; increased to 8.1 per cent in 2022.
  - In 2020 (pandemic year), due to the swap agreement, the share of India reached 12.4 percent.
- During pandemic years, lending from the multilateral banks and institutions decreased continuously and reached 10.9 per cent in 2022.
- This had in turn created a window for China to emerge as the principal official creditor to the Maldives.
  - China’s share in official (bilateral and multilateral) credit standing reached 58.9 per cent in 2019 and 48 per cent in 2022.
- Maldives has also increased debt service to exports:
  - From 4.8 per cent in 2017 to 12.2 percent 2018-2019.
  - During the covid year, when revenue from tourism decreased, debt service reached 17.5 per cent in 2020 and 20.1 per cent in 2021.
- Ratio of reserves to external debt decreased to around 20 per cent in 2021-2022.
- Thus, the IMF identified Maldives being on the verge of debt distress.

Assessment by the IMF:

Chinese dominance, in the overall external debt exposure of Maldives and in overall official and bilateral debt exposure.
Small size of Maldives’ debt to China in relation to reserves of Maldives and its overall external lending, China’s can restructure or waive a significant volume of debt. This will increase its influence over the island nation.
Comprehensive Cooperative Strategic Partnership between China and the Maldives provided for grant assistance to Maldives.
Why is the IMF's assessment misleading?
- Assessing a country’s vulnerability to debt distress by taking account of the volume of aggregate public debt or external and domestic debt combined relative to the nation’s GDP.
- This mixes the external debt that needs to be serviced with foreign currency with domestic debt that must be serviced in local currency which the government controls.
- It also ignores the collapse of economic activity due to the Covid-19 pandemic, which led to fall in GDP and government revenues.
- This in turn, increased the ratio of public debt and debt service to other normalising variables. Although, pandemic related expenditures were not increased much.
- This also happened in the Case of Maldives: Ratio of external debt to GDP increased to 108 per cent in 2020.

Conclusion:

Maldives is facing debt stress that is difficult to resolve by the domestic government.
The international community should come forward without leaving a window for one or more countries, offering assistance to increase presence or influence on the debt-ridden nation.
Maldives is vulnerable to global warming and climate change effects, requiring it to spend significantly on adaptation and addressing loss and damage.
Countries that are responsible for the higher levels of carbon emissions must step forward and provide the funding needed to build the required resilience.

Land Management Overdue in India

Context: Growing Population, rapid urbanization, social, cultural, and environmental aspects are placing unprecedented pressure on land.

Need for Land Management

Land is integral to all human activities providing ecological, economic, social, and cultural services.
This multidimensional utility of land is often overlooked in land management practices leading to excessive stress and land degradation.
Globally, the annual losses of ecosystem services due to land degradation has been estimated at $6 trillion.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (COP14) in New Delhi in 2019 specifically discussed the problem of land degradation experienced by different countries and the need to find ways of achieving land degradation neutrality.
The Food and Agriculture Organization report, ‘State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: The System at Breaking Point’ (2021), argued that a sense of urgency needs to prevail over a hitherto neglected area of public policy and human welfare— that of caring for the long-term future of land, soil, and water.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s special report on ‘Climate Change and Land’ (2019) suggested country-level stocktaking of land management practices. It also proposed several near- and long-term actions with the thrust on land management options that reduce competition for land with co-benefits and minimum negative impacts on key ecosystem services.

Challenges in Land Management in India

India has 2.4% of the world’s geographical areas catering 17% of the world population and cattle population posing several management challenges.
Around 30% of total geographical area is degraded land. This is increasing due to unscientific agricultural practices, deforestation, and climate change.
Though arable land in India is 155 mha (~50% of GA), one of the largest in the world, however, around 58% of Indian population is still dependent on agriculture leading to intensive agricultural practices, land fragmentation and degradation of land.
Development targets and the demand for land to accommodate the growing population, infrastructure, rapid urbanization, and social, cultural, and environmental aspects are placing unprecedented pressure on land.
- This leads to land use conflict, escalation of land prices, changing land rights and eventually squeezing natural areas and compromising ecological services.
This adversely affect the livelihood opportunities of the people who directly depend on environmental resources, but also the buffering effects of natural ecosystems in the face of disasters such as floods and droughts, temperature rise, and environmental pollution are severely compromised.

Administrative Challenges

In India, current land management practices are sectoral with each department following its own approach.
Land management falls under the purview of State governments.
Further, cultural land is privately owned, and land-use decisions are constitutionally vested with the owner.
Apart from this administrative complexity, the challenges to adopt and implement appropriate land management practices in the country include:
- knowledge gaps, a short-term planning bias, a fragmented approach, lack of action for unforeseen events, and regulatory barriers.

Administrative Solutions

To achieving sectoral integration and addressing these challenges, it is imperative to set up a multi-stakeholder platform at the district and sub-district levels to bring together farmers, other land managers, policymakers, civil society organizations, business leaders, and investors under a common platform.
Article 243ZD (1) of the Constitution provides for district planning committees to consolidate plans from panchayats and municipalities.
- This committee may be activated in the direction of preparing a land management plan, covering both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.
A landscape approach will provide deep insights to assess the potential of land and the scope of allocation and reallocation of land for appropriate uses.
- This will help evaluation, negotiation, trade off, and decision-making.
A climate-smart landscape approach will contribute to climate objectives, increased agricultural production, improved local livelihoods and the conservation of biodiversity.

A case of Institutional Support

Science has shown the importance of considering land as a system and promoting integrated landscape management.
The U.K. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology in its Brief 42, ‘Sustainable land management: managing land better for environmental benefits’, in 2021 observed that “actions for addressing and adapting to climate change, achieving food security and tackling the biodiversity crisis are all embedded in and depend on how land is managed.”

India’s parliamentarians can initiate deliberations on the emerging challenges of integrated land management practices and help devise appropriate policies for long-term sustainability by involving all actors across the scale, both horizontal and vertical.

India to display relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand

Context: India will be holding an exposition of some of the relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand in February. The relics will be kept at the National Museum, Bangkok at first and then would be exhibited at different venues in Thailand.

(Fig.: Case containing four pieces of the Holy relics of Lord Buddha)

More about the news:

Relics of Lord Buddha along with the relics of two of his disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) preserved in Madhya Pradesh’s Sanchi are being sent.
These relics (known as Kapilavastu relics) are under the protection of the National Museum, India, were excavated from Piprahwa in Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh.
- Siddharthnagar, is an ancient city of Kapilavastu region.
- Kapilavastu, where Buddha is believed to be born in 563 BC (in the Sakya Kshatriya clan).

In 1952, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took ownership of Piprahwa and this enabled further excavations at the site.
The collection of sacred relics has been earlier taken to Sri Lanka in 1976 and 2012, Mongolia in 1993 and 2022, Singapore in 1994 and 2007, South Korea in 1995 and Thailand also in 1995.
These relics are categorised as ‘AA’ (rare) antiquities, which means they are not meant to be lent for exhibitions, within India or in foreign nations.
However, the exposition in Thailand was being held upon a ‘special request’ by the Thai Government.
The event will be organised by the Ministry of External Affairs in collaboration with the Indian Embassy in Thailand, the International Buddhist Confederation and the Madhya Pradesh government.

About Buddhism:

Buddhism belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements (means one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic).
Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth is the event when Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.
Buddha died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP) and the event is known as Mahaparinirvana.

Religious teachings of Buddha:

Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e., Buddha(the enlightened), Dhamma(doctrine) and Sangha(commune).
The core of his doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-sachchani (Four Noble Truths):
- there is suffering (dukkha);
- it has a cause (dukh samudaya);
- it can be removed (nirodha); and
- There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow (dukh nirodha gamini pratipada)

The way to achieve this is following the Atthanga-magga (Eight-fold Path)/ Ashtangik marga/ Madhya Marga (one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism. It consists of right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Buddha was against caste system and opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes.
Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained (free from the cycle of birth and rebirth).

Relics associated with Buddha

Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta (in Digha Nikaya) mentions that after attaining Parinirvana, the body of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.
First it was considered that ashes should go to the Sakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.
However, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions, for erecting stupa over the sacred relics.
- to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha;
- to the Licchavis of Vaishali;
- to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu;
- to the Bullis of Allakappa;
- to the Koliyas of Ramagama;
- to the Brahmana of Veṭhadipa;
- to the Mallas of Pava;
- to the Mallas of Kushinagara.

Stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
Two other important relics were distributed:
- Drona (the Brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated;
- Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.
Research and excavations support the authenticity of the stupa at Piprahwa,as well as the Relic Stupa of Vaishaliand the Ramabhar Stupa at Kushinagar.
- But the archaeological investigations to date have not definitively identified other remaining stupas.

Mahavaṃsa and Ashokavadana mentions that Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, collected seven of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them across 84,000 stupas. These stupas were constructed around the world.
As per the 5^th century scholar, Buddhaghosha, the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, believes that a proper Buddhist monastery was that which possessed the relics.
Relics of Buddha's noble disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) are preserved in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.

Some of the sacred Relics in India:

Kapilavastu relics:
- During an excavation in 1898, five small vases was found containing bone fragments, ashes, and jewels in a stupa in Piprahwa. (the Archaeological Survey of India has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu)
- The inscription on the lid, refers to the relics of Buddha and his community, the Sakya: ‘Sukiti bhatinam sa-bhaginikanam sa-puta-dalanam iyam salila nidhare Bhaddhasa bhagavate sakiyanam.’
- Means: ‘this shrine for relics of the Buddha, is that of the Sakyas. The brethren of the distinguished One, in association with their sisters and with their children and their wives.’
Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali (Bihar) as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE.
Devni Mori, Gujarat (a Buddhist archaeological site): Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third or fourth century were found during an excavation in 1962–1963.
Dhamma Vinaya Monastery Pune, Maharashtra, was constructed and relics of Gautam Buddha's and Arhant’s were enshrined.
- An Arhant is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment).

Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai, and the relics of the Buddha were enshrined in the central locking stone of the dome, making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha.
Lalitgiri, Odisha: A casket was discovered, believed to contain bones of Buddha.

To read about Buddhism, follow the link: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/india-to-host-maiden-global-buddhist-summit/

Donor gametes are allowed: New rule on surrogacy

Context: The Union government has modified Rule 7 the Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022 and notified that both gametes need not come from a married couple in case they are certified as suffering from a medical condition.

About Surrogacy:

Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 defines surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an intending couple with the intention to hand over the child after the birth to the intending couple.
Surrogacy can be classified into:
- Altruistic surrogacy entails no financial compensation for the surrogate.
- Commercial surrogacy involves paying the surrogate for bearing the child, implying a profit.
- Compensated surrogacy simply involves covering the incurred expenses and loss of wages.
In Devika Biswas v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that Right to Reproduction was an essential facet of the ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021:

The Act prohibits commercial surrogacy, but allows altruistic surrogacy.
The Act permits surrogacy when, an intending couples who suffer from proven infertility and an Indian woman who is a widow or divorcee between the age of 35 to 45 years and who intends to avail the surrogacy.
Surrogacy clinics are prohibited from conducting surrogacy or any associated procedures unless they receive registration approval from the relevant authority.
The National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSBs) shall be established by both the central and state governments, respectively.
For a surrogate mother to be eligible for a certificate from the appropriate authority, she must have a familial relationship with the intending couple; not have served as a surrogate mother previously; possess a certificate confirming her medical and psychological health, be an ever-married woman having a child of her own, and be 25 to 35 years old.
The surrogate mother is not allowed to use her own eggs for the surrogacy process.
An order of parentage and custody of the surrogate child passed by a Magistrate's court.
Insurance coverage for a period of 36 months Covering postpartum delivery complications for surrogate.

The rationale for this rule:

Prior to the March 2023 rules, which insisted on the use of both eggs and sperm from the intending couple, the 2023 surrogacy rules allowed the use of donor eggs, but not sperm.
The 2023 rules was challenged in the Supreme Court by a woman with Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser (MRKH) Syndrome, a rare congenital disorder that affects the reproductive system and can cause infertility.
The modifications in the Surrogacy Rules came after the Supreme Court doubted the correctness of the existing rules.
Also the quality and number of eggs go down with age. While the decline accelerates after the age of 35 years, doctors recommend definitely using a donor egg after the age of 45 years.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022:

As per the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, the couple can have a child born through surrogacy but must have at least one gamete from the intending couple, thus restricted married couples from getting donor gametes.
In case when the District Medical Board certifies that either husband or wife constituting the intending couple suffers from medical condition necessitating use of donor gamete, then surrogacy using donor gamete is allowed.
While the relaxation is for intending couple only. If a divorced or widowed woman opts for surrogacy, the egg has to come from the mother and Single woman (widow or divorcee), undergoing surrogacy must use self-eggs and donor sperms to avail surrogacy procedure.

Challenges of this act:

Exclusionary: The provisions deny this opportunity to LGBTQ+ persons, live-in couples, unmarried women and single parents.
Altruistic surrogacy is paternalistic – It expects a woman to go through the physical and emotional tolls of surrogacy free of cost and only out of ‘compassion’. Thus reinforcing age old patriarchal norm of no economic value to the women’s work.
It doesn’t respect the bodily autonomy of women – By shifting from right based to need based approach it snatches away the right of a women to decide upon her reproductive choices. Further it is and violative of her fundamental rights under Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (right to life) of the Constitution.
Impetus to black marketing- Blanket ban on commercial surrogacy may lead to creation of unregulated, exploitative underground/black markets.
Does not defines close relative – The act didn’t define ‘close relative’, which is a condition to be fulfilled by the surrogate mother. Thus scope for confusion and exploitation of loop holes is always there.
Reproductive liberty to the couples – Several restriction in form of eligibility criteria etc restricts the surrogacy option to intending couple which is a denial of reproductive liberty to them.
No power to make decision on abortion – Intending couple don’t have final say in the consent to abort a surrogate child, even if the child being born out of a surrogacy arrangement is at the risk of physical or mental abnormalities.
Identity and emotional aspect – Several times couples do not want to reveal their plans of oping for surrogacy,now putting the condition of close relative to be a surrogate clearly ignores this aspect and restricts the choices. Further, familial bonds and interaction may involve high emotional complications between surrogate mother and intended parents.
Definition of infertility: Infertility is restricted to failure to conceive, does not cover other issues that a women may face in delivering a child.

Way forward:

The government should remove the time limit for IVF treatment before permitting surrogacy, taking into consideration medical circumstances and concerns that deter some women from childbirth.
The government is should address postpartum depression by implementing provisions for its management, and maternal benefits should be accessible to all mothers.
Government should provide clear definition of close relative and infertility.
With appropriate safeguards, expanding the surrogacy sector to include commercial surrogacy will benefit individuals who long for the experience of parenthood.
Government should include live-in couples, unmarried women, and single parents in this act, as Right to Reproduction is the fundamental rights .

Lakshadweep’s potential

Context: Old Mangalore Port aims to become the gateway for Lakshadweep’s logistical and tourism needs.

Lakshadweep

It is India’s smallest Union Territory, is an archipelago consisting of 36 islands with an area of 32 sq. km.
Capital- Kavaratti
The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means ‘a hundred thousand islands.
It comprises of 12 atolls, three reefs, five submerged banks and ten inhabited islands.
Only BSNL and Airtel provides telecommunication services to Lakshadweep Islands.
The Union Territory was formed in 1956 and it was named Lakshadweep in 1973.

Flora and Fauna

The flora of the islands includes Banana, Vazha, Colocassia, Chambu, Drumstic moringakkai, Bread Fruit, Chakka, wild almond which are grown extensively.
Some of the shrub jungles plant like Kanni, Punna, Chavok, Cheerani are unevenly grown throughout the island.
Coconut, Thenga is the only crop of economic importance in Lakshadweep.
The commonly seen vertebrates are cattle and poultry.
Oceanic birds generally found in Lakshadweep are Tharathasi and Karifetu.

Culture and Heritage

Kolkali and Parichakali are the two popular folk-art forms in the Territory.
They are an integral part of the cultural milieu except in Minicoy where “LAVA” is the most popular dance form.
Some of the folk dances have a resemblance with those in Northeastern India.
For marriages “OPPANA” is a common feature, a song sung by a lead singer and followed by a group of women.
Picnics are a common leisure activity in Minicoy.
The most widely celebrated festivals are Independence Day and Republic Day, Milad – Ul – Nabi, Idulfitr, Bakrid, and Muharram in that order.
Interestingly Independence Day and Republic Day are celebrated for days with religious fervour.

Location

The Eight Degree Channel separates the islands of Minicoy and Maldives.
The Nine Degree Channel separates the island of Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep archipelago.
Minicoy is the largest island.

Potential of Lakshadweep

Tourism:

Untouched beauty: Lakshadweep's pristine beaches, coral reefs, lagoons, and diverse marine life make it a paradise for nature lovers and water sports enthusiasts.
Unique culture: Experience the rich cultural heritage of the Lakshadweep people, their traditional music, dance, and cuisine.
Sustainable tourism: Initiatives promoting eco-friendly practices and community-based tourism can ensure the islands' long-term sustainability.

Strategic location:

Lakshadweep's proximity to international shipping routes presents an opportunity for it to become a logistics hub.

Lakshadweep can serve India as a Strategic Sentinel, Maritime Guardian and certainly as a Diplomatic Asset in the Indian Ocean.

Its strategic importance can be highlighted as follows-

Naval Outpost: Lakshadweep islands can serve as the naval outpost for Indian Naval assets deployed in the Arabian Sea.
Monitor Smuggling: Lakshadweep may be used as a base for smuggling of arms and narcotics in the country. The area needs to be secured for internal security.
Tackle Piracy: Lakshadweep can serve as a vantage point to monitor any movement of pirate vessels in the Arabian Sea.
Shipping Lines: The nine-degree channel near Lakshadweep is the shortest route for ships connecting west and East Asia. This can be effectively monitored from the Lakshadweep islands.
Strategic Tool: Lakshadweep development can be used by India as a bargaining chip while dealing with China-favouring Maldives.
Joint Domination of IOR: As India emerges as a superpower in the geopolitics of the globe and other major regional powers are joining hands with India, Lakshadweep can be used as a hub for training and coordination of naval forces in the IOR. It is also strategically beneficial for joint exercises with friendly forces like QUAD.

Defence: Over the years, India has bolstered its defence presence in Lakshadweep.

In 2010, coast guard stations were established in Kavaratti and Minicoy islands, strengthening the Indian Coast Guard.
The first naval base, INS Dweeprakshak, was commissioned in Kavaratti in 2012, followed by another coast guard station in Androth.
These installations serve surveillance and reporting functions, with potential to become logistics bases.
Plans include a fully operational navy base in Lakshadweep and a larger facility on Minicoy, considering its proximity to the Maldives.
The Indian Navy maintains a limited presence, including naval air stations for regional surveillance, aiming for increased dominance in the area.

Logistic hub:

Amini, Kadamat, Bitra, Chetlat, Kiltan and Agatti islands are closer to Mangaluru.
Andorth, Kavaratti and Kalpeni islands are closer to Kozhikode, and Minicoy is closer to Kochi in Kerala.
- Karnataka government has proposed building a dedicated jetty for Lakshadweep, with allied infrastructure for cargo and cruise terminal, at Old Mangalore Port at a cost of ₹65 crore under the Sagarmala project.
- It intends to establish a sea-trade route with Lakshadweep and, as part of the cruise terminal, create waterways travel facilities for locals.

Fisheries: The islands have abundant fish resources, offering potential for sustainable fishing practices and development of the seafood industry.

Renewable energy: Lakshadweep's strong winds and sunshine can be harnessed for wind and solar power generation.

Other potential areas:

Agriculture and allied activities: Coconut, coir, and fisheries are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy. Diversification into other crops and value-added products can be explored.
Research and development: Lakshadweep's unique marine ecosystem offers opportunities for research in marine biology, oceanography, and climate change.
Challenges and considerations:
Environmental sustainability: Development should be mindful of preserving the fragile island ecosystem and minimizing pollution.
Livelihoods and cultural preservation: The interests and well-being of the local communities should be central to any development plans.
Connectivity and infrastructure: Improving transportation links and infrastructure is essential for unlocking Lakshadweep's full potential.

By addressing these challenges and capitalizing on its strengths, Lakshadweep can chart a course for sustainable and inclusive development, becoming a model for island development in the region.

India’s natural gas imports to grow at 4.9% annually till 2050

Context: Net imports of natural gas by India, the world’s fourth largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), is expected to grow at an average of 4.9 per cent annually between 2022 and 2050.

What is Natural gas?

Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed from the plants, animals, and microorganisms that lived millions of years ago.
As plants, animals, and microorganisms decompose, they are gradually covered by layers of soil, sediment, and sometimes rock. Over millions of years, the organic matter is compressed. As the organic matter moves deeper into Earth’s crust, it encounters higher and higher temperatures.
The combination of compression and high temperature causes the carbon bonds in the organic matter to break down. This molecular breakdown produces thermogenic methane—natural gas.
Composition?
- Methane 97% (CH4)
- Ethane 0.919% (C2H6)
- Propane 0.363% (C3H8)
- Butane 0.162% (C4H10)
- Carbon dioxide 0.527% (CO2)
- Oxygen 0-0.08% (O2)
- Nitrogen 0.936% (N2)
- Other noble gases (e.g., He, Ne, Ar, Xe)

Natural gas formation:

Sedimentary basins trap huge reservoirs of natural gas.
Natural gas deposits are often found near oil deposits.
Deposits of natural gas close to Earth’s surface are usually dwarfed by nearby oil deposits.
Deeper deposits—formed at higher temperatures and under more pressure—have more natural gas than oil.
The deepest deposits can be made up of pure natural gas.

Biogenic vs thermogenic Methane:

Thermogenic methane is produced deep within the seafloor when organic material is degraded by the earth's heat.
Biogenic methane is produced as a waste product when microorganisms called methanogenic archaea eat organic material; these microorganisms can only produce methane in reducing environments.
- Methanogens live in the intestines of animals (including humans) and in low-oxygen areas near the surface of Earth. Landfills, for example, are full of decomposing matter that methanogens break down into a type of methane called biogenic methane. The process of methanogens creating natural gas (methane) is called methanogenesis.

Note: Although most biogenic methane escapes into the atmosphere, there are new technologies being created to contain and harvest this potential energy source. Thermogenic methane can also escape into the atmosphere. Some of the gas is able to rise through permeable matter, such as porous rock, and eventually dissipate into the atmosphere.

Conventional Natural Gas	Unconventional Natural gas
Conventional gas is trapped in permeable material beneath impermeable rock. Economical to extract and easily accessible.	Biogas Deep Natural Gas Shale gas Tight gas Coal Bed methane Methane hydrates

Natural gas in India:

India’s geography heavily affects access to both its natural resources and to its natural gas imports.
India does not import natural gas via pipeline, partially due to the deserts and mountains forming much of its northern border. As a result, domestic production and liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports remain the primary sources of India’s natural gas supply.
Most domestic production in India, about two-thirds in 2019, is from offshore production fields.
India uses a complex pipeline infrastructure to link offshore natural gas production and LNG imports that arrive at coastal import terminals to the rest of the country.
Presently in India the share of natural gas in energy basket is 6.7%. The Government has set a target to raise the share of natural gas in energy mix to 15% in 2030.
Methane emissions in India:
Acc to IEA, India=2^nd largest methane emitter.
The two predominant sources of methane emissions in India are enteric fermentation and paddy cultivation.

A pie chart with different colored sections

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According to the report, India’s industrial sector—in particular, ammonia production intended to decrease fertilizer imports—as well as a growing oil refining sector will drive most of the growth in natural gas consumption over the projection period.

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Context: Wayanad is on the boil after a radio-collared wild elephant chased a 47-year-old man and trampled him to death, inside a gated property in a residential area. Locals allege inaction on the part of forest and revenue officials, and are demanding the capture of the killer elephant.

What is Human-wildlife conflict?

Human-wildlife conflict is when encounters between humans and wildlife lead to negative results, such as loss of property, livelihoods, and even life.

In India almost all the states are vulnerable to Human-wildlife conflict but in different intensity.

What are the causes behind rising human-wildlife conflict?

Human-wildlife conflicts are becoming more frequent, serious and widespread because of human population growth, agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, climate change and other drivers of habitat loss.

Habitat Loss: As human populations grow and urban areas expand, natural habitats are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate. This loss of habitat is forcing animals to venture into human settlements in search of food and water, often leading to conflicts with humans.
Climate Change: As temperatures rise, water sources dry up and food becomes scarcer, animals are being forced to venture further and further out of their natural habitats in search of resources. This brings them into closer contact with humans, increasing the likelihood of conflict.
Human Encroachment: As people move into previously undeveloped areas, they disrupt the natural balance of the ecosystem, often forcing animals to migrate or adapt to new conditions. Agriculture, deforestation, over grazing, poaching etc has increased human interference. This can lead to conflicts as animals struggle to adapt to their changing environment.

Lack of Proper Planning: As urban areas expand, there is often little consideration given to the impact on local ecosystems and wildlife. This lack of planning can result in human settlements being built in areas that were once the natural habitats of animals, increasing the likelihood of conflict.
Human-Wildlife Interaction: As more people travel to remote areas for tourism or adventure, they come into contact with animals that may not be used to human presence. This can lead to dangerous situations where humans and animals clash.

Some of the important case studies in this regard:

Hemis National Park (Ladakh): Covering 3,350 km2 in the trans-Himalayas, this is ideal habitat for snow leopard, wolf, and four species of wild sheep and goats. About 1600 people, living in 16 settlements across three valleys, inhabit the park. These people, largely agro-pastoralists, grow barley and certain vegetables, and own over livestock, of which 81% are sheep and goats and 11% are yaks. Reduced daytime guarding practices (as more children are going to school, and youths are less willing to watch over livestock), dramatic increase in livestock numbers due to increased use of modern animal husbandry techniques and increase in predator number on account of protection measure have led to increase in conflict.

Sanjay Gandhi National Park is one of the largest parks in the world found the heart of a city, in this case Mumbai. However in spite of its proximity to dense human populations, the report says that there have not been attacks on people. A fully grown leopard needs an average space of 10 sqkm each. So, while there should be 11 or 12 animals in the forest, the National Park houses 21. The leopards prey on stray dogs instead of more wild fare. Due to the easy availability of this prey, they do not attack humans. However this has raised the concern that wild leopards could contract rabies.

Wayanad region in Kerala: The district’s forests are a part of a greater forested area comprising Nagarhole Tiger Reserve, Bandipur National Park, and BR Tiger Reserve in Karnataka, and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve and Sathyamangalam Forest in Tamil Nadu. Decline in the quality of forest habitats, largely due to the cultivation of alien plants — mainly acacia, mangium and eucalyptus — in forest tracts for commercial purposes and changes in agricultural practices like farmland being left unattended makes them ideal targets for wildlife looking to snack on bananas and pineapples, among the most cultivated crops in the region.

What are the impacts of human-wildlife conflict?

On the species - It may result in the decline and potential eradication of species.
On the communities - Communities can experience financial losses and threats to health and safety, livelihoods, food security, and property. Crop damages, livestock depredation highly impact the local communities.
On the ecosystem – Disturbed predator-prey balance, alterations in food web and reduced biodiversity further impact the ecosystem services having long term implication for the ecosystem as a whole.

What can be a way ahead in this regard?

Important guidelines as per the National wildlife action plan 2017-2030 in this regard:

Identify and document the range of conflicts for the wildlife species that regularly come into conflict with people. Develop national, regional and State level databases for all wild animals involved in HWC to document frequencies of conflicts, quantum of damage to human life and property, and wildlife deaths due to conflict.
Draw up comprehensive, science-based species-specific and region-specific, conflict-mitigation plans. These plans should focus primarily on scientific management of wildlife populations as well as land-use practices that aid and abet conflicts in and around PAs as well as urban, semi-urban and rural landscapes. These plans should be jointly developed by forest managers, scientists, community leaders as well as communication experts. These should consider and address human practices that promote conflict as well as incorporate traditions, beliefs and practices that allow for conflict resolution or enhancement of human- tolerance for wild animals.
Constitute a well-trained and adequately equipped workforce in the State Forest Departments (SFDs) to actively address HWC situations in situ, especially those involving dangerous large mammals.
Create a Centre of Excellence (CoE) for HWC mitigation, under the aegis of the MoEFCC, to address, develop and implement long-term and short-term measures to reduce the adverse impacts of such conflicts.
Formulate and implement extensive education and awareness programmes to reduce the growing animosity among people towards wild animals involved in conflict situations, as well as to enlist their help in mitigating conflicts.
Encourage community participation in the HWC mitigation, by equipping them and training them in appropriate mitigation methods, as well as educating them to avoid mob formation and harassment of wild animals during operations by the wildlife managers and experts.

Foreign university campuses in India

Context: Foreign universities looking to set up campuses in India are like a “new fruit” in the market and pose no threat to top-rung B-schools in India.

Regulation on setting up foreign university campuses in India:

In line with NEP 2020, the University Grants Commission (UGC) regulates foreign universities to establish campuses in India. The guidelines of UGC:

Eligibility Criteria: Two categories of Foreign Higher Education Institutions (FHEIs) are eligible to seek permission to open campuses in India: Universities ranked among the top 500 globally (either overall or in specific subjects), and respected institutions from their home countries.
Approval Procedure: The UGC will establish a permanent committee to evaluate each application on its merits, considering factors such as the credibility of the educational institutions, the programs they intend to offer, their ability to enhance educational opportunities in India, and the proposed academic infrastructure.
Fee Structure: The university will decide how much to charge for tuition and other fees. The fee structure will be clear and fair.
Faculty: They will have the freedom to hire faculty and staff from India and other countries, and decide the qualifications for hiring faculty and staff.
National Interest: FHEIs must not offer any program or course that jeopardizes India’s national interest or higher education standards. The operations of FHEIs should align with India’s sovereignty, integrity, and security, as well as promote good relations with other countries, uphold public order, decency, and morality.

Benefits of establishing Foreign University Campuses in India:

Quality-upgradation: Foreign university campuses often come with advanced teaching methodologies, state-of-the-art infrastructure, and experienced faculty, can lead to an overall improvement in the quality of education provided in India.
Development of internationally relevant curriculum: Foreign universities typically offer programs that are aligned with global industry trends and standards, by establishing their campuses in India, they can introduce courses and curriculum that are internationally recognized and relevant, thus better preparing students for global careers and enhancing their employability.
Reduce the need for foreign exchange: The presence of campuses of foreign universities may ease the tendency to shift abroad for higher studies and will help reduce the need for foreign exchange. Currently, around 11.3 lakh Indian students are studying abroad, with estimated annual spending ranging between US$ 13-30 billion every year. (Rajya Sabha: 2022)
Boosting Research: Enrollment in M. Phil and PhD courses remains notably low in India, expected that campuses of FHEIs will improve enrolments in research courses and help improve the ecosystem in India.
Cultural Exchange: Having foreign universities in India can foster cultural exchange and understanding between India and other countries and also would attract students from other countries to come to India for their higher education, thereby boosting the Indian economy.

The impact may be limited due to following challenges:

Affordability: UGC regulations allow FHEls to decide their fee structure which may primarily cater to wealthy and make education unaffordable for marginalised sections.
No-incentive for FHEIs: In absence of government funding, FHEIs require huge investment on their part for setting and operating campuses, which may not incentivise them to set up campuses in India.
Quality: UGC regulations include "reputed FHEls" in their home country eligible to open campuses in India. However, home reputation without standard assessment is subjective criteria which can be manipulated, raising quality concerns.
Multiple global rankings: Such as the QS, Times Higher Education, Financial Times Rankings etc., and the regulations have not elaborated which rankings shall be considered for eligibility criteria.
National security clause is too restrictive in nature: Some of the terms like morality and decency are subjective based on cultural differences, may make foreign faculty reluctant to join Indian campuses.

Challenges to India’s Higher Education:

Dilution of quality of education: With foreign universities focused on making a profit, there is a fear that they would compromise on the quality of education to attract more students.
Lack of focus on the needs of the Indian Education: With foreign universities focused on their interests, there is a fear that they would not consider the specific needs of the Indian higher education system, could lead to a mismatch between the education provided by foreign universities and the needs of the Indian job market.
No-Affirmative Actions: Absence of any kind of affirmative action in FHEIs campuses in India will further reduce weaker sections' access to higher education, can further widen the educational disparity among students.
Not a level playing field: FHEIs can operate as for-profit institutions and will be permitted to repatriate surplus funds abroad. In contrast, Indian public Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are not for-profit entities and are required to reinvest any surplus funds. This distinction will place FHEIs on a different footing compared to Indian HEIs.

Way Forward:

The Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) should establish standards and uniform guidelines for both Indian and Foreign HEIs to ensure quality education and regulatory coherence across the higher education sector.
International accreditation for Indian HEIs would enhance their global reputation and competitiveness.
Offering scholarships to students from backward classes and marginalized sections to study at Indian campuses of FHEIs would promote inclusivity and access to quality education.
The government should establish clear guidelines and regulations for accreditation of foreign universities in India, can help ensure that these institutions operate in a way that is consistent with Indian laws and regulations.
Extending National Assessment and Accreditation Council’s (NAAC) benchmark for assessing universities to FHEIs would ensure that foreign institutions operating in India are held to the same standards of quality and excellence as Indian universities, would contribute to maintaining consistency and fairness in evaluating educational institutions, thereby safeguarding the quality of education.

Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project

Context: Kaladan Multimodal Project has suffered a setback due to the capture of a Paletwa town in Myanmar by a rebel group.

About Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP)

It will connect the eastern Indian seaport of Kolkata with Sittwe seaport in Rakhine State, Myanmar by sea.
In Myanmar, it will then link Sittwe seaport to Paletwa in Chin State via the Kaladan river boat route, and then from Paletwa by road to Mizoram state in Northeast India.
It will reduce distance from Kolkata to Sittwe by approximately 1,328 km and will reduce the need to transport goods through the narrow Siliguri corridor, also known as Chicken's Neck.

Uttar Pradesh Model to tackle malnutrition: Take home ration model

Context: Uttar Pradesh is a remarkable example of the importance of women’s empowerment in tackling malnutrition by supporting community-based micro enterprises led by self-help groups.

About Malnutrition:

According to the World Health Organisation:

It refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients.
The term malnutrition covers 2 broad groups of conditions:
- One is ‘undernutrition’: Includes stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height), underweight (low weight for age) and micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals).
- The other is overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer).

Conditions such as celiac disease and infections like h. pylori or worm infestations can disturb the digestive system, leading to nutrient deficiencies.
Malnutrition caused by micronutrient deficiency has inter-generational impacts - anaemic mothers are known to give birth to anaemic babies.
Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) is defined by a very low weight for height, severe visible wasting, or the presence of nutritional oedema.

Extent of malnutrition in India:

According to UNICEF, India was at the 10th spot among countries with the highest number of underweight children, and at the 17th spot for the highest number of stunted children in the world
According to National Family Health Survey 5, from 38.4% to 35.5% of children under age five years are stunted, 21.0% to 19.3% are wasted, 35.8% to 32.1% are underweight and 3% are overweight.
7.7 percent of children in the country are affected by SAM.
Among adults, 23% of women and 20% of men are considered undernourished in India. On the other hand, 21% of women and 19% of men are overweight or obese.

Government initiative to tackle malnutrition:

National Nutrition Strategy by Niti Aayog: To reduce all forms of malnutrition by 2030, with a focus on the most vulnerable and critical age groups. The Strategy also aims to assist in achieving the targets identified as part of the Sustainable Development Goals related to nutrition and health.
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme: To improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age-group 0-6 years;
Prime Minister’s Overarching Scheme for Holistic Nutrition Abhiyaan (POSHAN Abhiyaan 2.0): To strengthen nutritional content, delivery, outreach and outcomes with focus on developing practices that nurture health, wellness and immunity to disease and malnutrition
Mid-Day Meal Scheme: It provides that every child aged six to fourteen years, attending classes I to VIII, shall receive a free, hot cooked meal every day except on school holidays.
Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojna (IGMSY): To contribute to a better enabling environment by providing cash incentives for improved health and nutrition to pregnant and lactating mothers.
National Food Security Act (NFSA): This act aims to provide subsidized food grains to a majority of the population, including children, to ensure access to adequate food.

Challenges in tackling malnourishment in India:

Issues with ICDS: Lack of quality food supply and uniform distribution of food.
- Anganwadi workers' effectiveness in addressing malnutrition is hindered by low wages and inadequate training.
- Non- availability of instruments for child development: Height and weight measuring instruments in Anganwadi Centres (AWCs).
- More than 80% of Anganwadi centers in rural areas of the state lack proper sanitation facilities and access to clean drinking water, contributing to the prevalence of diseases that exacerbate malnutrition, such as diarrhoea and parasitic infections.
- Less than 50% of the total allocated funds for the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) were utilized in 2018-19, indicating underutilization of funds.

Lack of credible data on a year-to-year basis: There was a 10-year gap between NFHS 3 and NFHS 4 surveys.
Poverty and income inequality: Malnutrition arises from the vicious cycle that starts with poverty. Low-income families have less access to resources to attain healthy meals, leading to insufficient nutrients in their diets, which subsequently leads to malnutrition.
Rice wheat-based policy: India’s food security policy gave excessive focus to rice and wheat for many decades.
Poor feeding practices: Malnutrition among children can be attributed to poor feeding practices, which encompass various factors such as premature weaning, insufficient exclusive breastfeeding, and inadequate complementary feeding.
Climate change impact: Erratic rainfall and increasing frequency of extreme events have impacted agricultural activities everywhere creating unfavourable conditions for food production.
Corruption: Corruption in PDS is widely recognised. PDS a food distribution scheme is mired with inefficiencies and corrupt practices denying food to many. E.g: NAN scam of Chhattisgarh.

Suggestive measures to tackle malnutrition:

Need to invest in the infrastructure of ICDS and the Anganwadi centres as well as improve their coverage.
Promoting breastfeeding: Emphasizing exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months and sustained breastfeeding up to two years enhances the nutritional well-being of infants and young children.
Enhancing dietary diversity: Encouraging a balanced and diverse diet incorporating fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and animal-source foods helps address nutrient deficiencies. For example: Haryana is providing financial incentives of ₹7,000 per acre to farmers for shifting from paddy to pulses, oilseeds, and cotton.
Need to implement Buddy Mothers Model, the mother of a healthy baby guides the mother of a malnourished child at an Angandwadi centre every week in the all over India so that children can enjoy their right to stay healthy.
Social audit of Mid-day meal scheme: The mid-day meal scheme should undergo a social audit in every district by the states and union territories.
Establishing an Agriculture-Nutrition Corridor: Can be pivotal in addressing India's nutritional challenges, particularly in its undernourished villages. This initiative aims to develop mechanisms to ensure the nutritional security of villages.
Cash transfers: Especially in regions experiencing acute distress, where household purchasing power is very depressed. It can also be used to incentivise behavioural change in terms of seeking greater institutional support.

Take home ration model

Collaboration between United Nations World Food Programme (WFP)and the Department of Women and Child Development aims to boost the nutritional value and utilization of supplementary nutrition in Uttar Pradesh's ICDS scheme. Focus on enriching take home ration products to promote diversity and increase consumption.
Women’s empowerment in tackling malnutrition by supporting community-based micro enterprises led by self-help groups. These enterprises produce fortified and nutritious foods for pregnant/breastfeeding mothers and children, provided as take home ration through the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme.
Engaging women from the community to run the take home ration production units. They have been provided with machinery and raw materials such as wheat at subsidised rates to produce and distribute take home ration, this unique gender-transformative approach provides livelihood opportunities to local women, empowering them economically.
The model involves the production of different variants for ICDS beneficiaries. This is done by a 20-member women group that uses automated equipment with a capacity of five metric tonnes per day.
Once the rations are delivered to Anganwadi centres by the women’s groups, the women are reimbursed according to ICDS cost norms.
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories-accredited laboratories test the products before dispatch to Anganwadi centres to certify the requisite calorie and protein values and ensure food safety.

Equity concerns in banning fossil fuel extraction

Context - Momentum is also growing in favour of a Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty. There is a proposal in academic literature which sets out the case for a coal elimination treaty by 2030 with the aim of phasing out the mining and the burning of coal.

Summary:

The text discusses the evolving discourse on phasing out fossil fuels, beginning with its emergence in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at COP26 in 2021. COP28 in Dubai in 2023 further emphasized the transition away from fossil fuels to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, aligning with the goals set in the Paris Agreement. The text argues that unabated fossil fuel production is incompatible with achieving long-term temperature goals and preventing climate disruption.

Important points:

Economically diversified nations like Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom are deemed more capable of transitioning due to their non-fossil fuel income and higher per capita income.
In contrast, countries such as Azerbaijan, Congo, Iraq, Nigeria, Oman, and Timor Leste, heavily dependent on fossil fuels, face limited capacity to transition and cannot be expected to lead in phasing out fossil fuels.
Further the international law asserts that a state has a right to use natural resources within its territory for economic development while highlighting due diligence obligations to prevent trans-boundary harm.
- In this regard there are unclear applications of environmental impact assessment (EIA) obligations in the context of global commons, particularly for fossil fuel extraction.
- Scholars are noted for advocating EIA requirements (for local as well as global impact) and emphasizing human rights concerns, citing potential violations in tribal areas of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

Indian case:

Despite its progress in renewable energy, Fossil fuels still dominate India's power sector, with millions employed in related sectors.
India needs transition support, economic opportunities, and livelihood creation, particularly in the face of serious unemployment concerns.
India was successful at COP 26 in adjusting language from "phasing out" to "phasing down" unabated coal.

The text advocates for India's coalition building strategy with like-minded developing countries to counter perceived hypocrisy from developed nations, especially major fossil fuel producers planning production increases.

Mughal ruler Aurangzeb

Context: The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17^th century.

About the news article:

Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
- According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken.
- Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places.
Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events.
- As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666.
- As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
- The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak.
Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state.
- In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
- In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.

History Kashi Vishwanath temple:

Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India.
Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India are: Somnath in Gujarat; Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh; Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh; Kedarnath in Uttarakhand; Bhimashankar in Maharashtra; Vishvanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra; Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand; Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat; Rameshwar at Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar in Aurangabad in Maharashtra.

Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar
Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.

About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb:

Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647.
He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories.
Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession.
In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat.
Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort.
The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam.
He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India.
Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707.

Deccan Ulcer:

Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan was basically motivated by curtailing the influence of the Marathas, containing the rebellions by Shia kingdoms-Golconda and Bijapur and keeping in check his own son’s rebellions.
He successfully annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Historians see the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms as the major blunder, as these kingdoms acted as the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
Now, Mughals had to face direct confrontations with the Marathas.
As per the historian, J.N. Sarkar, the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ ruined Aurangzeb.
Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, generals of Aurangzeb, were sent to capture Shivaji.
Jai Singh successfully captured Shivaji, but Shivaji escaped to the Deccan, using the Guerrilla warfare tactics, which was not an integral part of Mughal Army strategies.
The long battle with Marathas severely impacted the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb:

He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land).
He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law.
He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
- Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
  - The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
  - In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
  - Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
  - He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
- Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions:
  - Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
  - Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold: first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
  - For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
  - However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
- Discriminatory toll/tax:
  - He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code.
  - Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax.
- Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
  - For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
  - He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas.
Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
- Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
- Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb.
- Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.

Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:

Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country.

Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
Conflict with the Satnamis: In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
Conflict with the Sikhs: The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully.

Conclusion:

The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.