Mains Exhaustive

India – France: Strategic partners

Context: French President Emmanuel Macron graced India's Republic Day as the chief guest, marking his third visit to India since 2018. 

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India – France Bilateral Relations:

India and France share a longstanding and amicable relationship, marked by a Strategic Partnership established in 1998. This partnership signifies their alignment on various global issues, in addition to fostering a robust bilateral connection. The primary pillars of this Strategic Partnership include cooperation in Defence & Security, Space, and Civil nuclear domains. Beyond these, both nations have expanded their collaboration to encompass new frontiers such as security in the Indian Ocean region, joint efforts in addressing climate change and mutual focus on sustainable growth and development. India and France exhibit a high degree of alignment on regional and global matters. 

Areas of cooperation
Economic India and France have important bilateral investments and commercial cooperation, particularly in sectors involving IT corridors, smart-cities, railways, capital and trade exchanges, skill development etc. France has emerged as a major source of FDI for India with more than 1,000 French establishments already present in India. France is the 11th largest foreign investor in India which accounts for 1.68% of the total FDI inflows into India. A Joint Economic Committee which exists at the Ministerial level has setup FAST-TRACK system for French companies in India and Indian companies in France. 
Defence & SecurityIndia signed an Inter-governmental agreement to purchase 36 Rafale fighter aircraft, with formal induction held in 2020. The P-75 Scorpene Project, involving the construction of six submarines under technology transfer from DCNS (Naval group). Further, both countries hold regular defence exercises; viz. Exercise Shakti (Army), Exercise Varuna (Navy), Exercise Garuda (Air Force). (#PrelimsFact)
Diplomatic collaborationBoth nations have extended their collaborative efforts beyond the original pillars of nuclear, space, and defense. The agenda now includes vital aspects such as counterterrorism, intelligence sharing, and cybersecurity. The joint statement issued by them reinforces shared perspectives on ongoing conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza, showcasing an enhanced and diversified collaboration that surpasses the initial focus areas. Notably, France holds the distinction of being the first P-5 country to endorse India's pursuit of a permanent seat in the UN Security Council (UNSC). During the visit of PM Modi to France in 2023, both countries shared a document, “Horizon 2047” a strategic road map for the next 25 years, which includes cooperation in defence, space, nuclear energy, climate change and green transitions as well as education and people-to-people ties.
Cultural collaborationIndian culture holds a significant presence in France, evident with the upcoming Vivekananda Cultural Centre in Paris. The ‘Namaste France’ cultural festival, initiated after President Hollande's 2016 visit, showcased diverse aspects of Indian culture across 40 French cities. In reciprocation, ‘Bonjour India’ was organized in India by French communities from November 2017 to February 2018. Moreover, every year at the famous Cannes Film Festival, an Indian delegation participates through an India pavilion to promote Indian films at the international stage.
Space & TechnologyIndia and France have a rich history of cooperation in the field of space for over fifty years with ISRO and the French Space Agency, CNES carrying on various joint research programmes and launch of satellites. India and France issued a “Joint Vision for Space Cooperation” in 2018 and exchanged cooperative proposals addressing Earth observation, Maritime domain awareness, Global navigation satellite system, exploration of solar system, space transportation system and human spaceflight. CNES is supporting Indian human space flight programme – Gaganyaan, in the field of space medicine and supply of crew support elements. 
Civil Nuclear CooperationAn agreement on civil nuclear cooperation was signed between India and France in 2008. Subsequently, in 2010, the General Framework Agreement and the Early Works Agreement for the Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project (JNPP) were signed. (#PrelimsFact). Further, India is a member of International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a multi-national consortium formed to construct an experimental fusion reactor, located in Cadarache, France. (#PrelimsFact)
EnvironmentBoth India & France laid the foundation of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) at COP 15 Paris Summit to develop and deploy cost-effective and transformational energy solutions powered by the sun to help member countries develop low-carbon growth trajectories. A memorandum of understanding (MoU) on renewable energy was also signed which aims to enhance bilateral cooperation in solar, wind, hydrogen, and biomass energy. Notably, India joined the French-led High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People, aiming to safeguard 30% of global lands and oceans by 2030. 
Diaspora / Community The estimated Indian community in mainland France, including NRIs, is approximately 1,00,000, primarily originating from French enclaves like Puducherry, Karaikal, Yanam, Mahe, and Chandernagore. France hosts over 50 active Indian community organizations, with major communities hailing from Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Punjab. During President Macron's visit to India in March 2018, a Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement was signed, facilitating temporary circular migration.  (#PrelimsFact)
Maritime sectorBoth nations hold significant influence in Indian ocean and Indo – Pacific region. Emphasizing the critical importance of the Indian Ocean Region, the "Joint Strategic Vision of India-France Cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region" was welcomed by leadership from both countries, outlining a strategic framework for enhancing their ties. In 2022, they jointly established the Indo-Pacific Trilateral Development Cooperation Fund, aiming to support innovative and sustainable solutions for regional countries. Additionally, a reciprocal logistic agreement has been concluded, enabling India to leverage French facilities in Djibouti, Abu Dhabi, and Reunion Island, enhancing its strategic capabilities in the region.
Educational collaborationIn the field of S&T, the Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advance Research (CEFIPRA) based in New Delhi, established in 1987, plays a major role by identifying and funding joint proposals for research projects. Both countries have signed an Administrative Arrangement for Cooperation in Skill Development and Vocational Training under Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement. Further, Knowledge Summit is being organized which is a bilateral forum dedicated to scientific and academic cooperation between France and India.

As the enduring and trusted partnership between India and France continues to evolve, the deepening geopolitical dynamics in the Indo-Pacific region offer a compelling opportunity for an even closer collaboration, particularly in bolstering India's military capabilities.

The Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla

Context: The Gond Monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla, in Madhya Pradesh, has been recently added to the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites. 

Introduction: 

  • Mandla region was formerly known as the Central Provinces of India, covering parts of the present-day states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
  • It was historically called Gondwana, ‘the Land of the Gonds’, the largest heterogenous tribe of India.
  • Four major kingdoms ruled over the region, the most important being the Garha-Mandla kingdom. 
  • In 1651, when the Bundelas finally captured Chauragarh, during Hriday Shah’s reign,
  • He shifted the capital from Chauragarh to Ramnagar (1657 A.D).
    • On the southern bank of the Narmada River in Ramnagar and the Chaugan Rayotwari, the architectural complexes built by Hridya Shah still stand today.
    • The royal palace, Moti Mahal, indicates the new seat of government in the late 17th century. 
    • Mughal and Rajput influences are evident in the architectural elements of these buildings.
      • Stone lattice screens show the influence of Mughal architecture.
      • Decorative stone parapets, chattris, bangaldar roofs, multi-foil arches in the exterior facade are characteristic Rajput features.
    • The geographical features of the site further indicate the planning principles adopted with respect to defence mechanisms with the surrounding landscape of the dense forests on the banks of the Narmada River.
    • None of the monuments have excessive ornamentation since they were not intended as castles displaying artistic capacity or opulence.

Cluster of monuments include: 

  1. Moti Mahal, Ramnagar
  2. Raibhagat ki Kothi, Ramnagar
  3. Vishnu Mandir (Suraj mandir), Ramnagar
  4. Begum Mahal, Chaugan Rayotwari, Mandla
  5. Dal Badal Mahal, Chaugan Ryotwari, Mandla

About Moti Mahal

Moti Mahal
  • Situated near the Narmada River bank. 
  • Declared as a state protected monument since 1984.
  • Moti Mahal, is built in a quadrangle shape and has a central courtyard. 
  • Arched colonnades (an evenly spaced row of columns usually supporting the base of roof structures) separate the halls, durbar hall, and dancing hall.
  • The monument also has a basement with a network of tunnels and passages.
  • It also has an elaborate drainage system, which is connected to the Narmada.
  • A stone inscription, believed to be inscribed in 1667 A.D., is also found (which was previously in the Vishnu temple).
    • It is considered one of the most important historical sources recording the genealogy of the Gond rulers of Garha Mandla.
    • It places the origin of the family in the beginning of the 7th century and describes the chronological reign of 54 Gond rulers. 

Raibhagat ki Kothi

Raibhagat ki Kothi
  • It is also known as Mantri Mahal.
  • Also, it has been declared a state protected monument since 1984.
  • The residence was built by Hriday Shah for his Dewan, Rai Baghat.
  • Monument appears more symmetric with the central courtyard and the four domes on each corner.
  • Entrance of the monument has an ornate painted ceiling.

Vishnu Mandir (also known as Suraj mandir)

Vishnu Mandir (also known as Suraj mandir)
  • The temple resembles a Mughal tomb or a Bengali Pancha Ratna style temple.
  • The temple was built by Rani Sundari. She was the wife of Hriday Shah. 
  • The inscription stone housed in the Moti Mahal was originally in the Vishnu temple.
  • The structure is built in a square plan.
  • A square room in the middle is covered by a dome. 
  • As per the sources, there were idols of Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Durga, but none of them have remained.
  • Declared a state protected monument since 1984.

Begum Mahal

Begum Mahal
  • It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument.
  • The structure was built by King Hriday Shah for Chimni Rani, a Mughal princess. 
  • It is a three-storey tall structure with visible Mughal features in its architecture.
  • Upper level of the structure has domed rooms and a central room with a vaulted roof.
  • Exterior of the palace features a water body and on either side of it are stairs that descend down towards the water body. 

Dalbadal (Sporting Palace)

Dalbadal (Sporting Palace)
  • It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument. 
  • It is a rectangular structure built by King Hriday Shah for his generals and soldiers.

Garha/Mandla/Katanga Kingdom (1300 AD to 1789 AD) 

Introduction: 

  • First large kingdom to be founded by the Gond tribe.
  • Dominated much of Central India at its peak. 
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About the kingdom:

  • First Gond king: Jadurai, who became the ruler after deposing the Kalachuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandla, where earlier he worked in court.
  • The kingdom was initially a small territory focussing more on consolidation.
  • Sukhandas (1480–1500): Included Rajputs in his army and administration.
  • Akbarnama (history of Akbar's reign), written by Abul Fazl, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha katanga that had 70,000 villages: 
    • Abul Fazl mentioned that “the east part of the country adjoins Ratanpur which belongs to Jharkhand, and the west is contiguous to Raisen which belongs to the province of Malwa”.
    • The kingdom acquired its medieval name from the city of Gadha and the village of Katanga. 

Sangram Shah (the 48th king):

  • Capital: Singhorgarh. 
  • Rapidly expanded the kingdom.
  • Successfully captured territories like Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh and most of the Satpura hills.
  • Conquered 52 forts called Garhs to strengthen and consolidate his hold on territory. 
  • The Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur was built in the honour of conquering 52 forts.
  • He was a great patron of arts and literature and he had great knowledge of Sanskrit. He wrote Rasratnamala. 
  • Dalpat Shah, succeeded Sangram Shah and was married to Rani Durgavati (a Chandela Rajput Princess). 

Rani Durgavati (reigned from 1550-1564): 

  • Capital was moved to Chouragarh because it was safer than Singorgarh fort.
  • After her husband’s death, two ministers, Man Thakur and Adhar Kayastha, helped her assume the throne and leadership of the Gond dynasty.
  • She defeated Baz Bahadur, the last sultan of Malwa, who tried to invade Garha kingdom. 
  • She constructed reservoirs to help farmers. Example: Ranital reservoir built close to Jabalpur; Cherital; and Adhartal, which was built by Adhar Kayastha. 
  • Battle against the Mughals: 
    • Emperor Akbar sent his forces led by Asaf Khan I to capture Garha in 1564. 
    • Rani Durgavati fiercely resisted in the Battle of Narrai (1564), however, after facing defeat, she killed herself. 
  • The kingdom was ruled for some years by the Mughals and later was restored to Chandra Shah (son of Sangram Shah). 
  • Chandra Shah was recognised as a successor to Rani Durgavati by Akbar on accepting Mughal suzerainty.
  • Chandra Shah was succeeded by Madhukar Shah and Prem Narain.
  • Hriday Shah (last great king of the Kingdom), who ruled for 42 years, maintained friendly relations with the Mughals. He moved the capital from Chouragarh to Ramnagar of Mandla district. 
  • Administration: 
    • It became centralized.
    • Kingdom was divided into Garh and each Garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan. 
    • The Gond clan was further divided into units of 84 villages called Chourasi.
    • Chourasi was further subdivided into Barhots, which were made up of 12 villages each. 

Decline of the Kingdom: 

  • After Hriday Shah’s death, no great ruler appeared and court intrigue became common which weakened the state.
  • Gond rajas of Deogadh, took advantage of the kingdom's weakness and annexed a large part of its territories.
  • By the time of Maharaj Shah (1732–1742), the kingdom held only 29 out of the initial 52 forts. 
  • In 1742, Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao along with the rule of Sagar Marathas attacked Garha-Mandla and killed the ruler, Maharaj Shah. 
  • Shivraj Singh (son of Maharaja Shah) paid an annual tribute of 4 lakhs to the Marathas. 
  • Garha-Mandla became a dependent state of the Sagar Marathas.
  • In 1799 Mandla fell to the Bhonsles of Nagpur and remained under them till in 1818, when the British took over and assumed the rule also over Mandla. (after the Third Anglo Maratha war). 

History Ensemble of Dhamnar

Context: Recently, six sites from Madhya Pradesh have been added to the Tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

These sites are:

  • Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar
  • Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur
  • Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley
  • Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpura
  • Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla
  • Gwalior Fort

Difference between a World Heritage Site and Tentative list

  • A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by UNESCO for its special cultural or physical significance.
  • The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by the international ‘World Heritage Programme’, administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
  • To get its heritage site considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, the country makes an inventory of important natural and cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries.
  • This ‘inventory’ is known as the Tentative List.
  • Making it to the tentative list thus is the first step for any site which seeks final nomination for becoming a World Heritage site. 
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(Picture: Dhamnar Caves site)

About Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar: 

  • Location: Mandsaur district (formerly Dasapura), Madhya Pradesh. 
  • Modern Account of the site: 
    • Earliest reference to these monuments comes from James Tod who visited in 1821. 
    • James Furgusson visited the site in 1845 and Alexander Cunningham visited the site between 1864-1865. 
    • Dating of the caves is difficult due to absence of inscriptions, therefore, these monuments can be dated to the 7th century CE on the basis of few similarities with caves at other sites, such as Ajanta and Ellora.  
    • The name ‘Dhamnar’ is not known from any historical or literary sources.
    • Buddhist establishment here was known as Chandananagari-mahavihara as evidenced by a clay seal discovered by Historian A.H. Khan.
      • Scholar K.C Jain opined that the present name Dhamnar is a derived from the Shaivite epithet ‘Dharmanatha’
      • Dharmanath: Name of the Linga setup in the rock-cut Vaishnava temple during the medieval period.

About Dhamnar Caves: 

  • Series of 51 rock-cut caves, stupas, chaityas, passages and compact dwellings. These caves were cut out from a hill of coarse laterite stone. 
  • These monolithic spaces were further carved to form grand doors with carvings, columns, and religious sculptural symbols.
  • Built around 1123 years ago: 5th, 6th and 7th century CE (7th century CE was the second wave of cave construction in India). 
  • These caves contain structures belonging to: Buddhism (both Hinayana and Mahayana) and Hinduism (presence of the Dharmarajeshwara/Dharmanatha temple). 
  • Secluded spaces for monks, also known as Viharas are found. These are fairly simple volumes with a lack of ornamentation.
  • Representation of Buddha by motifs and sculptures as a form of religious symbolic art.
  • Some caves found with no iconic ornamentation indicate that these possibly belong to the Hinayana Sect of Buddhism.
  • Archaeological Survey of India, restored the structures here, as the porous laterite rocks which got weathered over the centuries, destabilised and weakened the structures. 
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(Picture: Seated Buddha, Cave No.11)

Some special features: 

  • Rani ka Makan/Kamaniya Mahal cave (Cave no. 10)
  • Bhim Bazar Chaitya (Cave no. 11):
    • Most extensive of all the excavations.
    • Stupa: Buddha is sculpted in seated posture.
    • Stupa with three-tier chhatravali and circumambulatory passage.
  • Chota Bazar/Child’s cave (Cave no. 13):
    • Chaitya-griha
    • Nirvana image of Buddha depicted on the east wall.
    • Depiction of Buddha, as seated upon a throne, in the teaching attitude.
    • Buddha is known to locals as Bhima. 
    • Principal shrine with Pradakshinapath (circumambulation).
      • On the back wall of the shrine, are five images, three seated and two standing.
      • Three seated figures are known by locals as: Pandu with his two sons, Arjuna and Nakula.
  • Bari Kacheri/Big courthouse (Cave no. 6): includes stupas and chaityas; stone railing with the wooden architecture. 
  • Hathi-ka-mekh/Elephant’s stable/Hathi-bandhi (Cave No 12): simple chaitya cave where the stupa is placed to support the roof. 
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(Picture: Dharmanatha Temple) 

About Dharmanatha Temple at the site: 

  • The temple is situated north of Cave No. 12 of the Buddhist cave group.
  • Rock-cut temple is excavated in a rectangular pit within the hill.
  • The courtyard can also be accessed from the top of the hill by the rock-cut stairs provided. 
  • The sculpture on the south is that of Bhairava and on the north is of Kali. The latter carries an inscription dating to the 8th-9th century CE.
  • Garbha-griha, Antarala, Mandapa and Mukha-mandapa.
  • It is surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines.
    • Thus, the temple falls under the sapta-parivara (family of seven) category, that is generally seen in Southern India for Shiva temples.
    • Among the seven subsidiary shrines, the ones located in the corners are with Latina-Nagara shikhara.
    • The ones opposite the garbha-griha are of the Phamsana shikhara.
  • The temple is known as Chaturbhuj temple by the locals due to the image of a four-arm Sheshasayi-Vishnu installed inside the Garbha-girha. Vishnu is holding Shankha, Chakra and a Lotus flower. 
  • Main temple is Pancharatha:
    • Consisting of one bhadra, two prati-ratha, and two karna projections.
    • Prati-ratha is decorated with ‘ghata-pallava’ motif.
    • The vertical elevation has shikhara.
    • The shikhara is Latina style of the Nagara type, consisting of six bhumis (tiers) marked by bhumi-amalakas at the Karna. 
  • Inside the garbha-griha is a Shivalinga known as Dharmanatha.
  • The southern shrine has a panel depicting dancing Shiva surrounded by four Matrakas. On the right of Shiva are Maheshwari and Vaishvani while on his left are Indrani and Brahmi.
  • An interesting feature is the omission of Buddha who is replaced by a figure of Vishnu instead.
  • There is an inscription and its palaeography helped in dating the temple to the latter half of the 9th century CE.

Sri Lanka likely to secure six-year moratorium

Context: Sri Lanka is finalising a debt treatment plan with India and the Paris Club. Sri Lanka is likely to get a moratorium of up to six years as well as a reduced interest rate during the repayment period. 

More information from the news: 

  • Official Creditor Committee (OCC): As many as 17 countries that have extended loans to Sri Lanka formed the Committee in 2023 for ease of debt restructuring negotiations. China stayed out of the platform, but has been attending its meetings as an observer. 
  • Sri Lanka defaulted on its nearly $50-billion external debt in 2022. The country has been engaging with its diverse lenders to work out a debt treatment plan that is compatible with its pace of recovery.
  • Sri Lanka made considerable progress in negotiating a deal with its bilateral creditors, however, the private creditors holding the largest chunk of Sri Lanka’s foreign debt continue to pose a challenge.
  • IMF assistance:
    • Sri Lanka is to receive the next instalment of the International Monetary Fund’s assistance, as part of the $3 billion package it obtained last year, to recover from the unprecedented financial crash in 2022.
    • Sri Lanka had an agreement with the Fund on the second review of its four-year Extended Fund Facility (EFF) arrangement.
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About Paris Club: 

  • An informal group of officials from major creditor countries.
  • Find co-ordinated and sustainable solutions to the payment difficulties experienced by debtor countries.
  • Debtor countries undertake reforms to stabilize and restore macroeconomic and financial situations and therefore, Paris Club provides an appropriate debt treatment.
  • Provides debt treatments to debtor countries in the form of rescheduling: 
    • Debt relief by postponement or, in the case of concessional rescheduling, reduction in debt service obligations during a defined period (flow treatment) or as of a set date (stock treatment). 
  • Created gradually from 1956: with first negotiation between Argentina and its public creditors in Paris.
  • Creditor delegations are generally led by a senior delegate from the Ministry of Finance.
  • Twenty-two Permanent Members of the Paris Club: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Israel, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. 
  • Observer members:
    • Invited to attend the negotiating sessions of the Paris Club but they cannot participate in the negotiation itself, nor sign the agreement that formalizes the result of negotiation.
    • International Monetary Fund (IMF); World Bank; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD); European Commission; African Development Bank; Asian Development Bank; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD); Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
  • Conditionality: Only negotiates debt restructurings with debtor countries that:
    • Are expected to provide a precise description of their economic and financial situation. 
    • Implemented and are committed to implementing reforms to restore their economic and financial situation. 
    • Demonstrated track record of implementing reforms under an IMF program.
      • Means country must have a current program supported by an appropriate arrangement with the IMF, example: Extended Fund Facility, Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility
      • Level of the debt treatment is based on the financing gap identified in the IMF program.
  • Negotiations:
    • Debtor country signing an agreement with its Paris Club creditors should not accept from its non-Paris Club commercial and bilateral creditors terms of treatment of its debt less favourable to the debtor than those agreed with the Paris Club. 

India’s constructive role in supporting Sri Lanka during the recent economic crisis: 

Sri Lanka’s worst economic crisis is attributed to a mix of external shocks (such as the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine conflict shock) and poor macroeconomic management by the ex- Government.

  • In January, 2024, India became the first country to have submitted its letter of support for financing and debt restructuring of Sri Lanka to the International Monetary Fund.
  • India’s financial and humanitarian support worth USD 4 billion to Sri Lanka is far in excess of the total anticipated Extended Fund Facility of the IMF.
  • India extended multi-pronged assistance through multiple credit lines, deferred loans and grants and currency support, in line with India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy.
  • Use of Rupees for trade settlement is further helping Sri Lanka’s economy.
  • In 2023, India was the largest source of tourists for Sri Lanka with over 100,000 tourists.

International Monetary Fund (IMF):

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  • Major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution.
  • Headquarters: Washington, D.C., United States. 
  • Role:
    • Lender of last resort to national governments; Leading supporter of exchange-rate stability.
    • Management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises.
  • Mission:
    • Foster global monetary cooperation; Secure financial stability; Facilitate international trade; Promote high employment and sustainable economic growth; Reduce poverty around the world.
  • Established in 1945 at the Bretton Woods Conference.
  • Special Drawing rights (SDR):
    • The IMF created the SDR as a supplementary international reserve asset in 1969. 
    • SDR was defined as an equivalent to a fractional amount of gold that was equivalent to one US dollar.
    • Fixed exchange rates ended in 1973: IMF redefined the SDR as equivalent to the value of a basket of world currencies.
    • It is not a currency but an asset that holders can exchange for currency when needed.
    • Individuals and private entities cannot hold SDRs; IMF members and the IMF itself hold SDRs. 
  • Funding:
    • Funding by 190 member countries.
    • Two major sources: Quotas and Loans.
      • Quotas: pooled funds from member nations, generate most IMF funds.
      • Size of members' quota increases according to their economic and financial importance in the world.
      • Amount of financing a member can obtain from the IMF (called as access limit) thus depends upon its quota.

Extended Fund Facility (EFF) of the IMF: 

  • Lending facility, established in 1974. 
  • Provides financial assistance to countries so as to address medium and longer-term balance of payments (BOP) problems because of structural weaknesses that require time to address.
  • Help countries implement medium-term structural reforms and offer longer program engagement and a longer repayment period.
  • Eligibility:
    • All member countries facing actual or potential external financing needs.
    • Most often used by advanced and emerging market countries
    • Low-income countries sometimes use the EFF together with the Extended Credit Facility (ECF). 
      • ECF: medium-term financial assistance to low-income countries (LICs) with protracted balance of payments problems.
      • It is one of the facilities under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT).
  • Conditionality:
    • Countries’ policy commitments are expected to focus on structural reforms to address institutional or economic weaknesses. 
    • Disbursements conditional on the observance of quantitative performance criteria. 
  • Approved for periods of 3 years, but can be extended to 4 years to implement deep and sustained structural reforms.

Urbanization

Context: The recent inauguration of the new Parliament building, and the Ram temple has sparked discussions regarding the intersection of politics and religion in urbanisation.

About Urbanization: 

  • Urbanization is a process that transforms the built environment, converting formerly rural into urban settlements, while also shifting the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas.
  • Urbanization in India is mainly due to liberalization of its economy after the 1990s, which gave rise to the development of the private sector.
  • Presently, although urbanization is taking place at a fast rate in India, but still urban areas account for just 3% of the nation’s land and 31.1% of its population (Census of India 2011). 

Factors that have led to the Urbanization in India

  • Population growth: An outcome of more births than deaths in urban areas, a direct function of the fertility rate as well as the quality of healthcare systems (lower mortality rates, particularly for infants).
  • Migration: Rural to urban migrations due to agriculture distress, better employment opportunities, access to better education, healthcare and amenities etc. has been a strong urbanization factor.
  • Expansion of towns and cities: Due to high economic growth that the city has witnessed over the years. Because of this, the government in India has decided to grab the opportunity to further thrust the country into urbanization, several smart cities to be put up in various locations, and other initiatives.

Emerging challenges due to unsustainable Urbanization

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  • Overcrowding: Beyond the carrying capacity results in congestion, pollution and additional burden over limited natural resources of urban areas. 
  • Governance status: As per Census 2011, the urban system of India consists of 7933 settlements - statutory and census towns. While statutory towns are governed as urban local bodies, census towns are governed as villages. As a result, India is transitioning from a mostly rural to a quasi-urban country. 
  • Lack of adequate town planning: Master plans statutory instruments critical for managing urbanisation. They guide and regulate the present and future utilisation of land, expansion, and zoning of cities. But about half of our statutory towns are expanding without any master.
  • Enhanced sense of relative deprivation: Gives rise to urban crimes such as human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour, Juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drugs and suicides. 
  • Sub-Optimal utilisation of urban land: Due to fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land. multiple public sector organizations/agencies— ports, railways, ULBs, etc.— own land under their jurisdictions. For a city to develop holistically, planning for each land parcel needs to fall into one comprehensive spatial strategy. 
  • Pressure on basic infrastructure: Giving rise to unsustainable land price, unaffordable rent, inadequate health and education infrastructure, solid waste management problem etc. 
  • Unplanned growth of slums: As per Census 2011, 17.3% of the total urban population was under slums in India. 

Government initiatives to deal with urbanisation: 

  • 100 Smart Cities Mission: To develop smart cities across the country, making them citizen friendly and sustainable.
  • Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): To provide basic civic amenities like water supply, sewerage, urban transport, parks as to improve the quality of life for all especially the poor and the disadvantaged.
  • National Mission on sustainable habitat: It is one of the eight climate missions under the NAPCC mitigation strategy, to make the cities sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in building, management of solid waste and to shift to public transport.
  • National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): For bringing together urban planning, economic growth and heritage conservation in an inclusive manner to preserve the heritage character of each Heritage City. 
  • Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): To addresses urban housing shortage among the EWS/LIG and MIG categories including the slum dwellers by ensuring a pucca house to all eligible urban households by the year 2022, when Nation completes 75 years of its Independence. 

Way forward: 

  • Recommendations by Niti Aayog: 
    • 500 Healthy Cities Programme’, for a period of 5 years to ensure holistic socio-economic development of Indian cities.
    • All the cities/towns under the proposed 'Healthy Cities Programme' should strengthen regulations to maximize the efficiency of urban land.
    • A citizen outreach campaign for making the process of urban planning more inclusive and accessible.
    • National Council of Town and Country Planners to be constituted as a statutory body of the Government of India to improve the governance of urban areas.
  • Adopt a circular economy system to minimize their negative impacts on the environment.
  • Preventing distress migration to cities through Rurbanization i.e., providing urban like facilities in rural areas or make rural areas smart. 
  • The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recommended that master plans in cities should be revisited for the improved governance of cities.

Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023 Report by SIPRI

Context: During 2019-23, India emerged as the world's foremost purchaser of arms, according to the most recent findings from SIPRI (Swedish think tank Stockholm International Peace Research Institute).

Key findings of SIPRI’s report:

  • India’s arms imports have increased by 4.7% as compared to 2014-18.
  • Arms imports by European countries increased by 94% between 2014-18 and 2019-23 (in the backdrop of the Russia Ukraine war).
  • Russia remained India’s largest arms supplier (36% of the total).
  • Top three importers: India, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
  • Ukraine became the fourth largest arms importer.
  • Pakistan, the fifth largest arms importer, received 82% of its arms from China.
  • France emerged as the world's second largest arms supplier after the United States.
  • The largest single recipient of French arms exports was India.

About Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI):

  • It is an international institute based in Stockholm, Sweden. 
  • It was founded in 1966 and provides data, analysis and recommendations for armed conflict, military expenditure and arms trade as well as disarmament and arms control. 
  • The research is based on open sources.

Research & Development

Context: The announcement in the interim Budget for 2024-25 about setting aside ₹1 lakh crore, and the decision to rebrand the slogan from 'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan' to 'Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan, Jai Vigyan' to now 'Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan, Jai Vigyan, Jai Anusandhan', aims to strengthen the importance of research and innovation for progress.

image 4

India’s evolving Research & Development landscape: 

  • India’s R&D is witnessing significant growth, with a notable increase in Gross Expenditure on Research & Development (GERD) from ₹6,01,968 million in 2010-11 to ₹12,73,810 million in 2020-21. India’s R&D expense has dropped to the current 0.64% of GDP.
  • India falls behind major developed and emerging economies such as China (2.4%), Germany (3.1%), South Korea (4.8%) and the United States (3.5%).
  • India has emerged as a powerhouse in producing academic talent. Annually, India generates an impressive 40,813 PhDs and is in third place after the United States and China, reflecting India’s commitment to fostering intellectual capital and contributing significantly to global research endeavors.
  • India's contribution to research is significant, placing 3rd with more than 300,000 published research papers in 2022, emphasizes India's strong research environment and its dedication to expanding knowledge in various areas.
  • India secures the 6th position globally with 30,490 patents granted in 2022, underscores India’s evolving innovation landscape and its potential for further growth in intellectual property creation.

Necessity for funding in R&D: 

  • Key driver of productivity and economic growth: Contributes to advancement of new technologies, fosters capital formation, and reduces imports, thereby contributing to a decrease in the country's fiscal deficit.
  • Solving complex challenges: Enables researchers to address complex problems and challenges like Covid-19.
  • National security: India, being one of the largest defence importers, faces increased vulnerability and threats to national security due to its reliance on foreign countries for domestic R&D needs.
  • Human capital: A strong culture of research and knowledge creation in higher education fosters optimal teaching and learning, ultimately enhancing human capital.
  • Cost effective: To create cost effective and easily accessible solutions for the Indian population E.g. Madras foot.
  • Global competitiveness: By driving innovation, fostering technological advancement, and ensuring sustainable economic growth.

Segment Wise R&D expenditure trends in India: 

  • In 2020-21, GERD is primarily driven by the government sector, including Central government (43.7%), State governments (6.7%), Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) (8.8%), and public sector industry (4.4%), with the private sector industry contributing only 36.4%.
  • Government expenditure on R&D is undertaken almost entirely by Central Government. 
  • State Governments also play a role in R&D spend. The top R&D spenders on Agriculture Research & Education in 2018-19 are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 

Challenges with R&D:

  • Primary focus on space and defence: Government sector primarily allocated funds to four major science agencies: Defence Research and Development Organisation,  Department of Space, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, and Department of Atomic Energy.
  • Dependency on public money: Current funding is not enough, and relying mainly on government money shows that the financing system is not fully developed. In FY 2020-21, the private sector provided 36.4% of the total research and development spending, while the central government contributed 43.7%. State governments (6.7%), higher education institutions (8.8%), and public sector companies (4.4%) were also key funders. In developed countries, a major share of R&D investment comes from the private sector.
  • Hesitancy obstacles: from regulatory uncertainties, inadequate evaluation mechanisms, lack of clear exit options for investors and concerns regarding intellectual property rights protection.
  • Systematic hurdles: Department of Biotechnology (DBT), used only 72% of its estimated budget allocation on Centrally Sponsored Schemes/Projects while the Department of Science and Technology (DST) used only 61% due to systemic issues like red tape, capacity constraints, and delays in project evaluation contribute to underutilization.
  • Delay in funding: Due to lack of prioritisation for science funding by the Ministry of Finance or inadequate planning or implementation strategy for the requested funds by the Ministry of Science and Technology.
  • Outdated curriculum: Curriculum in higher education is focused on rote learning and job oriented due to which many universities are unable to duly utilize the research grant provided to them. 
  • Low priority: Lack of coordination between government agencies and a low political will to prioritise R&D expenses.
  • Low contribution by private industries: Indian businesses contribute around $6.2 billion, which makes up 37% of the country's Gross Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD). This is different from the global pattern, where businesses usually contribute more than 65% of R&D spending.
  • Minor role by higher education: HEIs play a comparatively minor role in the overall R&D investment, contributing 8.8% ($1.5 billion).

Government initiative:

  • Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) Act: To provide high-level strategic direction for research, innovation, and entrepreneurship in the fields of natural sciences.
  • Draft National Deep Tech Startup Policy (NDTSP): To address the challenges confronting deep tech startups through definitive policy interventions to create a conducive ecosystem.
  • IMPRINT initiative: For bridging the gap between scientific knowledge base created through fundamental and applied research and fruitful translation of the same through engineering invention and technological innovation for the betterment of our society.
  • Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy 2013: Increasing Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) to 2% GDP has been a national goal for some time.
  • Zero-interest loan: In Interim Budget 2024, government announced a Rs 1 lakh crore fund to provide long-term, low-cost or zero-interest loans for research and development.
  • Atal Tinkering Labs: To foster curiosity, creativity and imagination in young minds; and inculcate skills such as design mindset, computational thinking, adaptive learning etc. 
  • Biotechnology Ignition Grant (BIG): Provides the right admixture of financial and mentoring and support to young startups and entrepreneurial individuals.
  • Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2021: A rule establishing a feedback/complaint mechanism regarding issues related to the functioning of the IP offices has been set up on the IPO website and team will quickly respond to suggestions or complaints from people involved and send replies by email.

Way forward: 

  • To fully realise the impact of R&D, it is crucial to assess the current research and development (R&D) funding landscape in India and its resulting output such as the number of patents granted, PhDs given out, and research papers published.
  • Collaboration between the government, business enterprises and HEIs is essential to maximise the positive impact of science, technology, and innovation on economic growth and technological advancement.
  • Need strong private enterprises involvement and stronger industry-academia collaboration, that will facilitate the transfer of knowledge and promote innovation.
  • Learning from the R&D ecosystem in other developed countries while maintaining India’s strengths in streamlined decision-making and strategic alignment could be a powerful force to optimise its R&D landscape. India must implement policies that incentivize private companies to invest in R&D.
  • A suitable oversight and monitoring mechanism may be formed to oversee the implementing sector- specific R&D mission programmes/ projects.
  • Incentives for private investment, including relaxation of foreign direct investments, tax rebates, and clear regulatory roadmaps for products will help build investor confidence.
  • Funds under PPP should be non- lapsable. An Innovation Development and Translation Board (IDTB) may be established to administer the fund for PPP in R&D. 
  • Sign MoUs between S&T departments/labs/institutions and universities to facilitate collaborative and interdisciplinary R&D. 
  • Intellectual Property (IP) should be exclusively licensed to the industry, and the Industry concerned will commercialize the product within a specified time scale. 

Rising NCDs and health risks

Context: The rise of certain Non-Communicable Diseases like diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular diseases in India, particularly puts women at a higher risk than men.

Non-Communicable Diseases

  • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are a group of chronic diseases that are not caused by infectious agents and typically have a long development period.
  • They include a range of conditions such as cardiovascular diseases (e.g., heart disease and stroke), cancer, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and mental health disorders.
  • Risk factors for NCDs include unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, tobacco use, harmful use of alcohol, pollution and environmental factors.
  • According to the World Health Organisation, NCDs account for 71% of all deaths globally, with cardiovascular diseases being the leading cause. As per the latest report (2022), 66% of total deaths in India in 2019 were due to NCDs. 

About Diabetes

  • Diabetes is a lifelong condition that causes a person's blood glucose (sugar) level to become too high. The hormone insulin – produced by the pancreas – is responsible for controlling the amount of glucose in the blood.
  • There are two main types of diabetes:
    • Type 1 – where the pancreas does not produce any insulin.
    • Type 2 – where the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body’s cells do not react to insulin.  
  • Type-1 diabetes:
    • Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent) is a condition/autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system mistakenly destroys insulin-making cells (beta cells) in the pancreas. 
    • The exact cause of this autoimmune response is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
    • The condition is usually diagnosed in children and young people, also called juvenile diabetes. Characterised by deficient insulin production, it requires daily administration of insulin.
    • Symptoms: Excessive excretion of urine, thirst, constant hunger, weight loss, vision changes, and fatigue.
  • Type 2 diabetes: 
    • Type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent) results from the body’s ineffective use of insulin. It occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin to function properly, or the body's cells become less responsive to the effects of insulin (insulin resistance). This means glucose stays in the blood and is not used as fuel for energy.
    • This type is often linked to lifestyle factors like overweight/obesity, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet and tends to be diagnosed in older people. However, it is now frequent in the population with any age group. 
person's blood glucose (sugar)

About Obesity

  • Obesity is a medical condition characterised by excessive accumulation of body fat, to the extent that it may have a negative impact on health. It is typically defined by body mass index (BMI), which is a measure of weight in relation to height. A BMI of 30 or higher is generally considered indicative of obesity.
  • Among women, obesity is typically defined as having a waist circumference greater than 80 cm and a Body Mass Index (BMI) over 30. NFHS-5 data (2019- 2021) indicates that nearly 2 out of every 5 women suffer from abdominal obesity, putting them at serious risk of cardiovascular ailments. 
  • Several factors that contribute to the development of obesity include:
    • Imbalance between the number of calories consumed and the number of calories expended through physical activity and metabolism. 
    • Diets high in calories, unhealthy fats, sugars, and processed foods
    • Lack of physical activity and environmental factors. 
    • Genetic Factors: Certain genes can influence appetite, metabolism, and fat storage, making some people more prone to weight gain and obesity than others.

Cardiovascular diseases:

  • Global Burden of Disease Study estimates heart disease to be the leading cause of death amongst women in India, higher than all cancers combined. 
  • The strong link between obesity and heart disease has long been common knowledge. Obesity elevates cholesterol levels, increases blood pressure, and causes diabetes — all conditions that lead to heart disease. 

Unique observations in India (Thin-fat Indian):

  • Indian data provides a unique insight into the evolution of diabetes and obesity in individuals born small and undernourished. 
  • Indians deposit most fat in and around the abdomen (central obesity, simply measured as waist size). The highest glucose levels were in those who had the lowest BMI but the highest waist measurement. 
  • An Indian pancreas secretes less insulin, and the secreted insulin cannot act efficiently because of fat deposition in and around different organs. 
  • The reasons include: Epigenetic.
    • Exposure to a challenging environment in the womb (undernutrition, maternal diabetes, infections, stress and others) increases the risk of future diabetes, obesity, and heart disease.
    • Malnutrition of babies while still in the womb alters the structure and function of the developing organs, reducing their capacity to cope with stress (overnutrition, inactivity, psycho-social stress, migration, etc). 

Govt. Efforts:

  • India is the first country to adopt the National Action Plan with specific national targets and indicators aimed at reducing the number of global premature deaths from NCDs by 25% by 2025. 
  • India has been implementing the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) since 2010 up to District level under the National Health Mission. 

Way Forward

  • Improving the nutrition and health of young women and their babies when they are in the womb can curtail these epidemics. 
  • Strengthening access to nutritious food, creating safe and supportive environments for physical activity, and ensuring responsible use of medications.

Mahima Dharma of Odisha

Context: The President of India paid her tributes to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi, a saint reformer belonging to the Mahima Dharma. Bhima Bhoi's works emphasized upon social equality. The President also paid homage to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi at his birthplace, Rajrakhol, Odisha. 

Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha
(Fig.1 : Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha)

Emergence of reform movement

  • Late 18th century and the early years of the 19th century saw a wave of reform movements that swept through Hinduism.
  • Aim: To bring about significant changes within the religious and societal structures; to eradicate superstitious beliefs and distorted rituals.

Complex societal structure in 19th century Odisha: 

  • Society was entangled in numerous religious superstitions and social obstacles.
  • Hinduism was dominated by magic, animism, and superstition.
  • Lack of education and knowledge hindered human development.
  • Colonial rule focused primarily on revenue collection.
  • The temple of Jagannath, which used to be inclusive, closed its doors to the low-caste population, which further intensified the influence of caste rules in the region.
  • Mahima Dharma, emerged in the background of this socio-religious-cultural reality. 
  • Its significance extended to being seen as the precursor to a renaissance in Odisha, challenging prevalent practices such as idolatry, polytheism, the caste system, priestly dominance, religious superstitions, animism, and barbaric customs.

While other socio-religious movements of the late 19th century primarily influenced the educated class in urban centres, Mahima Dharma, with its simpler philosophy gained popularity among the common people in the villages of Odisha, thus, transforming into a mass movement. 

About Mahima Dharma: 

  • The movement was started by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain (Dhulia Baba/Nirahari Baba) who played a significant role in the religious landscape, particularly in the late 18th century and early 19th century Odisha. 
    • Mahami Swami was first mentioned in 1867 in the Orissan Newspaper ‘Utkala Deepika’.
    • He was a contemporary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
  • As per the historical sources, Mahima Gosain meditated for 24 years in Kapilas hill in Dhenkanal, Odisha, wearing the bark of a Kumbhi tree. 
  • He established the ‘Dharma’, with the emphasis on ‘Advaitabada’ (belief in the oneness of God).
  • Mahima Gosain’s disciples came to be known as ‘Abadhutas’, the first 64 Siddhas of Mahima Dharma, a title given when they attained perfection.
  • ‘Mahima Gadi’ (religious seat of the dharma), is located in Joranda, Dhenkanal, where the prominent Magha Mela is held annually.

His preachings included: 

  • Preachings fused the elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and positioned itself against established religious norms. 
  • Adhered to the principles of truth, non-violence, and belief in immortality and rebirth.
  • Core philosophy revolves around the idea of Absolute Monism, emphasising the worship of the one ultimate reality. 
  • He emphasised on asceticism and a casteless society.
  • He offered a unique perspective on the creation theory:
  • Asserted that the world was not formed by the mixing of atoms, Purusha, and Prakrit.
  • It was created by Alekha Prabhu, pure and without vice, the root of all creations.
  • The adherents of Mahima Gosain are ‘Dharmis’, and a true ‘Dharmi’ has to abstain from practices like idol worship, touching Prasad or Tulsi leaf, and consuming medicines. 

Extent:

  • Propagation extended across districts like Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, as well as areas in Dhenkanal, Athagarh, Hindol, Boudh, Sonepur, Sambalpur, and Angul.
  • The movement gained wider acceptance among tribal communities and those considered lower in the Brahmanical hierarchy.
Bhima bhoi

About Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi

  • Bhima Bhoi, born in Rairakhol/Redhakhol (Odisha) in 1850, was a saint, poet and social reformer. 
  • He belonged to the less privileged Kondh tribe. 
  • Despite his challenging circumstances, he acquired knowledge by listening to religious texts. 
  • He was a devout follower of Mahima Gosain and played a significant role in challenging the prevailing caste hierarchy and advocating for social equality.
  • Bhima Bhoi, set up his ashram in Khaliapali. 
  • Core elements of his teachings:
    • ‘Ekaishwara Brahmavada’, emphasizing belief in an indescribable, formless, shapeless, and pure God residing in the void.
    • Promoted unity among followers from diverse backgrounds, thus breaking away from the social identities.
    • Centred around humanity and the liberation of the world. 
  • Bhima Bhoi used a language (characterized by mysticism and musicality), which departed from Sanskritized Odia. He adopted a vernacular approach with influences from the Sambalpuri dialect.
  • His verses were composed orally and later transcribed, which highlights the oral tradition of the movement.
  • His famous assertion: “mo jeevana pachhe narke padithau, jagata uddhara heu" (let my life rot in naraka if necessary, but let the world be redeemed)”, shows his dedication for the upliftment of the socially deprived. 
  • Important works are: Brahma Nirupana Gita, Stuti Chintamani, Astaka Bihari Gita, Chautisa Madhu Chakra, and Bhajanamala. Two collections, Atha Bhajan and Bangala Atha Bhajan, are written in Bengali.

Broader perspective on beliefs and practices in Mahima Dharma:

1. Idea of non-dualism:

  • God is singular and unparalleled, characterized by omniscience, omnipresence, and omnipotence.
  • The supreme soul (Parameswar) and the creator of the universe, the God is formless (Nirakar), inexpressible (Avyakta), without body (Adeha), without name (Anam), without any feeling (Nirvikara).
  • This god is present in every living being, from insects to humans.
  • The movement became a potent force for liberation by rejecting the caste system, emphasizing the worship of a single God named Alekha. 

2. Supreme role of a Guru:

  • Role of a teacher or Guru holds a pivotal position.
  • Guru is seen as essential for guiding disciples on the path to deliverance, making the practice of dharma meaningful.

3. Concept of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’:

  • Entire universe is a single family.
  • Follows the motto: “Happiness, peace and welfare for all” .
  • One element of this concept is 'Satsanga Gosthi' or 'Common meal for all'.
    • Introduced by Mahima Gosain.
    • Emphasizes the equality of all souls, as they collectively worship the one Brahman.
    • Involves preparation of food by household devotees under the open sky, shared by all participants, regardless of caste or creed.

Practices:

  • Adherents are prohibited from engaging in adultery, consuming intoxicants, violence, or eating flesh. 
  • Perform the act of complete surrender, known as Sarana/Darsana, three times a day.
  • Engage in charity, providing food for those in need.
  • A monastic order bears resemblance to Buddhist monks, leading lives of poverty, celibacy, piety, and constant movement.
  • Rejects the worship of Lord Jagannath and emphasizes ascetic practices over idol worship.
    • In 1881, followers of Mahima Dharma, seized and reportedly set ablaze the murtis (idols) of Lord Jagannath in Jagannath Puri, opposing any form of idol worship.

Impact of Mahima Dharma on Hindu society in the 19th century:

  • Boldly rejected established norms, including the veneration of gods, philosophers, religions, temples, mosques, and churches.
  • Introduced a radical shift towards monotheism, emphasizing the worship of a singular, indescribable deity. This entity was not to be represented through man-made idols.
  • Renouncing worldly possessions became a central tenet of this religion.
  • Philosophy of Ahimsa, or non-violence:
    • Rejection of animal sacrifice in worship and conveyed a commitment to purity of heart, devoid of violence and selfishness.
    • Actively promoted peace and opposed war, practicing ‘Shanti Ahimsa’ in daily life.
  • Social mobilization: 
    • Ashrams for Sanyasis (ascetics), organized congregations where people from diverse backgrounds dined together.
    • Explicitly denounced caste-based discrimination and untouchability.
  • Influenced the consciousness of health and hygiene: 
    • Rejected traditional beliefs in the supernatural causes of illnesses.
    • Prohibiting the use of remedies from sorcerers and village physicians.
    • Attracted a large following, especially among rural and tribal communities, offering relief to those unable to afford the elaborate rituals associated with mainstream Hinduism.

Conclusion

The dharma represents a revival of Vedantic principles and serves as a reformist movement originating from the Odisha region. It simplifies profound Indian philosophy in a manner accessible to the common person. 

Development of Agaléga islands and India’s vision for its maritime neighbourhood

Context: Prime Minister of India and Mauritian Prime Minister jointly inaugurate several India-assisted development projects at the Agalega Island in Mauritius. They inaugurated an airstrip and the St James Jetty on North Agaléga Island in the Indian Ocean.

Agalega, consisting of two islands, is situated roughly 650 nautical miles (1,050 km) north of Mauritius, falling under the jurisdiction of the island nation.

image 5

Strategic significance to Mauritius:

  • Sustaining the well-being of the islanders posed challenges, requiring even basic necessities to be referred to Mauritius.
  • The Mauritian government recognized the imperative need to develop the islands and establish facilities capable of operating ships and aircraft.

Why did Mauritians choose India?

  • 70% of Mauritius's population traces its origins to India, fostering profound historical, social, and cultural ties between the two nations.
  • This bilateral relations' defining element has been the enduring friendship and trust shared at various levels.
  • Given the sensitivities in Mauritius regarding sovereignty and security matters, each of its concerns was methodically addressed before the project was initiated. 
image 6

How will the development of Agaléga help Mauritius?

  • For the inhabitants of the islands, the two-day sea journey, contingent on the availability of a ship, will be replaced by a brief flight lasting less than an hour.
  • Development of essential infrastructure not only promises to streamline transportation but also to generate employment opportunities.
  • Untapped tourism potential of the islands presents an opportunity for exploration.
  • A new jetty and airstrip represent a significant stride forward, enabling a more substantial and authoritative government presence on the islands.
  • This will facilitate the stationing or forward deployment of Mauritius Coast Guard ships and also augment the nation's maritime security capabilities.
  • It will lead to more effective monitoring and policing of the expansive Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), stretching 200 nautical miles outward from the islands, reinforcing the nation's ability to safeguard its maritime interests and resources.

What is in it for India?

  • The collaborative development of Agaléga will further strengthen the goodwill and trust between India and Mauritius.
  • The joint initiative to develop Agaléga stands as a tangible testament to India's unwavering commitment to the vision of Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR).
  • It underscores India's proactive role in assisting smaller maritime nations in enhancing their capacity and capabilities.
  • It emphasizes India's utmost respect for the sovereignty of independent nations, reinforcing its aspiration to be recognized as the preferred partner for development and security in the Indian Ocean Region.

Will Agaléga be an Indian military base?

  • Agaléga will not serve as an Indian military base.
  • India has consistently adhered to principles that prioritize international law.
  • India emphatically rejects the notion of economic colonization or coercive tactics to ensnare smaller countries in debt traps.

India's Maritime diplomacy evolution: 

  • India boasts a rich maritime geography, encompassing a 7,517-km-long coastline and hosting nine coastal states with bustling ports handling approximately 1,400 million tonnes of cargo annually.
  • A pivotal shift occurred in the 1990s with liberalization reforms, redirecting attention to port development and elevating the maritime domain on the national agenda.
  • This period saw the emergence of new opportunities in developing economic and industrial resources, with a specific focus on ensuring the security of Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs), maritime trade protection, and fortification of security infrastructure and assets within maritime zones. 

Significance for India: 

Economic Interdependence and energy security: 

  • India's economic growth is intricately linked with maritime trade.
  • For instance, the country has cultivated a strategic partnership with Singapore, a global maritime hub.
  • The two nations have collaborated on initiatives like the India-Singapore Maritime Bilateral Agreement, facilitating smoother trade operations and creating a conducive environment for economic prosperity.
  • Today, the countries of the West Asian region collectively account for over a sixth of India's total bilateral merchandise trade and contribute about three fifths of India's crude oil supplies.
  • Stable relations with West Asia is also important for India for security of more than 6 million Indian Diaspora, a major source of forex remittance.

Security and defence Cooperation:

  • The Indian Ocean region is strategically vital, and India's relations with maritime countries such as Australia and Japan contribute to a balanced power dynamic.
  • Collaborating with maritime countries enhances India's maritime security through joint naval exercises, intelligence sharing to combat piracy and other maritime threats, contributing to regional peace and stability.

Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief:

  • Natural disasters frequently impact maritime nations. 
  • India's collaborations with Indonesia and Thailand in disaster relief efforts showcase the importance of collective responses. 
  • Joint coordinated efforts ensure swift and effective humanitarian assistance during crises.

Environmental conservation:

  • India's cooperation with countries like Australia in marine conservation initiatives highlights the shared commitment to preserving the oceans.
  • Collaborations in combating illegal fishing, marine pollution, and climate change contribute to a healthier marine ecosystem.

Challenges in India’s maritime diplomacy: 

China factor: 

  • Perhaps the most challenging yet promising aspect of India’s maritime engagement is presented by the Indo-Pacific itself which has been shaped significantly by the China factor and continues to be.
  • China’s inroads into the Indian Ocean began over a decade ago through active political engagements and long-term port investments.
  • Beginning with the ‘flag-following-trade’ policy, China’s security presence in the Indian Ocean and its activities in the wider Pacific have transformed into semi-military alliances, dual-use port facilities, Military Operations Other Than War (MOOTW) missions, and arms transfers to the region.

Low budgetary allocation over the years: 

  • Indeed, New Delhi’s reorientation towards the necessities of reviving its maritime linkages has not been plain-sailing, given that successive efforts have been on continental matters.
  • Even as the indigenisation of warship construction began decades ago in the early 1970s and subsequent plans for augmenting force levels, insufficient naval budget coupled with capacity constraints in Indian shipyards have also impacted the navy’s force levels. 
  • This fuels the opinion that New Delhi continues to suffer from a characteristic degree of ‘sea blindness’.

Limited focus:

  • New Delhi’s strategic vision should also comprise waters beyond the IOR in terms of operational reach.
  • The advent of minilateral platforms for issue-based collaboration in the Indo-Pacific offers a unique opportunity for India to join hands with like-minded countries. 
  • India should also make efforts for collaboration with other non-conventional players with great potential, such as Canada, New Zealand, and Norway.

Historical disputes:

  • India's relations with Pakistan and Bangladesh, particularly regarding maritime boundaries in the Bay of Bengal, illustrate how historical disagreements can hinder cooperative efforts and contribute to a complex geopolitical landscape.

Environmental and climate change issues:

  • India's relations with small island nations like the Maldives and Seychelles involve addressing climate change-related concerns such as rising sea levels.
  • Collaborative efforts to mitigate environmental challenges are essential but can be complicated by competing priorities, such as Development v/s Ecological imbalance debate. 

Competing infrastructural initiatives:

  • Competing infrastructural initiatives, especially those led by global powers, can create challenges for India.
  • The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) led by China has implications for India's relations with countries along its maritime periphery.

Maritime resource management:

  • Disputes over maritime resources, such as fisheries and oil exploration, can strain relations. 
  • India's interactions with neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka in managing fishing resources in shared waters illustrate the complexities of balancing economic interests while addressing resource management concerns.

What steps have been taken? 

Maritime Diplomacy:

  • One notable example is the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), where India plays a pivotal role in promoting regional cooperation.
  • Recently, the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue or Quad (2020) comprising India, Australia, Japan and the US, has garnered greater attention. It serves as a platform for collaborative efforts on security, economic issues, and shared democratic values.

India’s ‘Look West’ maritime diplomacy:

  • The most significant dimension of Indian Ocean diplomacy, however, has been the outreach to Arab Gulf states.
  • Oman has played a key role in sustaining India’s security efforts in the Gulf of Aden by offering berthing and replenishment facilities to Indian naval ships. 

India’s maritime pivot to the East: 

  • India has entered into an agreement with Indonesia to develop a strategic port at Sabang, which lies at the tip of the Sumatra Island and close to the Malacca Strait. 
  • China may see it as a move to contain and choke the Sea Lanes of Communications. 
  • Vietnam and Japan are currently engaged in territorial disputes with China in the South China and East China seas, respectively. 
  • These countries are willing to partner with India to form diplomatic and security ties under the threat of Chinese maritime expansion.
India' mission based Indian Ocean Region

Naval exercises and security partnerships:

  • Activities such as escorting commercial ships through critical lanes like the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca, engaging in anti-piracy operations, and responding to distress calls are integral to the Navy's endeavours in ensuring unhindered maritime trade.
  • Malabar naval exercise, involving countries like the United States, Japan, and Australia, showcases India's commitment to enhancing maritime security in the Indo-Pacific region. 
  • India has offered $100 million in credit, a Dornier maritime patrol aircraft, along with assistance for strengthening the Seychelles coast guard in the Assumption Islands.
  •  In 2019, the then Chief of Naval Staff outlined the four pillars of India’s foreign engagements:
    • capacity building (provision of military assets and military infrastructure development);
    • capability enhancement (military training, technical and hydrographic assistance, exclusive economic zone [EEZ] surveillance);
    • constructive engagements (military level talks, military exercises, ship visits);
    • collaborative efforts (symposiums, constructs, conclaves).

Infrastructure development and connectivity:

  • Investing in maritime infrastructure and connectivity projects is a key strategy for India.
  • The development of the Chabahar Port in Iran is a prime example.
  • By facilitating trade and connectivity between India, Iran, and Afghanistan, this project establishes India as a key player in enhancing regional trade routes.

Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief:

  • The example of India's swift response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami highlights its commitment to regional cooperation.
  • New Delhi’s maritime engagement with its neighbourhood has also been bolstered through the country’s Ministry of Earth Sciences which has been developing the capacities of partner countries in operational oceanography, forecasting extreme weather events, and helping in climate change proofing of their vital infrastructure.

Cultural and educational exchanges:

  • India's partnerships with Southeast Asian nations through initiatives like the ‘Study in India’ program promote educational collaborations, creating a foundation for stronger diplomatic relations.

Blue economy initiatives:

  • The SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative emphasizes promoting  economic growth, environmental sustainability, and regional cooperation.
  • Extending assistance to smaller littoral nations in managing their exclusive economic zones and responding to natural disasters.
  • The Maritime Vision 2030 serves as the latest iteration of the government's comprehensive maritime development roadmap.
  • This visionary document outlines a 10-year blueprint comprising over 150 initiatives across ports, shipping, and waterways, aimed at enhancing policy efficiency and fostering growth.

Way forward: 

  • India could expand maritime exercises to include Southeast Asian partners and Western African nations to develop deeper understanding for joint operations especially against the common nontraditional threats.
  • With the rise in acts of terrorism in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Myanmar and Indonesia, it will be prudent for India to take the lead to establish joint training and operation centres+ for IOR nations to assist the regional partners to deal with the threat effectively.

Whether continental challenges outweigh maritime ones continues to be a matter of debate, there is no doubt that the maritime space is set to witness an expansion in the country’s role in diverse forms. 

India’s former Secretary, Rajiv Sikri observed that: “If India aspires to be a great power, then the only direction in which India’s strategic influence can spread is across the seas. In every other direction there are formidable constraints.”

Embracing India's District Diversity for effective policy making

Context: Chief Economic Adviser Nageswaran has argued for making the districts as smallest geographical unit for socio-economic development and analysis. He argues that districts capture the diversity of India and should be the focus of development administration.

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About Districts: 

  • According to Article 1 of the Constitution, India is a union of states and UTs. 
  • States and UTs in turn have been broken into smaller constituent units known as districts.
  • The prerogative of making districts lies with the state governments.
  • Districts are manned by District Collectors who administer the unit. 
  • Districts also have urban and rural local bodies known as Panchayats and Municipalities.
  • Earlier, there were about 500 districts in India. However, there has been recent trend towards smaller districts to make their administration more feasible.
  • Currently, average district in India has nearly 1.86 million people, larger than the population of countries like Singapore (0.56 million) and UAE (0.94 million), shows the gamut of governance required at the district level.
  • Note: According to Census
    • Largest district in terms of Area: Kutch District
    • Largest district in terms of population: 24 Pargana, Kolkata

Socio-economic achievement and disparities among India’s district: 

  • Socio-economic achievement and disparities
    • Recent studies using NFHS-5 data, showcase inter-generational developments in education, that the average level of the mother’s education equals or exceeds that of the father’s in as many as 195 districts (out of 707 districts studied). A generation previously, only 11 districts had more educated mothers than fathers.
    • Over 15 percent of districts have more than 90 per cent of women who own and operate savings accounts.
    • Over 91 per cent of districts have had more than 70 percent of births in the last five years in health facilities.
    • Urban districts, which constitute 30 percent of all districts in India, account for more than 55 percent of all wages paid and close to 45 per cent of all jobs. 
    • Average wage in the top 70 prosperous districts is three times higher than the average wage of the bottom 305 districts.
  • Policy approaches and programs: 
    • Top-down policies continue to help address socio-economic issues at the district level in areas such as improved sanitation and hygiene (Swachh Bharat), provision of healthcare services (Ayushman Bharat), reducing malnutrition (POSHAN Abhiyaan) and rural job guarantee (MGNREGS). For instance, the Swachh Bharat Mission has led to 75 per cent of villages being defecation-free
    • The Aspirational Districts Programme, launched in 2018. It has been instrumental in addressing critical gaps and fostering collaboration among diverse stakeholders to target efforts in the pockets of deprivation in crucial areas of health and nutrition, education, agriculture and water resources, etc.
      • In the last six years, the programme has transformed the lives of about 25 crore people in 112 districts, with visible improvements in key indicators, such as health, financial inclusion and education, as tracked by NITI Aayog. 
    • The percentage of pregnant women registered for ante-natal care within the first trimester rose from 68 per cent in 2018 to 89 per cent in 2023.
    • The percentage of underweight children below the age of six years declined from 20.6 per cent in 2018 to 9.2 per cent in 2023. 
  • One District One Product (ODOP), launched in 2020, the programme has seen the development and promotion of 1,000-plus unique products, across 767 districts, encompassing sectors such as textiles, agriculture, food processing and handicrafts.

Way forward: 

  • ARC 2 recommendations on District Administration: 
    • Developing a reliable central district database through which data collection from the grassroot level with the help of local revenue administration machinery can be done. The database must contain block and circle-wise information on population, PHCs, PDS outlets, Police stations, schemes implemented, fund sanctioned, beneficiaries under the scheme etc. 
    • There is need to strengthen the compliance machinery at the district level to enforce provisions of the RTI Act and to reduce the element of delay and subjectivity in the functioning of the lower level formations of the government. This should be done by creating a special RTI Cell in the office of the Collector, whose functions should be reviewed by the Collector at regular periodicity. 
    • For effective monitoring and evaluation of programme/projects which are directly under the charge of the Collector, there needs to be computerized/MIS attached to his office. On the basis of these, the Collector could undertake monthly or quarterly review of performance. This cell could also function as the nodal e- governance cell for other officers located in the district by using its capacity to coordinate, and develop relevant IT solutions. 
    • Comprehensive classification of rules, guidelines and procedures is necessary for efficient service delivery and better understanding among both the officers and the general public. 
  • India’s diversity is embodied in its districts. To the policymaker, understanding the full scale of this diversity is key to crafting policies.
  • Effective administration requires recognizing the diverse needs and priorities across India's districts, necessitating policies that are not one-size-fits-all but are instead tailored to each district's unique circumstances. A significant challenge remains in the availability of timely, high-quality data for informed decision-making at the district level.
  • An ideal set of policies should be a bouquet of varied measures for different localities and regions, tailored to their culture, urbanisation, development and demography. These should be bolstered by uniform interventions in infrastructure, public goods, livelihoods, policy enablers and good governance.

Case study: District Development Index for Maharashtra

The index captures a district’s progress by giving equal weightage to its potential for socio-economic development and its existing levels of socio-economic development. In addition to providing an immediate picture of district performance, the index is also built for the long term, so policymakers can tap into the potential presented by various districts.

Population growth committee

Context: The Finance Minister promised a committee to study India’s population growth to ensure that the nation is on target to meet the Viksit Bharat goal by 2047.

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India’s current Population Dynamics and further challenges: 

  • The steady decline in fertility rates is leading to a scenario where two parents are now being replaced by two children and all segments of the society have begun to adopt family planning.
  • Currently, 33 per cent of the population is aged 20-29, while 23 per cent of the population is aged 40-59. But in 2047, the proportion of the younger population will decrease, and the proportion of older working ages will increase, with each forming about 28 per cent of the population. 
  • Dependency burden, defined as the number of individuals ages 15-59 supporting children under 15 and older population above 60, will vary dramatically between states.
    • For example in 2021, in Bihar, 151 working-age adults supported 100 dependents, while in Tamil Nadu, 189 adults supported the same population; this will flip with the worker-to-dependent ratio changing to 201 in Bihar and 132 in Tamil Nadu by 2051.
  • As fertility declines, the burden of child care for women will drop. An analysis of National Family Health Survey data shows that in 1993, an average woman spent about 14 years caring for children under age five.
    • This number dropped to eight years in 2021, however, time freed up from childcare has not been utilised in increased participation in the workforce.

Way forward: 

  • To ensure that this growing proportion of middle-aged workers can keep up with the changing demands of an increasingly technologically driven economy, government must invest in continued skill upgradation and on-the-job training.
  • For expanding women’s ability to participate in the job market may be to improve the availability of childcare, possibly through creative combinations of Anganwadi and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. MGNREGA works should include rotational provision of childcare under the supervision of a trained early childhood educator.
  • A combination of rising numbers of elderly and a declining number of children to care for them means the government must increase the ability of this older population to be self-sustaining. 
  • A combination of policies will be needed, including rising retirement age, enhanced old age pension schemes, and increased ability to sell land or homes, assets in which most of the wealth of the Indian elderly resides.
  • Lessons from China, as China implemented a strict one-child policy, bringing it to a demographic cliff. China has reached a point where the needs of its aging population have begun to drag down its economic growth. Relaxing the one-child limitation has been unsuccessful in increasing fertility. 
    • This suggests that India should refrain from a similar panicked reaction and let fertility decline continue at a natural pace. 
  • The future of elderly and children in India will depend on how productive workers are in states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. The newly formed 16th Finance Commission will have the task of investing in workers in these states to ensure the well-being of all Indians in the future.

Conclusion

Addressing these difficult challenges needs input from various experts like population researchers, economists, social scientists, and government policy specialists. Creating a special committee to study the challenges brought about by changes in population alongside the 16th Finance Commission will help guide government spending decisions, leading to positive effects on priorities.