Mains Exhaustive

Personally Identifiable Information (PII)

Context: Recently, the Ministry of Corporate Affair fixed a critical vulnerability in its online portal. As per the reports, the vulnerability exposed personal details, like Aadhaar, PAN, voter identity, passport, date of birth, contact number, and communication address of more than 98 lakh directors of Indian companies.

Introduction:

Advancements in technology platforms, brought bigger changes in operations of businesses, legislations by governments and individual relations. Cell phones, internet, e-commerce and all other kinds of digital tools have created an explosion in data supply.
This ‘Big Data’, is collected, analysed and processed by businesses and shared with other companies, which has in turn enabled them to gain better insight into how to make interaction better with the customers.

Personally Identifiable Information:

Any data or information maintained by an organisation or agency that can potentially be used alone or with other relevant data to identify or trace a specific individual.
Includes information such as Aadhaar, PAN, voter identity, passport, date of birth, contact number, communication address, and biometric information.
Constituents of PII differ depending on an individual’s home country.

This may contain:

Direct identifiers such as Passport Information, that can identify a person uniquely, or;
Quasi-identifiers such as Race, that can be combined with other quasi-identifiers like date of birth to successfully recognize an individual.

Non-PII:

Personal data, Non-personal data (such as the company you work for), shared data and anonymized data are not classified as PII.
Examples: Photographic images (especially of the face or other identifying characteristics), place of birth, religion, geographic indicators, educational qualifications, etc.
Personal Data: This has a broader range than the PII, such as IP address, device ID numbers, browser cookies, or genetic data.

What are Sensitive and Non-Sensitive PII:

Sensitive PII includes legal statistics such as full name, Social Security Number, driver’s license, financial information, medical records, mailing address, passport information, credit card information.
Such information when exposed can be used to identify a person and potentially cause harm.
Such sensitive PII are stored by employers, government organisations, banks etc
Example: An insurance company that is sharing client’s information with a marketing company will not share the sensitive PII. The data shared will be limited to the marketing company’s goal only.
Non-sensitive PII is easily accessible from public sources. This includes: zip code, race, gender, date of birth, social media, religion etc.
This cannot be used alone to determine an individual’s identity.
Although non-sensitive, such data is linkable, as when such data is used with other personal linkable information, this can reveal the identity of a person by using De-anonymization and re-identification techniques.

Threats of PII exposure:

The Internet has become a major vector for identity theft.
Data can be found by digging through the trash or unopened mails, which can provide an individual’s name and address. This can also reveal information about the employment, banking relationships or social security networks.
Phishing and social engineering attacks using deceptive-looking website or email, tricks into revealing key information, which can be used to fraudulently open bank accounts, and siphon off funds from accounts.
Information can also be stolen through deceptive phone calls or SMS messages.
These threat actors are known to sell exposed PII information on the ‘dark web’.
Lucius, a threat actor found selling data online claimed to have access to a 1.8 terabyte data leak impacting an unnamed ‘India internal law enforcement agency’.
Dark web: It is an encrypted portion of the internet not visible to the general public via a traditional search engine such as Google. It is also known as the darknet and constitutes a large part of illegal activity on the internet.
Threat actors also breach third-party aggregating PII which is also facilitated by weaknesses in digital infrastructure.

Risks for India:

India is ranked fourth globally in all malware detection in the first half of 2023, as per the survey of Resecurity.
A survey of 200 Indian IT decision makers found that 45% of Indian businesses have experienced more than a 50% rise in disruptive cyberattacks in 2023.
The report also found that 67% of Indian government and essential services organisations experienced an increase in disruptive cyberattacks.
The data sold on the dark web included one’s Aadhaar number, a unique 12-digit individual identification number issued by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI).
Certain cases:
In 2023, reports emerged that a bot on Telegram was returning the personal data of Indian citizens who registered with the COVID-19 vaccine intelligence network (CoWIN) portal for vaccination purposes.
The government of India denied allegations of a biometric data leak, as well as a breach in the CoWIN portal.
The Government however, launched an investigation into the allegations that led to the arrest of a man in Bihar, along with a juvenile in June 2023.
A data breach was also reported in the Rail Yatri platform in January 2023.

How to secure PII?

Individuals can take steps to ensure that their PII is not readily available to threat actors.
They can look for HTTPS in URLs when visiting unknown websites. “S” stands for secure and is used by legitimate websites to secure collected information from unsecured connections.
Keep a tab on your PII like Aadhaar, passport, PAN, Voter ID, and other important proofs of identity. Avoid sharing or accessing images or details of identity documents through unknown devices.
Keep a tab on your bank account transactions, credit cards, and credit score. A hit in the credit score could mean your PII has been misused to procure credit cards in your name.
Users should also be alert and approach emails for unknown sources with caution as stolen information may be used to target users in phishing campaigns.
Users can change existing IDs and passwords to ensure that stolen data cannot be used for launching brute force attacks.
Users should also implement two-factor authentication for all their accounts and inform the concerned authorities in case they notice any suspicious activity in their online accounts.

The following are the privacy regimes in specific jurisdictions:

India:

Country’s Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) is investigating reports of the data leak and the government is working on moving massive amounts of data, including legacy data collected over the past decades, to safe storage.
Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021, mandate social media platforms to ensure greater diligence with respect to the content.

United States:

Government defined ‘personally identifiable information’ in 2020.
Anything that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity such as name, social security network and biometrics information; either alone or with other identifiers such as date of birth or place of birth.

European Union:

The definition expands to include quasi-identifiers as outlined in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which came into effect in 2018.
The GDPR is a legal framework that sets rules for collecting and processing personal information for those residing in the EU.

Australia:

Privacy Act 1988 protects personal information.
It regulates the collection, storage, use, and disclosure of personal information, whether by the federal government or private entities.

Maritime Piracy: The Great security challenge of the 21st century

Context: Recent years have witnessed pirate attacks in key waterways like the west coast of Africa, Gulf of Aden, Horn of Africa, Bangladesh, and the Strait of Malacca, highlighting persistent challenges to maritime security.

What is Maritime Piracy?

It refers to criminal acts of robbery, violence, or other illicit activities committed at sea. These acts are typically carried out by individuals or groups known as pirates, who attack ships, seafarers, or coastal areas with the intent of stealing cargo, valuables, or demanding ransom.

Reasons for Maritime Piracy:

Inadequate Maritime policing: Regions such as Gulf of Aden, Horn of Africa often suffer from poor maritime policing, where coastal countries have weak or nonexistent maritime forces.
High shipping traffic and choke points: Piracy-prone areas frequently coincide with major shipping routes, particularly at choke points where geographical features force ships to converge or slow down. E.g., Strait of Malacca.
Economic factors and unemployment: Poor governance, political turmoil, and economic instability in coastal regions contribute to high unemployment and poverty. In turn, desperate economic conditions may drive individuals to turn to piracy as a means of financial gain, exacerbating crime rates in these areas. E.g., Somalian region.
Legal complexities in International waters: Many piracy-prone areas are international waters, straits, or archipelagic waters falling under the jurisdiction of multiple countries. This complexity leads to challenges in legal frameworks, jurisdictional disputes, and difficulties in coordinating international efforts to combat piracy effectively.

India’s role in Counter Piracy operations:

Undoubtedly, the Indian Navy has demonstrated remarkable proactive engagement in the volatile regions off the Horn of Africa and the Gulf of Aden.
Since the initiation of its anti-piracy patrol in 2008, the Indian Navy has consistently intervened, thwarting multiple pirate hijacking attempts on merchant ships.
The navy's unwavering commitment is evident in ongoing operations, such as the recent coordinated rescue of the Sri Lankan fishing trawler, Lorenzo Putha.
Notably, the Indian Navy played a pivotal role in pushing back the boundaries of the high-risk area in the Arabian Sea during the peak of Somali piracy (2009-12), showcasing its effectiveness in ensuring maritime security and combatting piracy.

International efforts to combat piracy:

The Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (CGPCS) was created in 2009 pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 1851. This voluntary, ad hoc international forum brings together countries, organizations, and industry groups with an interest in combating piracy.
Shared Awareness and De-confliction (SHADE) (#PrelimsFact) is an international operational counter piracy platform, aimed to encourage partners for sharing information, and to de-conflict operations amongst counter-piracy actors.
Djibouti code of conduct established under International Maritime Organisation (IMO) provides for sharing of piracy-related information, through its information sharing network against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden. (#India is observer) (#PrelimsFact)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the framework for the repression of piracy under international law.

Ways to tackle Maritime Piracy:

Operational measures:

Visible presence of Maritime forces: The mere presence of naval ships and aircraft serves as a proactive measure to dissuade pirates from carrying out attacks.
Warning and escort services ensures that merchant ships transiting high-risk areas can join convoys between designated points, enhancing their safety through collective security measures.
Surveillance through Information fusion centers ashore play a crucial role in consolidating data and intelligence, aiding in the identification and tracking of potential threats.

Long term measures:

International collaboration and communication for sharing critical information to effectively thwart piracy attempts. E.g., US coordinated Maritime coalition.
Good governance: Coastal nations must work towards establishing stable political environments, implementing effective governance structures which helps in reducing poverty, and creating an environment less conducive to criminal activities.
Economic development: Promoting economic development in coastal regions such as investment in infrastructure, job creation, and sustainable livelihoods can diminish the incentives for individuals to engage in criminal activities at sea.
Community engagement: Involving local communities in coastal areas through awareness campaigns in order to integrate them into maritime security efforts. E.g., Puntland strategy (Somalian State).

PM Suryodaya yojna

Context - The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi has announced 'Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana' under which 1 crore households will get rooftop solar. Also in the Interim budget 2024, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman said that the government will enable 1 crore households to obtain up to 300 units of free electricity every month through the rooftop solar programme.

What is Rooftop solar power?

Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels can be placed on the top of building roofs to generate electricity. Such a system is called a rooftop solar system. Electricity generated from the rooftop solar system can be used to meet the buildings' energy demand, charge batteries for later use, or can be exported to the electricity grid.

More than 75 per cent of RTS installations are commercial and industrial (C&I) segment, according to the ministry data. Among the other segments are residential and public places.

The RTS numbers in most states are dismal, according to a recent report by the MNRE. Even urbanised, high-income Delhi, which had been allocated subsidised RTS for a capacity of about 30 MW, achieved only 20% of the target.

India currently has about 11 GW of installed rooftop solar capacity, of which only 2.7 GW are in residential units and the rest in commercial or industrial spaces. The government aspired to a target of installing 40GW

What are the associated advantages?

It can increase the energy accessibility as well as inclusivity due to its decentralized nature. 13% Indian households are either using non-grid sources for power or "do not use any electricity at all." SRT systems could be game changers for these households.
They help minimise transmission and distribution losses, as the generated power is consumed locally.
They provide environmentally friendly, inexpensive back-up supply of power , a big advantage, given the persistent supply interruptions in most places.
No additional space required for installation: One of the biggest advantages of rooftop solar panels is that they can be installed on any type of roof. So, people don't need to vacate a land or invest in buying additional land.

What are the associated challenges?

High upfront costs: A 30% capital subsidy support from the government does cover a portion of this cost. However, most prospective customers either do not have the savings to cover the upfront costs, or are simply unwilling to invest, given the relatively large amount.
Specialization & Customization: In addition, residential RTS are highly specialised and quality-dependent, and many customers want their own customisations, which may incur an additional cost.
Limited rooftop areas: Especially in the Urban areas. Rural areas show higher technical potential based on residential rooftop area (363 GW) compared to urban areas across states (274 GW).
Low energy consumption: A significant decline in technical is witnessed in states such as Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand due to the high share of households with low energy consumption per sq ft.
Competition from alternative: existing subsidies for coal-fired electricity for e.g. make it cheaper than solar power.
Cumbersome load extension process: In many cases, consumers find their electricity usage is lower than their rooftop solar system’s capacity, requiring load adjustment. However, this process, particularly with local utilities or discoms, is often cumbersome.
Limited support from Discoms: Discoms have been reluctant to aid rooftop solar installations as they fear a loss of revenue with consumers moving to another energy source.

What is net metering?

Net metering In the case of grid-connected electricity consumers using rooftop solar systems, “net metering” is a mechanism that allow them to first consume the electricity generated from the rooftop system and then export surplus energy, if any, into the grid. Thus, the intake of electricity from the grid reduces. At the time of electricity bill generation, the consumers are billed only for the net electricity they have consumed i.e., the difference between the electricity they have consumed from the grid and the surplus electricity they have exported to the grid (from the rooftop solar system).

What can be a way ahead?

Timely implementation and penalty clauses: Establishing fixed timelines for installation tasks and implementing penalty clauses for delays can incentivise prompt action by power distribution company (discom) officials, ensuring efficient project execution.
Manufacturing ramp-up: To meet the ambitious target of 30 GW capacity addition, there is a pressing need to ramp up domestic manufacturing facilities for solar cells and modules. This would reduce dependence on imports and drive down installation costs.
Awareness campaigns and workshops: Discoms should conduct extensive awareness campaigns and technical workshops to educate potential beneficiaries about the benefits of rooftop solar installations and the available support schemes.
Accessible financing: Nationalised banks should offer easy financing options with affordable interest rates for rooftop solar projects under the PM Suryodaya Yojana, facilitating broader access to capital for installation.
Provision of metres: Discoms should streamline the process of providing solar and net meters to reduce installation time and expedite project completion.

Fisheries sector

Context: In its interim budget for FY25, the government has raised allocations for the ministry of fisheries, animal husbandry and dairying with the fisheries department receiving ₹2,585 crore, and the animal husbandry and dairying department ₹4,521 crore.

Fisheries Sector

India is the 3rd largest fish producing and 2nd largest aquaculture producing nation in the world.
India contributes 7.96% to the world's output.
The fisheries and aquaculture sector, constituting 1.24% of India's Gross Value Added (GVA) and 7.28% of the agricultural GVA, serves as a vital source of sustenance, nutrition, income, and livelihood for millions.

Growth Trajectory:

Since last one decade the fisheries sector exhibited remarkable growth, boasting an annual average growth rate of about 10.8%

Marine Fisheries Potential:

India's marine fisheries potential, estimated at 5.31 million tons, demonstrates a harnessing rate of nearly 78% with a production of 4.17 million tons in 2018-19.
The sector's activities extend along the vast coastline and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million square km.

Inland Fisheries Resources:

India's inland fisheries potential, encompassing rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, tanks, and more, is vast.
However, the current production of 14.73 million tons in 2020-21 (provisional) utilizes only around 60% of this potential.

Export Dynamics:

In the fiscal year 2021-2022, India's marine product exports totaled 13.93 lakh metric tons, valued at USD 7.76 billion.
A consistent average annual growth rate of approximately 10% underscores India's competitiveness in the global seafood market.

Socio-Economic Impact:

Fisheries and aquaculture provide livelihoods for around 25 million fishers and fish farmers at the primary level and double that number along the value chain.
Recognized as an affordable and rich source of animal protein, fish plays a crucial role in mitigating hunger and addressing nutrient deficiencies.

Challenges

Overfishing: Overexploitation of fish stocks due to increased demand for seafood has led to depletion of marine resources. This threatens the livelihoods of fishing communities and affects the overall health of marine ecosystems.
Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: IUU fishing practices contribute to overfishing and undermine efforts to manage fisheries sustainably. Lack of effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms exacerbates this issue.
Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, including lack of proper storage, transportation, and processing facilities, hinders the efficiency of the supply chain. This can lead to post-harvest losses and affect the quality of seafood products.
Climate Change: Changing climate patterns impact fish habitats, migration routes, and breeding grounds. This affects fish populations and can result in shifts in the distribution of species, impacting the traditional fishing patterns of communities.
Pollution: Pollution, including industrial runoff, untreated sewage, and plastic waste, poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems. It can lead to the contamination of water bodies, affecting the health of fish and other marine life.
Lack of Technology Adoption: Limited access to modern fishing technologies and practices hampers the efficiency and productivity of the fishing industry. The adoption of sustainable and technologically advanced methods is crucial for long-term viability.
Inadequate Fisheries Management: Ineffective fisheries management, including poorly enforced regulations and a lack of participatory approaches involving local communities, contributes to overfishing and resource degradation.
Social and Economic Challenges: Fishing communities often face issues such as poverty, lack of education, and limited access to healthcare. Improving the socio-economic conditions of these communities is essential for the overall well-being of the industry.

Government Measures

Blue Revolution (Neel Kranti Mission):

Launched to increase fisheries production and productivity from both aquaculture and fisheries resources.Components include development of inland fisheries, marine fisheries, infrastructure, post-harvest operations, welfare of fishermen, monitoring, control, and surveillance, among others.

Financial Assistance:

Under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme, subsidies are provided for various activities, and free training is given to fish farmers on improved scientific fish culture practices. The central government bears the full expenses of schemes in Union Territories and 90% in North-East & Hilly States, with the remaining borne by other states.

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY):

Aims to turn India into a hotspot for fish and aquatic products through policy, marketing, and infrastructure support. Promotes aquaculture through easy access to credit and includes fishermen in farmer welfare programs and social security schemes.

SAMPADA (Scheme for Agro Marine Processing and Development of Agro Processing Clusters):

A comprehensive package for the creation of modern infrastructure from farm gate to retail outlet. Sub-schemes include Mega Food Park, Integrated Cold chain, food processing and preservation capacities, agro processing clusters, backward and forward linkages, and food safety and quality assurance infrastructure.

Institutions for Fisheries:

The government has established dedicated institutions for fisheries development, covering production, financing, marketing, export, research, and capacity building.

Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Fund (FIDF):

Constituted for funding infrastructure projects in the fisheries sector. NABARD, NCDC, and all Scheduled Banks serve as Nodal Loaning Entities (NLE).

Kisan Credit Card (KCC) for Fish Farmers:

KCC facility extended to the fisheries sector to meet working capital requirements. Interest subvention on KCC limit for Fisheries and Animal Husbandry up to Rs. 2.0 lakh.

Rural Infrastructure Development Fund:

NABARD permitted to extend Rural Infrastructure Development Fund loans for fisheries-related infrastructure such as fishing harbors/jetties and riverine fisheries.

Holistic Development Approach needed:

To unlock the full potential of the fisheries sector, a comprehensive approach is essential.
This involves strategic policy interventions and financial support, ensuring sustainability and inclusivity.
Addressing challenges faced by marginalized communities requires initiatives in education, skill development, healthcare, and infrastructure.
India's fisheries and aquaculture sector stands at the nexus of immense potential and critical challenges.
The journey toward sustainable, responsible, and equitable development is not only an economic imperative but a commitment to the well-being and prosperity of millions dependent on this vital industry.
A harmonized effort is needed to navigate these waters, fostering growth while prioritizing the holistic development of those integral to the sector's success.

Viability Gap Funding for Offshore Wind Energy

Context: The Union Cabinet approved India's first offshore wind energy projects with a capacity of 1 GW (500 MW each) off the coast of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, at a total cost of Rs 7,453 crore.

Offshore Wind Energy

Offshore wind energy is clean and renewable energy obtained by taking advantage of the force of the wind produced on the high seas.
Wind reaches a higher and more constant speed on the high seas as compared to that on land due to the absence of barriers.
In order to make the most of this resource, mega-structures are installed that are seated on the seabed and equipped with the latest technical innovations.
According to studies conducted by NIWE, there is good potential for development of offshore wind power off the Southern tip of India and off the West Coast for development of wind power in India’s coastline.

Benefits of Offshore Wind Energy

Renewable, unlimited and non-polluting.
Offshore wind energy turbines are much larger in size (5-10 MW per turbine) as against 2-3 MW of an onshore wind turbine.
Reduces pressure on land resources.
Barrier-free regions thus higher wind speed and efficiency
Visual and acoustic impact is small
No issues of land acquisition.
Ease of maritime transport, which has few limitations about cargo and dimensions in comparison with land transportation, has made it possible for offshore wind turbines to reach much larger unit capacities and sizes than onshore wind turbines.

Challenges of Offshore Wind Energy

The major issue lies in the challenges about high costs and technological challenges of offshore wind facilities owing to underwater construction constraints. Thus, making the per megawatt cost of offshore wind turbines higher than the cost of onshore wind turbines.
Construction and operations may disturb the delicate ecological landscape, which in turn may affect species and biodiversity. For ex. Identified area for project like Gulf of Khambhat is an ecologically sensitive zone.

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Global Standings

As of 2023, China continues to be the global leader in offshore wind energy capacity followed by the United Kingdom and Germany.

India and offshore wind energy

India has a coastline of about 7600 km surrounded by water on three sides and has good prospects of harnessing offshore wind energy.
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry for the development of Offshore Wind Energy in India.
MNRE has notified the ‘Offshore Wind Energy Policy’ in 2015 which provides a framework for the development of offshore wind power development up to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baseline i.e., up to the country's Exclusive Economic Zone.
National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai is the nodal agency to carry out resource assessment; surveys and studies in EEZ demarcate blocks and facilitate developers for setting up offshore wind energy farms.
For the initial phase of developments, potential offshore wind zones off the coast of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have been identified through meso-scale study.
A revised Strategy for the development of offshore wind energy projects has been issued in 2023. Further, The “Offshore Wind Energy Lease Rules, 2023” to regulate the allocation of offshore wind sea blocks to developers have been notified.
India has set a target of installing 30 GW of offshore wind projects by 2030. The government estimates that the states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu alone have around 70 GW of potential for offshore wind power.
While India’s onshore wind energy capacity has reached 42.633 GW (4^th highest in the world), offshore wind energy in the country is yet to gain momentum.
Approved in June 2024, the Viability Gap Funding (VGF) scheme for offshore wind energy projects includes an outlay of Rs.6853 crore for installation and commissioning of 1 GW of offshore wind energy projects, and grant of Rs.600 crore for upgradation of two ports to meet logistics requirements for offshore wind energy projects.
The VGF scheme is a step towards implementation of the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy notified in 2015 with an aim to exploit the vast offshore wind energy potential that exists within the exclusive economic zone of India.
The successful commissioning of 1 GW offshore wind projects will produce renewable electricity of about 3.72 billion units annually, which will result in annual reduction of 2.98 million tons of CO2 equivalent emission for a period of 25 years.

Compressed Biogas has a future

Context: Recent government data stated a growth in the number of compressed biogas (CBG) plants set up in India- from only 19 functional plants in 2020 to 125 currently in 2024.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Compressed Biogas; Benefits of Compressed Biogas.

Mains: Challenges involved in scaling CBD.

Major Highlights:

In October 2018, the Union government launched the ‘Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation’ (SATAT) initiative. It aimed for 5000 CBG plants with a total output of 15 million tonnes a year by 2023-24.
While the government release mentions 125 plants, the SATAT portal says only 77 plants have been commissioned (target 5000 plants), and only 17,801 tonnes of gas was sold in 2024-25.

Background:

To promote clean energy transition, the government has set a goal of reaching up to 15% of energy supply from Natural Gas from the present level of about 6%.
- Only 54% of CO2 is emitted in producing electricity from Natural Gas as compared to what is emitted in producing the same amount of electricity from coal.
- However, there is high import dependence on Natural gas (50% of the total gas consumed is imported).
This challenge can be addressed to a large extent by blending domestically produced Compressed Biogas (CBG) with Natural Gas .

What is Biogas?

Biogas is produced when bio-degradable organic materials/wastes such as cattle-dung, biomass from farms, gardens, kitchens, industry, poultry droppings, night soil and municipals wastes are subjected to a scientific process, called Anaerobic Digestion (A.D.) in a Biogas Plants.

Biogas contains about 55-65 % of methane, 35- 44 % of carbon dioxide and traces of other gases, such as Hydrogen Sulphide, Nitrogen, water vapour, Nitrogen, Carbon monoxide and Ammonia.
The presence of water vapor, H2S, and CO2 make biogas very corrosive and unsuitable to be used as fuel.

The digested slurry produced from Biogas Plants as a by-product is a better source of nutrient enriched organic manure for use in Agriculture. It not only helps in improving the crop yield but also maintain soil health.

What is Compressed Biogas (CBG)?

The biogas is purified to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide CO2), water vapor and compressed as Compressed Bio Gas (CBG), which has methane (CH4) content of more than 90%.
CBG has calorific value and other properties similar to CNG and hence can be utilized as green renewable automotive fuel. Thus it can replace CNG in automotive, industrial and commercial areas, given the abundance biomass availability within the country.
The most widely used technologies for biogas upgrading are water scrubbing, Pressure Swing Adsorption, membrane, and chemical scrubbing. Of these technologies, water scrubbing and Pressure Swing Adsorption are considered to be most appropriate on a small scale due to low cost and easy maintenance.

Note- CNG stands for ‘compressed natural gas’. Bio-CNG is a renewable fuel obtained by purifying biogas – in contrast to CNG, a non-renewable source of energy.

What are the benefits of Compressed Biogas

Import reduction of natural gas and crude oil.
Waste management- Utilization of agricultural residue, cattle dung and MSW.
Providing additional source of revenue to the farmers, increasing rural employment and amelioration of the rural economy.
Towards self-sufficiency in energy & providing a buffer against energy security concerns and crude/gas price fluctuations.
A boost towards fulfilment of National commitments in achieving climate change goals.

What are the challenges involved in scaling CBG?

Funding Issues: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has issued multiple letters of intent to the entrepreneurs to show that the targets under SATAT scheme are met. However, in reality the banks are not extending loans to entrepreneurs for more than one project, despite having multiple letters of intent.
Feedstock availability: The feedstock for CBG (primarily agricultural residue) is seasonally available and of varying quality. This leads to inconsistency in supply of raw materials.
High cost of production: CBG plants are typically set up in rural areas (where the feedstock biomass is available) and the gas is produced in low-consumption centres. Due to the lack of nearby demand, the producers have to incur additional costs in storage and transportation of CGB. Preliminary processes like collection, transportation, and segregation of raw material also increase operational complexity.
Uncertain price realisation: Given the uncertainty in offtake (demand), the surplus gas is either flared or sold in the local market at unpredictable prices. E.g., In the SATAT scheme, oil marketing firms provide prices for transportation CBG only up to 25 km, leaving producers to bear additional costs.
Lack of supporting infrastructure: Lack of infrastructure to inject CBG into natural gas pipelines for transportation and distribution, hinders the scalability of CBG.
Lack of skilled workforce: The production process requires skilled technicians, but the shortage of trained manpower exists.
Standardisation issues: No specific standards exist in India for installation, operation, and maintenance of CBG plants.
Lack of incentives: For E.g., Currently, there is no mechanism for trading, purchasing, and monitoring of green attributes of CBG, such as carbon credits or premiums. Owing to which, the CBG scheme has not been able to encourage investors/ entrepreneurs to establish CBG plants.
Low returns on Investments: CBG plants have a very low internal rate of return and that the pricing of gas is not remunerative to the marketing companies. The CBG prices are linked to natural gas prices (at 20 per cent discount) which further impacts profitability.
Funding Issues: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has issued multiple letters of intent to the entrepreneurs to show that the targets under SATAT scheme are met. However, in reality the banks are not extending loans to entrepreneurs for more than one project, despite having multiple letters of intent.

What are the steps taken by Government in this regard?

National Policy on Biofuels 2018 emphasizes on promotion of advanced Biofuels including CBG.
Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan (GOBAR-DHAN) scheme to convert cattle dung and solid waste in farms to Bio-CNG (CBG) and compost. GOBAR-DHAN scheme proposes to cover 700 projects across the country.
Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for Bio-CNG has been notified by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Financial assistance under the program is available for Biogas generation, Bio CNG generation, Power generation from MSW, Biomass Gasifier etc.
SATAT Initiative: An initiative of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas that promotes entrepreneurs to set up Compressed Biogas plants, produce and supply CBG to Oil Marketing Companies for sale as automotive and industrial fuels.

An Oil Ministry report has proposed trading CBG’s green attributes and the creation of an extra revenue stream for biogas producers by monetizing these attributes.

One key aspect involves proposing CBG blending mandates for entities marketing CNG and PNG. The report suggests trading CBG’s green attributes and the creation of an extra revenue stream for biogas producers by monetizing these attributes. This strategy involves creating certificates that hold a premium value over standard natural gas.
The National Biofuels Coordination Committee, led by the Union Petroleum Minister, announced the gradual mandatory blending of CBG in the CNG and PNG segments.
The Compressed Biogas Obligation (CBO), which is voluntary till FY25, is proposed to be made mandatory from FY26.
The amended Energy Conservation Act, 2022 empowers the Centre to mandate consumption of a particular non-fossil fuel in a laid down proportion.

Dense fog over North-West India as fresh western disturbance rolls in over Afghanistan

Context - Night temperatures are below normal over East India but have looked up over the rest of the country to the West (North-West India) as a causative western disturbance pulled in farther away beyond the border and locked in over North-East Afghanistan.

What are western disturbances?

These are the extra-tropical cyclones.
They originate in the Mediterranean region and travel eastward to northern Bangladesh, south-eastern Nepal and Northern India.
The sub- tropical westerly jet streams helps western disturbances to enter the Indian sub- continent and affect its weather.
The winds while moving also takes up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea
These moisture laden western disturbances eventually come up against the Himalayas and get blocked, as a consequence, the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared.
On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April.
It is a non-monsoonal precipitation pattern that induces low pressure systems in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
This, ultimately, causes rainfall in the plains and snowfall in the mountains.
These disturbances result into snow fall in western Himalaya and rainfall in the Great Plains and provide moisture to Rabi season crops.

Recent changes in the behaviour of western disturbances

For at least three years now, western disturbances have displayed unusual behaviour in India.
The precipitation has reduced and winters have remained largely dry across India.

Causes

Arctic warming makes the Polar Jetstream wavier and increases the chance of merging with Sub tropical westerly Jetstream in winters. This causes the Jetstream to shift Northwards and reduce precipitation.
North Atlantic oscillation which is a random fluctuation of air pressure over the North Atlantic Ocean due to a High pressure region above the Azores island and low pressure region over Iceland. It is currently in a negative phase and it reduces the frequency and intensity of the Western Disturbances.
La-Nina phases in the previous years reduced the temperature of hot tropical air that is crucial for the temperature gradient for the formation of the Western Disturbances.

Impacts of this change:

Alteration in temperature and precipitation patterns across India.
The lack of snowfall in the mountains affects the yield of Rabi crops in some regions.
Rivers also get less water and hence affect the availability of the freshwater resources.
Farm income is greatly impacted due to the disastrous impacts on Apple production.
Air quality: The associated winds and precipitation can help in dispersing pollutants, leading to temporary improvements in air quality, especially in urban areas. Fluctuations in western disturbance can thus effect the air quality.
Disaster frequency increases as reduction in W.D intensity can lead to droughts and increase in intensity creates floods.

Western countries pause funding amid Gaza war for UNRWA

Context: The US and eight other Western countries, which together provided more than half of UNRWA’s 2022 budget, have decided to pause funding for the agency. Western Countries have accused officials of UNRWA of being involved in Hamas’ October 7 attack on Israel. The development could have severe implications for Palestinians in Gaza.

More about the news:

UN officials strongly urged countries to reconsider their decision to suspend funding for the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).
UN has assured that strict action would be taken against any staff member found to be involved in Hamas' October 7 attack on Israel.
The agency emphasized that two million Palestinians in Gaza depend on UNRWA services, which would be significantly reduced if funding is not restored.
Israel asserts that Hamas tunnels run next to or under UNRWA facilities and accuses the agency of promoting anti-Israel sentiments in its schools.
In response, UNRWA has denied all allegations, asserting no links to Hamas.
Former UNRWA spokesman Chris Gunness characterized the accusations against the agency as a ‘coordinated political attack’ by Israel, claiming that Israel seeks to disband UNRWA to achieve its objectives in Gaza.

About UNRWA:

The agency offers education, health, relief, social services, microfinance, and emergency assistance programs both inside and outside refugee camps. Most of the Palestine refugees, totalling 5.9 million, are descendants of those displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), is a UN organization committed to supporting the relief and human development of Palestinian refugees.
UNRWA's mandate extends to Palestinians displaced by the 1948 Palestine War and subsequent conflicts, including their descendants and legally adopted children.
Established in 1949 by the UN General Assembly (UNGA).
It initially offered assistance to both Jewish and Arab Palestine refugees within the State of Israel until the Israeli government assumed responsibility for them in 1952.
Operating as a subsidiary body of the UNGA, UNRWA's mandate undergoes periodic renewal every three years.
Since its inception, it has consistently received extensions, most recently until June 30, 2026.
UNRWA operates in five regions: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem.
Assistance for Palestinian refugees outside these areas falls under the purview of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950 as the primary agency aiding refugees globally.
Notably, UNRWA is unique among UN agencies as it is exclusively dedicated to assisting refugees from a specific region or conflict.
In contrast, UNHCR has a distinct mandate focused on helping refugees eliminate their refugee status through local integration, resettlement in a third country, or repatriation when feasible.

History:

In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the subsequent displacement of Palestinian Arabs, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 212 (III).
The General Assembly, in 1949, established the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). The resolution was adopted without opposition, receiving support from Israel and Arab states, with only the Soviet bloc and South Africa abstaining.
Commencing operations in 1950, UNRWA initially focused on ‘direct relief and works programs’ for Palestine refugees, aiming to prevent conditions of starvation and distress while fostering peace and stability.
The agency's mandate underwent further expansion. UNRWA was to ‘establish a reintegration fund’ for the permanent re-establishment of refugees.
More funding was to be given for reintegration than relief, urging UNRWA to continue providing programs for health care, education, and general welfare.

Definition of a Refugee:

UNRWA has adopted its own operational interpretation of the term ‘refugee’ to facilitate the provision of humanitarian aid, excluding considerations of final status.
In the context of Palestine, a refugee is defined as an individual whose habitual residence was in Palestine between June 1, 1946, and May 15, 1948, and who suffered displacement of both home and livelihood due to the 1948 conflict.
While primarily centred on Palestine refugees, the mandate also extends to those displaced by ‘the 1967 Arab-Israel war and subsequent hostilities’ and occasionally includes a broader segment of the local community.
Numerous individuals, although not officially designated as ‘Palestine refugees,’ have long been registered as eligible recipients of UNRWA services.
The offspring of male Palestine refugees, including adopted children, are also deemed eligible for refugee registration.

Organization and mandate:

It holds the distinction of being the UN agency that directly reports to the General Assembly, lacking a constitution or statute, unlike counterparts such as the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees.
The determination of UNRWA's scope and mandate primarily relies on General Assembly resolutions, with potential influence from other UN organs, such as the Secretary-General.
Leadership of UNRWA is entrusted to a Commissioner-General. The Commissioner-General, an Under-Secretary-General of the UN, oversees all agency activities and personnel.
UN General Assembly formed an Advisory Commission to assist the Commissioner-General in fulfilling the agency's mandate.
Initially composed of four members, the commission now comprises 28 members and four observers.
Membership is determined through General Assembly resolutions, with host countries of Palestinian refugees (Jordan, Syria, Lebanon) sitting on the commission, followed by the 24 major donors and supporters of UNRWA.
Palestine, the European Union, and the League of Arab States have held observer status since 2005, with the Organization for Islamic Cooperation (OIC) joining as an observer in 2019.

Funding:

Budget is established by the UN General Assembly and is predominantly derived from voluntary contributions by UN member states.
It also receives some revenue from the regular UN budget.
In addition to the regular budget, UNRWA secures funding for emergency activities and special projects, such as those responding to the Syrian civil war and the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2019, nearly 60% of the total pledge of $1.00 billion came from EU countries, with Germany as the largest individual donor.
UNRWA also forms partnerships with non-governmental donors, including nonprofit ‘national committees’ based in donor countries.

Since its inception, UNRWA has expanded beyond immediate relief and social services to provide a diverse range of social and humanitarian services. As of 2019, the majority of its budget is allocated to education (58%), followed by healthcare (15%), and general support services (13%).

Delhi High Court reaffirmed the ban on Incestuous ‘Sapinda’ Marriages

Context: A challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA), was rejected by the Delhi High Court (Neetu Grover vs Union of India Ors.).The Section 5(v) of the HMA prohibits marriage between two Hindus if they are ‘Sapindas’ of each other, unless the custom or usage governing each of them permits of a marriage between the two.

Grounds on which the Section 5(v) of HMA was challenged:

In 2007, a marriage was declared void because it was found to be violative of the Section and hence, was proved to be a Sapinda or Incestuous Marriage.
Also, the woman did not belong to a community where such marriages could be considered a custom.
This was challenged before the Delhi High Court, and the appeal was dismissed in October 2023.
Appeal was again made before the High Court, which challenged the constitutional validity of the prohibition of Sapinda marriages.
Arguments were made that Sapinda marriages are prevalent even if there is no proof of custom.
Section 5(v) prohibiting such marriages unless there is an established custom, violated Article 14, the right to equality.
Also, the argument was made that the marriage did receive the consent of both families and therefore, is legitimate.

Delhi High Court’s stand:

The Court held that ‘an established custom’, is necessary to justify a Sapinda marriage.
The High Court also held that the ‘choice of a partner in a marriage can be subject to regulation’ as unregulated choices in marriage may lead to the legitimacy of incestuous relationships.

What are Incestuous ‘Sapinda’ Marriages?

These are between individuals who are related to each other within a certain degree of closeness.
Under Section 3 of the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, ‘Sapinda Marriages’ are defined.
- As per this section, “two persons are Sapindas of each other if one is a lineal ascendant of the other within the limits of Sapinda relationship, or if they have a common lineal ascendant who is within the limits of Sapinda relationship with reference to each of them.”
- A Hindu individual, on the mother’s side, cannot marry anyone who is within three generations of them in the ‘line of ascent’. This means, on mother’s side, an individual cannot marry their sibling (first generation), their parents (second generation), their grandparents (third generation), or an individual who shares this ancestry within three generations.
- And on the father’s side, the prohibition applies to anyone within five generations of the individual. This means, on the father's side, this prohibition would extend up to their grandparents’ grandparents, and anyone who shares this ancestry within five generations.
- A marriage will be declared void, if it is found to be violative of Section 5(v) for being a Sapinda or Incestuous Marriage and if there is no established custom that allows such a practice. Such marriage will be considered invalid from the very beginning and treated as it never took place.

Exceptions to the prohibition against Sapinda Marriage:

There is only one exception, which can be found within the same provision, i.e., Section 3(a) of the HMA. This section provides definition for the word ‘Custom’.
- A custom has to be ‘continuously and uniformly observed for a long time’, and should have gained enough legitimacy among Hindus in a local area, tribe, group, or family, such that it has obtained ‘the force of law’.
- However, a custom shall not be protected from prohibition even after these conditions are fulfilled.
- The custom must be ‘certain and not unreasonable or opposed to the public policy’ and ‘in case of a rule applicable only to a family’, it should not have been ‘discontinued by the family’.

Legality of Marriages similar to ‘Sapinda marriages’ in other countries:

The laws on relationships that are considered incestuous are less stringent in several European countries, than in India.
Penal Code of 1810, France: It was enacted by Napoleon Bonaparte and was also enforced in Belgium.
- The crime of incest was abolished under the Penal Code of 1810, so long as the marriage was between consenting adults.
- A new Penal Code was introduced in Belgium in 1867 to replace the French code, but incest remains legal.
Incest is also not criminalised under Portuguese law.
Incest is considered a crime under Italian law, only if it causes a ‘public scandal’.
In all the 50 states in the United States, incestuous marriages are banned. Although, incestuous relationships are allowed between consenting adults in New Jersey and Rhode Island.

Conclusion:

The Delhi High Court highlighted the intricate balance between individual choice in a marriage and the boundaries set by law and also the societal norms. This balance becomes important, in the context of marriages within extended family networks.

Beyond Basics: ASER 2023

Context: The findings of the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023 was released recently.

About ASER survey:

The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) is a nationwide citizen-led household survey that provides a snapshot of the status of children’s schooling and learning in rural India.
- First implemented in 2005, the 'basic’ ASER survey was conducted annually until 2014 and switched to an alternate-year cycle in 2016.
- The ‘basic’ ASER collects information about enrollment in pre-school and school for children in the age group of 3 to 16, and assesses children aged 5 to 16 one-on-one to understand their foundational reading and arithmetic abilities.
ASER 2023 ‘Beyond Basics’ surveyed the age 14-18 group in 28 districts across 26 states in India to understand their foundational reading and arithmetic abilities.
One rural district was surveyed in each major state, with the exception of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, where two rural districts were surveyed. A random sample of 60 villages was visited in each district.
- Survey reached:
  - Villages = 1,664
  - Households = 30,074
  - 14-18 youth surveyed = 34,745.

Major Highlights of the Beyond Basics survey 2023:

Literacy:
- Nearly 25 percent of rural youth in the age group of 14-18 cannot read a class 2 level text “fluently,” even if it is in their regional language.
- Some 57.3 percent can read sentences in English. And of those who can read sentences in English, nearly 75 percent of them can tell their meanings.
- Incidentally, females (76 percent) do better than males (70.9 percent) in reading a grade II-level text in their regional language.
Numeracy:
- More than half struggle with division (3-digit by 1-digit) problems. Only 43.3 percent of the age group is able to solve such problems correctly. This skill is usually expected in Standard III and Standard IV.
- Males do better than their female counterparts in arithmetic and English reading.
- In doing basic mathematics, over 60 percent are able to do the budget management task; about 37 percent can apply a discount; and only about 10 percent can calculate repayment.
Digital awareness:
- Close to 90 percent of youth have a smartphone in the household and know how to use it.
- Twice as many males (43.7 percent) than females (19.8 percent) can use a smartphone.
- Almost 90.5 percent of the youth surveyed used social media, but just about half of them are familiar with the online safety settings.
- Two-thirds of smartphone users have used it for some education-related activity like watching online videos, solving doubts, or exchanging notes.
Enrollment: 86.8 percent of 14- to 18-year-olds are enrolled in an educational institution. The percentage of youth not enrolled is a high 32.6 percent for 18-year-olds but low for 14-year-olds at 3.9 percent.
- In Class XI or higher, more than half are enrolled in the Arts/Humanities stream (55.7 per cent).
- Females are less likely to be enrolled in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) stream. Against 28.1 percent females, around 36.3 per cent males were enrolled in the stream.
Vocational education: 5.6 percent of the youth took vocational training or other related courses, most of which were 6 months or less.

What is Foundational Literacy and Numeracy?

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) refers to basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. It is the ability to read and understand a basic text and perform simple mathematical calculations by the end of grade 3.
Strong literacy and numeracy help children to learn, experiment, reason and create, to be active and informed citizens, and to contribute socially, culturally and economically.
National Education Policy, 2020 accords the highest importance to the achievement of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.

Challenges in achievement of Foundational literacy and numeracy in India:

Lack of Early childcare and education: Over 85% of a child’s cumulative brain development occurs prior to the age of 6. Presently, quality ECCE is not available to crores of young children, particularly children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
Poor status of Anganwadis: The Anganwadi workers (AWW) are overworked, with duties and responsibilities that centre around her being a teacher, a nurse and a social service provider. AWW are not equipped with the necessary tools to be able to engage children in learning experiences.
Poor pedagogic skills and Linguistic issues: The medium of instruction is often different from the mother tongue of children. It negatively impacts the child’s motivation to engage in classroom processes.
Nutritional deficiencies among children: The relationship between nutrition, health and learning is undeniably strong. But, as per GHI 2023, India has the highest child wasting rate (18.7%) of all the countries.
Inadequate budget: The National Education Policy of 1968 recommended that India spend 6% of its GDP on education. However, even today, as per the Economic Survey (2019--20), India 20), India spends only 3.1% of its GDP on education.
Inadequate infrastructure: Though RTE act (2009) mandated basic infrastructure in schools like toilets, safe drinking water, playground etc, data shows that the basics are yet to be ensured in all the schools.
Low pupil to teacher ratio: As per the Right to Education Act (RTE, 2009) the desired Teacher Pupil ratio (TPR) has been set to 1:35. But, according to NEUPA report, around 42% of government elementary schools have only one or two teachers for all the elementary grades.

Nipun Bharat Program:

The Ministry of Education has launched a National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) in 2021, under the aegis of the centrally sponsored scheme of Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Aim: To ensure that every child in the country necessarily attains foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) by the end of Grade 3, by 2026-27.
A five-tier implementation mechanism will be set up at the National- State- District- Block- School level in all States and UTs.
Implementing agency: The Department of School Education & Literacy, Ministry of Education.

Way Forward:

Increase budget allocation, with focused investment on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
Since nutrition and education are both equally important and require significant time and effort, it may be worthwhile to consider having two AWWs per Anganwadi.
Provision of Primary education in Mother tongue.
Ensure minimum instruction time in schools and learning at home. The Right to Education Act (2009) requires that children from grade I-V spend 200 days involving 800 instruction hours in school.

Solar Energy: Prospects and Challenges

Solar Energy:

India receives ample sunlight throughout the year, making it an ideal location for solar energy production. The country has a high solar irradiation level, particularly in regions like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Maharashtra.
The share of non-fossil fuel in the total electricity production during the FY 2023-24 (up to May 2023) was 22.45%.
The updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC), India has committed to achieve about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
Further, in line with the Prime Minister’s announcement at COP26, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is working towards achieving 500 GW of installed electricity capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.
- As of June 2023, a total of 176.49 GW renewable energy capacity has been installed in the country.
- India has an estimated solar power potential of 7,48,990 MW (748 GW). Till December 2023, a cumulative solar power capacity of 73.31 GW has been installed in the country.
- Meanwhile, rooftop solar installed capacity is around 11.08 GW as of December 2023.
- In terms of total solar capacity, Rajasthan is at the top with 18.7 GW. Gujarat is at the second position with 10.5 GW. When it comes to rooftop solar capacity, Gujarat tops the list with 2.8 GW, followed by Maharashtra by 1.7 GW.

Advantages:

Renewable and Sustainable: Solar energy is a renewable resource, meaning it is inexhaustible and can be replenished naturally.
Reduced Air Pollution: Solar energy generation produces minimal air pollution compared to conventional energy sources like coal.
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels/ Energy Security: By adopting solar energy, India can decrease its dependence on costly and fluctuating fossil fuel imports, enhancing energy security and reducing the trade deficit. This is especially important for a country like India, which is heavily reliant on coal for electricity generation.
Off-Grid Electrification: Solar energy can be used for decentralised and off-grid electrification in remote and rural areas where traditional power infrastructure is challenging to establish. Solar microgrids and standalone solar systems can power homes, schools, and healthcare centres in rural communities, improving their living standards and promoting development. Solar PV technology can be installed at the point of consumption, significantly reducing the need for large capital-intensive transmission infrastructure.
Job creation: The solar energy sector has the potential to create a significant number of jobs, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas. Solar projects require a workforce for installation, operation, and maintenance.

Challenges:

Solar energy has several challenges, including:

Cost: There is limited financing for residential consumers and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) who want to install Roof Top Systems. Coupled with lukewarm responses from electricity distribution companies (DISCOMS) to supporting net metering, RTS continues to see low uptake across the country.
Issues in domestic manufacturing capacities:
- Domestic manufacturing capacities in the solar sector do not match up to the present potential demand for solar power in the country.
- Crisil’s report on the subject highlights that as on March 31, 2021, India had 3 GW capacity for solar cell production and 8 GW for solar panel production capacity. Moreover, backward integration in the solar value chain is absent as India has no capacity for manufacturing solar wafers and polysilicon.
- In 2021-22, India imported nearly $76.62 billion worth solar cells and modules from China alone, accounting for 78.6% of India’s total imports that year.
- Low manufacturing capacities, coupled with cheaper imports from China have rendered Indian products uncompetitive in the domestic market.
Grid integration: Large solar power plants need to be integrated with the existing grid infrastructure to guarantee efficient and reliable delivery of power to customers. However, incorporating a large solar power plant into the grid can be a complex process as the plant must be able to handle fluctuations in both demand and supply.
Environmental impact: Manufacturing and disposing of solar panels can have an environmental impact.
- Solar Waste: By the end of 2030, India will likely produce nearly 34,600 metric tonnes of solar PV waste.
- Solar cells are made of silicon, which is made by heating quartz to very high temperatures, releasing a lot of carbon emissions.
- Turning metallurgical-grade silicon into polysilicon creates the toxic compound silicon tetrachloride.
Other Challenges:
- There have been conflicts with local communities and biodiversity protection norms.
- India has achieved record low tariffs for solar power generation in the utility-scale segment, this has not translated into cheaper power for end-consumers.

Government Schemes:

1. International Solar Alliance:

The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in 2015 by India and France, and came into force in 2017.
It seeks to bring together the countries which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn for harnessing solar energy. The membership of the ISA has now been extended to UN member countries as well (presently 120+ members).
Aim: Global deployment of over 1,000 GW of solar generation capacity and mobilisation of investment of over US$ 1000 billion into solar energy by 2030.
Global Solar Facility (GSF): A fund formed by ISA to stimulate investments into solar power projects.
One Sun One World One Grid: OSOWOG envisions building and scaling a transnational electricity grid to share solar energy across the globe, leveraging the differences of time zones, seasons, resources, and prices between countries and regions.
Secretariat: Gurugram, Haryana.

2. National Solar Mission:

Target: 100 GW of Solar Power by the end of 2022.
Strategy: Solar Park and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects: 40,000 MW of Solar power through 50 Solar Parks (Capacity of 500 MW and Above) + Grid-connected Roof up Solar Program: Target of 40,000 MW. Implemented through DISCOMs.

3. PM-KUSUM scheme:

Setting up of 10,000 MW of Grid-Connected Solar and Other Renewable energy plants on Barren/Uncultivable land –> Sell Power to DISCOMs and earn Income.
Off-Grid Areas: Replacement of diesel agriculture pump sets with 20 lakh Solar Agriculture Pumps –> Reduce the dependence of farmers on diesel and meet their irrigation needs.
Grid-connected Areas: Replacement of diesel agriculture pump sets with 15 lakh Solar Agriculture Pumps –> Use the generated solar power to meet the irrigation needs and the excess solar power will be sold to DISCOMs.

4. Production linked Incentive scheme for manufacturing of high-efficiency solar PV Modules:

Close to 75 per cent of India’s solar power capacity is built on Chinese solar cells and modules. Hence, the PLI scheme is expected to ensure Atma Nirbhar Bharat in the solar energy sector.

5. Pradhanmantri Suryodaya Yojana:

The Pradhanmantri Suryodaya Yojana was announced with the target of installing rooftop solar on 1 crore houses.
It intends to supply power to households through solar rooftop installations while also providing extra money for excess electricity output.
- Through the Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana, 1 crore families will be given access to rooftop solar energy.
- This scheme is meant to help poor and middle-income households lower their electricity bills.

Government’s previous rooftop solar programme

In 2014, the government initiated the Rooftop Solar Programme with the goal of attaining a total installed capacity of 40,000 megawatts (MW) or 40 gigawatts (GW) by 2022.
- A watt, a unit of power, is determined as the quantity of energy utilised over time, specifically one Joule per second.
However, this target couldn’t be achieved. As a result, the government extended the deadline from 2022 to 2026. The Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana seems to be a new attempt to help reach the target of 40 GW rooftop solar capacity.

Way Forward:

Financial mechanisms: Governments, utilities, and banks will need to explore innovative financial mechanisms that bring down the cost of loans and reduce the risk of investment for lenders. Increased awareness, and affordable finance for RTS projects could potentially ensure the spread of RTS across the scores of SMEs and homes around the country.
Aggregating roof spaces could also help reduce overall costs of RTS installations and enable developing economies of scale.
Circular economy model:
- India should embrace a circular economy model for solar systems. This would allow solar PV waste to be recycled and reused in the solar PV supply chain. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that the global value of recoverable materials from solar PV waste could exceed $15 billion.
- India could look at developing appropriate guidelines around Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which means holding manufacturers accountable for the entire life cycle of solar PV products and creating standards for waste recycling. This could give domestic manufacturers a competitive edge and go a long way in addressing waste management and supply side constraints.
Boost International collaboration on issues such as mobilising investments, capacity building, program support and advocacy and analytics on solar energy. Technology sharing and finance could also become important aspects of ISA in the future, allowing for meaningful cooperation between countries in the solar energy sector.

Skill Development Scenario in India

More than half of Indian workers will require skill development by 2022 – The Future of Jobs 2018 (World Economic Forum)

According to most estimates, India continues to be a country that faces one of the highest shortages of skilled workforce.

In India, only about 2% of the workforce had formal vocational training, and only 9% had non-formal, vocational training – National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) Report (2018)

The stake here is, if the skilling issue is not resolved, India risks forfeiting its so-called “demographic dividend”.

Government Initiatives for skill development

In 2014, the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship was created to harmonise training processes, assessments, certification and outcomes and, crucially, to develop Industrial Training Institutions (ITIs) — the building blocks of this endeavour.
Skills Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP)
“Skill India” program, aims to train a minimum of 300 million skilled people by the year 2022.

a) Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)

b) Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendra (PMKK)

c) Rozgar Melas

d) India International Skill Centre (IISC)

Standard Training Assessment and Reward Scheme (STAR)
Polytechnic Scheme
Vocationalization of Education
UDAAN for J&K

Shortcomings in the Desired Outcome

The target of Skill India was to reach out to 300 million young people by 2022, but only 25 million had been trained under this scheme by the end of 2018.
Even those who have been trained under Skill India and PMKVY are unable to find jobs.
Under PMKVY, only 15% of those trained got a job.

Challenges in skill development

Informal Workforce (90%): Greater workforce informality leads to lower incentives to acquire new skills. Faced with inadequately skilled workers, businesses often choose to replace labour with machinery. This, in turn, leads to still fewer formal jobs.
Agriculture Workforce (56%): Indians who work in agriculture continue to subsist because they do not have the skills to take up industrial or services sector jobs.
Insufficient capacity: Current infrastructure facilities available in educational institutions throughout the country are inadequate considering the huge demand for skilled labour. There are not many trained and highly skilled trainers available.
Low student Mobilisation: Owing to the traditional outlook of people associated with skill development the enrolment of the students for vocational education and training is abysmally low.
Market failure in skill development: Firms themselves do not have an incentive to spend on developing the skills of their workers, because a skilled worker may quit and join a new firm.
Information asymmetries: A skilled person knows his/her skills, but a potential employer does not; if employers had all the information, their willingness to pay for a skilled person would rise.
Accreditation: There is a vast segment of informal workers in India, many of whom possess skills that have not been formally recognized.
Scalability: Any model to be successful needs a lot of support from different stakeholders. Since there is limited buy-in from the corporate sector, the progress of such initiatives is slow.
Skill Mismatch: Lack of conformity between what is taught in classrooms and what the industry requires. As a result, though the people may be skilled, they do not get employment.
Low female participation in the labour force: Out of the country’s labour force of 395.2 million Only 91.6 million are women.
Lack of awareness of international mobility

Opportunities for India

Job markets across the world including India are undergoing a tectonic shift.
Higher wages and morale in these firms help in attaining global competitiveness.
Initiating vocational training at the school level will make young people employment-ready and boost India’s competitiveness
India has a huge ‘demographic dividend’ which means that it has a very high scope of providing skilled manpower to the labour market.
The Future of Work in India: Inclusion, Growth and Transformation Report by the Observer Research Foundation and the World Economic Forum sheds light on the end of transformative technology and its impacts on work in India. Some key insights from this report are:
Companies expect technological change to lead to job creation, not job loss. They recognise the potential of new technologies in the coming years.
The whole focus is expected to be on the automation of repetitive tasks, time optimisation, maximising productivity, creation of digital platforms for online access to job opportunities and formalising informal operations.
It is critical for people to keep picking up new tricks of their trade and keep themselves updated with new technological changes in their sphere of work.

Way Forward

Creating avenues for private sector engagement.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) is an example of an intervention to address information asymmetry.
Collaboration with industry has been fundamental to ensure the relevance and quality of skills training and for building the institutional structures required to achieve the desired outcomes.
Student depending on aptitude and performance in school goes either into the higher education stream or the vocational stream (German Model).
Mainstreaming of vocational education and skill development within the school system
The knowledge and skill levels in subjects should be globally competitive
Public investment in skill development and vocational education must be increased
A new set of vocational teachers for specific trades and skills would need to be trained and appointed.
Getting good teachers for vocational training would be difficult. Using retirees, even from overseas, to design the curricula and training teachers would be worthwhile.
State-of-the-art facilities, including equipment, for such vocational education, would need to be put in place.
Skilling initiatives – complemented by a wider push towards empowerment through gender sensitization, creation of economic opportunities and economic and social support for bridging the gender gap.
The NEP 2020 aims to integrate vocational education into mainstream education in a phased manner by creating a National Higher Education Qualification Framework (NHEQF), which will be coordinated with the National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF) for ease of mobility between streams; is a welcome move.