Considered a delicacy in many countries. Hence it is in high demand in international markets. The meat of the fish is exported as frozen fillet or whole fish to European and Middle Eastern countries.
It’s air bladder - is mainly exported to China, Hong Kong and other Asian countries where it is in high demand for its medicinal values.
Distribution & Habitat
The blackspotted croaker has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution from the Persian Gulf east into the Pacific Ocean where it extends north to Japan and south to northern Australia.
It is found in coastal waters, usually no deeper than 60 m (200 ft), over mud substrates. It occasionally enters estuaries and the tidal reaches of rivers.
Context: Dried areca nuts, which attract 100% import duty the legal way, have been smuggled in from Myanmar over the past few years. Mizoram’s farmers are battling to protect their livelihoods from this threat.
Areca Nuts
The arecanut palm yields the widely recognized chewing nut, commonly referred to as betel nut or Supari.
It holds significant cultural and religious importance, particularly among the populace of India.
Climatic Condition
The cultivation of arecanut is mostly confined to 28º north and south of the equator.
It grows well within the temperature range of 14ºC and 36ºC.
It is adversely affected by temperatures below 10ºC and above 40ºC.
Altitude should not be more than 1000m.
Arecanut requires abundant and well distributed rainfall.
It grows well in tracts, where annual showers may go up to or even more than 4500 mm.
But it also survives in low rainfall areas having 750 mm annual precipitation.
During prolonged dry spell palms should be irrigated.
Arecanut cultivation was predominant in gravelly laterite soils of red clay type of Southern Kerala and Coastal Karnataka.
Laterite, red loam, and alluvial soils are most suitable.
Varieties of Betel Nut:
In India there are two varieties of areca nut.
White variety
Red variety.
The white areca nut is produced by harvesting the fully ripe nuts and then subjecting them to sun drying for about 2 months.
In the red variety, the green areca nut is harvested, boiled and then its exterior husk is removed.
Production of Areca Nuts in India
India is the major producer of arecanut which accounts for 50% of production and 43% area under arecanut in the world.
The last three years’ average production in India indicated that Karnataka was the major producer with a 79% share in Indian production followed by Kerala (7%) and Assam (4%).
Coastal districts such as Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada and Udupi are the major producers in Karnataka.
India’s share of export of arecanut in the global market is less than five per cent while the share of Indian arecanut import is around 22 per cent (2020).
Policy Intervention
An import duty of 100% is levied on arecanut in India. But the least developed SAARC countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Afghanistan are exempted from paying this duty.
To safeguard the farmers, the Indian government introduced the Minimum Import Price (MIP), import of arecanut below which is prohibited.
The MIP imposition restricts unabated import, prevents entry of inferior quality produce, and helps to stabilizes domestic prices.
Context: On average, an Adani port every 500 Km of coastline; these handle 24% of all cargo, Government share dips. At least two officials and a former regulator flag concern over market concentration in the last 10 years.
Adani ports
All ports handled by Adani are minor ports.
In the last 10 years, the total cargo handled by Adani ports jumped nearly four-fold to 337 million tons in FY23 at compounded growth rate of 14% against the industry’s (shipping industry) 4 %.
The group’s market share in total cargo handled has nearly tripled to 24%, whereas that of Central government-controlled port has dropped to around 54.5% from 58.5% in 2013.
Amongst ports that are not under the Central government, Adani’s market share has crossed the 50% mark.
It has an average turnaround time for ships which is around 0.7 days whereas for government-controlled turnaround time is around 2 days.
Mudra Port
Mundra Port is India's first private port and largest container port, located on the northern shores of the Gulf of Kutch near Mundra, Kutch district, Gujarat.
Formerly operated by Mundra Port and Special Economic Zone Limited (MPSEZ) owned by Adani Group.
It was later expanded into Adani Ports & SEZ Limited (APSEZ), managing several ports.
The deep draft, all-weather port is the largest commercial port in India with state-of-the-art infrastructure,
Largest Coal Import Terminal which gives faster cargo evacuation and minimal turnaround time.
Risk associated with rise of Adani ports as per officials.
Substantive risk of high market concentration.
Low competition.
High entry barriers for newer and smaller players.
Higher chances of abuse of dominant position.
India’s Ports
Ports are an essential part of the maritime environment and are like hubs that link sea routes with trade routes on land.
There are 12 major ports and 217 non-major ports (minor ports) in the country.
While the Major Ports are under the administrative control of the Ministry of Shipping, the non-major ports are under the jurisdiction of respective State Maritime Boards/ State Governments.
All the 12 Major Ports are governed under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021.
All the Non-Major Ports (minor ports) are governed under the Indian Ports Act of 1908 and regulates the berths, stations, anchoring, fastening, mooring, and unmooring of vessels.
Major ports are included in the Indian Constitution’s Union list.
The Government of India appoints a Board of Trustees to oversee each major port. Their responsibilities include port development, management, and operations.
Context: Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has given approval to the proposal of Ministry of Jal Shakti to complete the balance works of North Koel Reservoir Project at a revised cost of Rs 2,430 crores.
About the North Koel Reservoir Project
North Koel Reservoir Project is an inter-state major irrigation project with command area lying in the States of Bihar & Jharkhand.
The project comprises a dam on North Koel River near Kutku Village (Latehar District, Jharkhand) and a barrage 96 km downstream of dam (Palamu district, Jharkhand), Right Main Canal and Left Main Canal taking off water from the barrage.
The dam was first propose in 1927 and construction was started in 1972. However, the fear that the water from the dam would threaten the Betla National Park and Palamu Tiger Reserve.
About North Koel River
North Koel River is the second largest right bank tributary of River Sone.
The North Koel river originates in the Ranchi Plateau and enters Palamau division, below Netarhat near Rud.
North Koel River meets the Sone River in Haidargarh, Palamu district, Jharkhand.
Important tributaries of North Koel River: Auranga, Amanat and Burha Rivers.
North Koel River forms the northern boundary of Betla National Park.
About Betla National Park and Palamu Tiger Reserve
Betla National Park is the only national park in the Jharkhand State.
It is located on the western park of the Chhotanagpur plateau.
A part of Betla National Park, was declared as the Palamu Tiger Reserve. (Included in the first 9 Tiger Reserves declared in 1974).
Only Tiger Reserve in the Jharkhand.
River Koel along with its tributaries meanders through the northern part of the Betla national park.
Flora of Betla National Park: Betla National Park has a mix of tropical wet evergreen in the lower reaches and mixed deciduous forests in middle to temperate alpine forests in high altitude areas. Sal and Bamboo forests cover a major portion of the national park.
Fauna of Betla National Park: Elephant, leopard, panther, monkey, Indian civet, chital, bison, sloth bear, sambhar, nilgai, langur, mouse deer, porcupine and chinkara etc.
Indian Grey Wolf: The Betla National Park and Palamu Tiger Reserve have a thriving population of Indian Grey Wolf. Only wildlife sanctuary dedicated for the conservation for India Grey Wolf
Interestingly the first ever tiger census by way of pug mark count, was undertaken within these forests in 1934.
Famous hill station of Netarhat is located on the southern edge of the Betla National Park/Palamu Tiger Reserve.
Palamu Tiger Reserve has forts built by Chero dynasty. Cheros were also known as Chyavana dynasty that ruled over the region of Bihar, UP and Jharkhand after the fall of Pala dynasty from the 12th to 19th century.
Context: Cyclone 'Tej', brewing over the Arabian Sea, is expected to transform into a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm reported by India Meteorological Department (IMD).
Cyclone Tez
The very severe cyclone, Tej, formed over the Arabian sea intensified into extremely severe cyclone.
It is moving north-westwards, is likely to cross the Yemen coast close to Al Ghaidah as severe cyclonic storm with wind speed of 125-135 kmph gusting to 150 kmph.
Impact on India and development of Depression in Bay of Bengal
Kerala is likely to receive isolated heavy rainfall triggered by the weather system over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
A yellow alert has been issued for eight districts from Kollam to Palakkad, warning of isolated heavy rains.
The typical northeast monsoon rain will be absent at least for the next few days as the present weather system over the Bay of Bengal is likely to upset the flow of north-easterlies.
The depression formed over the Bay of Bengal is likely to intensify into deep depression and subsequently into cyclonic storms.
IMD predicted that the cyclonic storm likely to move towards the Andhra Coast and then recurve and move north-eastwards towards Bangladesh and adjoining the West Bengal coast.
Color Coding of Cyclone
To strengthen the early warning system and reduce potential damage due to cyclonic winds, IMD follows a special matrix to decide the color of weather situations.
It is based on the probability of occurrence of the event as well as its impact assessment. The decision of the color also depends on the meteorological factors, hydrological factors, geophysical factors that indicate the risk.
Colour code
Meaning
Green
• All is well. • No adverse weather conditions. • No advisory issued.
Yellow
• Be aware. • Severely bad weather may span across several days • Warning of affecting daily activities.
Orange
• Be prepared. • Warning of extreme damage to communication disruptions. • Sign for evacuation and keeping the basic necessities ready for families.
Red
• Take action. • Threat to life with the worst weather conditions. • Measures are taken to handle the situation along with the help of disaster management response teams
Classification of Tropical cyclone based on Speed
The classification of tropical cyclones based on their speed can vary slightly depending on the region, but they generally follow a pattern related to the sustained wind speeds.
Context: Tea industry in acute financial crisis, says Indian Tea Association in a report.
About Tea Plantation
Tea is a globally popular beverage that is cultivated in a variety of climates, with different types of tea requiring specific growing conditions.
Temperature: Tea plants generally thrive in moderate temperatures, ideally ranging between 13°C to 30°C (55°F to 86°F). While some varieties can tolerate cooler temperatures, prolonged frost can be detrimental to the plants.
Rainfall: Tea plants require a significant amount of rainfall, preferably distributed evenly throughout the year. Generally, tea cultivation requires an annual rainfall of around 1500 to 2500 millimetres (59 to 98 inches). However, certain varieties can thrive in regions with lower rainfall levels.
Humidity: Tea plants prefer areas with moderate to high humidity. High humidity helps in maintaining the moisture levels in the soil and promotes healthy growth.
Altitude: Altitude plays a crucial role in determining the quality and flavour of the tea produced. Higher altitudes, typically ranging from 600 meters to 2,100 meters (2,000 to 6,900 feet) above sea level, often produce superior tea due to cooler temperatures and increased cloud cover.
Soil: Tea plants prefer well-drained, acidic soils rich in organic matter. They can thrive in a variety of soil types, including sandy loam, clay loam, and laterite soils. Proper soil drainage is essential to prevent waterlogging, which can be detrimental to tea plants.
Tea Growing States Of India
About Tea Board Of India
The present Tea Board set up under section 4 of the Tea Act 1953 was constituted on 1st April 1954.
Organisation of the Board: The present Tea Board is functioning as a statutory body of the Central Government under the Ministry of Commerce. The Board is constituted of 31 members (including Chairman) drawn from Members of Parliament, tea producers, tea traders, tea brokers, consumers, and representatives of Governments from the principal tea producing states, and trade unions .The Board is reconstituted every three years.
Office of Tea Board of India-Kolkata
Foreign Offices: Currently Tea Board has only one office located at Moscow. This foreign office of the Board is designed to undertake the various promotional measures to boost up export of Indian tea.
Context: In a major relief to Telangana, the Union Ministry of Home Affairs has ruled that the Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) belongs to Telangana.
Background:
A stalemate prevailed over the division of assets pertaining to the SCCL between the two States.
The Telangana State government has been firm that the company belonged to it on the basis of location and this has been confirmed by the Attorney General.
The Andhra Pradesh government has raised objections to the Attorney General’s opinion. It wanted to conclude that SCCL was an interstate company.
The Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL)
It is a Government coal mining company jointly owned by the Government of Telangana and the Government of India on a 51:49 equity basis.
The Singareni coal reserves stretch across 350 Km of the Pranahita – Godavari Valley of Telangana with a proven geological reserve aggregating to a whopping 8791 million tonnes.
SCCL is currently operating 18 opencast and 24 underground mines in 4 districts of Telangana
Context: The Madras High Court has dismissed a public interest litigation (PIL) petition filed in 2017 against the first pour of concrete for units 3 and 4 of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP) without complying with norms on restricting the population growth in the sterilized zone — the area within a 5km radius of the plant.
Kudankulam Project
Location - Kudankulam,Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
Capacity
2000 Megawatt (2 GW) of current Installed capacity out of the total planned capacity of 6000 Megawatt (6 GW).
It will be achieved through Six VVER-1000 Pressurised water reactors (PWR) reactors built in collaboration with Atomstroyexport, the Russian state company and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
Indo-Russian Agreement -1988 - Initially planned to build two reactor units. The project got stuck due to dissolution of the USSR but revived under a new agreement between India and Russia in 1997.
Construction works started in 2002 but the project suffered delays due to persistent protests by local inhabitants and activist groups over safety concerns.
Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan (2011) fuelled the opposition thus construction works were suspended for several months.
The construction was resumed after the Supreme Court of India rejected petitions to block the project and permitted the commissioning of both the units in May 2013.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
It is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The Company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in 1987.
Its objective is to operate atomic power plants and implement atomic power projects for the generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, of 1962.NPCIL is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
It is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The Company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in 1987.Its objective is to operate atomic power plants and implement atomic power projects for the generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, of 1962.NPCIL is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors.
Context: Eight renowned institutions in India conducted independent investigations to uncover the factors contributing to land subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand. Their findings suggest that seismic activities, construction deficiencies, population density, inadequate drainage systems, and various other factors are 'potential' contributors to the sinking of this Himalayan town.
About Joshimath
The town of Joshimath is also nicknamed as Jyotirmath and is the winter seat of Lord Badri, whose idol is brought down from Badrinath temple to Vasudeva temple at Joshimath.
It is situated on Vaikrita groups of rocks overlain by morainic deposits which are composed of irregular boulders and clay of varying thickness.
This holy town is revered by the Hindus for being an important pilgrimage center of the country. Alaknanda and Dhauliganga meet at the confluence of Vishnuprayag overlooking the town of Joshimath.
Land Subsidence
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), subsidence is the “sinking of the ground because of underground material movement”. It can happen for a host of reasons, man-made or natural, such as the removal of water, oil, or natural resources, along with mining activities. Earthquakes, soil erosion, and soil compaction are also some of the well-known causes of subsidence.
Reasons for sinking of Joshimath town
A variety of factors both anthropogenic and natural have led to the subsidence of Joshimath:
Joshimath's vulnerable foundations: it was developed on the debris of a landslide triggered by an earthquake more than a century ago.
High intensity seismic zone: more prone to earthquakes besides gradual weathering and water percolation which reduce the cohesive strength of the rocks over time.
Vulnerability to disasters: Himalayan rivers, heavy rainfall, toe cutting phenomenon, flash floods and cloudbursts further worsen the situation.
Demographic load: High population pressure and Haphazard construction activities have led to cracks appearing in the houses there.
Blocking of natural flow of water: Moreover, the lack of a proper drainage system might have also contributed to the sinking of the area. Experts say that unplanned and unauthorised construction has led to the blocking of the natural flow of water, which eventually results in frequent landslides.
Infrastructure build-up: NTPC’s Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Plant is a 520 MW run-of-river hydroelectric project being constructed on Dhauliganga River in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. Run-of-river hydro projects use the natural downward flow of rivers and micro turbine generators to capture the kinetic energy carried by water. Typically water is taken from the river at a high point and diverted to a channel, pipeline, or pressurised pipeline (or penstock).
Internal erosion caused by the subsurface drainage, which may be due to infiltration of rainwater/ melting of ice/ wastewater discharge from household and hotels, plays crucial role in the subsidence of Joshimath town. #As per IIT Roorkee Report.
Warnings in past
The first warning signs were sounded about 46 years ago in the M C Mishra committee report that had highlighted the dangers of unplanned development in this area, and identified the natural vulnerabilities. D P Dobhal, a glaciologist, said the area was once under glaciers. The soil is, therefore, not ideal for large constructions.
Measures suggested
Control the infiltration of water into construction sites, buildings, or other sensitive areas. It can include techniques such as proper drainage systems, waterproofing, and the use of barriers to prevent groundwater or rainwater from seeping into unwanted areas.
Stop Blasting activities in the vicinity of disaster prone zones like Himalayas. As blasting can lead to potential hazards like ground vibrations, which can damage nearby structures or ecosystems. #recommended by the State Disaster Management Department.
Adherence to National Building Code of India, 2016 ensures that construction projects meet safety, structural, and environmental standards. It covers various aspects of construction, including design, materials, construction methods, and occupancy requirements.
Conducting a thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before any construction project to assess its potential environmental impacts and implementing measures to mitigate or minimize these impacts.
Involving local communities and stakeholders in the planning and decision-making process for construction projects to address their concerns and ensure social responsibility.
The sinking of Joshimath serves as a stark reminder of the delicate equilibrium that must be maintained in ecologically sensitive regions, where human activities interact intimately with the forces of nature. Through careful planning, sustainable practices, and collective responsibility we can protect and rejuvenate this sacred town and other vulnerable areas like it across the Himalayan landscape.
Context: News reports and weather experts say that India might be facing its driest August in 100 years. As of Sunday, India had received 7% less rainfall cumulatively this monsoon compared to the long period average (LPA). This situation is expected to get worse. A recent report in Reuters quotes an India Meteorological Department official saying that. India is expected to receive an average of less than 180 mm of rainfall this August, which is the lowest since records began in 1901.
What is Irrigation?
The process of supplying water to crops by artificial means such as canals, wells, tube-wells, tanks, etc. from the sources of water such as rivers, tanks, ponds, or underground water is called irrigation.
Types of irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Surface irrigation utilizes gravity flow to move water across land, wetting and infiltrating soil. It encompasses furrow, border strip, and basin irrigation, also known as flood irrigation.
Localized irrigation: Localized irrigation involves the distribution of water through a network of pipes, utilizing low pressure, and delivering water in a predetermined pattern to each individual plant or in close proximity to it.
Drip irrigation: The technique of delivering water drop by drop at or near the root zone of plants is known as drip irrigation or trickle irrigation. When managed properly, this method can be highly efficient in terms of water usage since it minimizes evaporation and runoff.
Sprinkler irrigation: In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns.
Sub-irrigation: Sub-surface irrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plant root zone.
Uneven Rainfall Distribution: While some areas receive heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, others experience long dry periods. Irrigation helps to provide water to crops during dry spells, ensuring consistent and reliable water supply for agricultural activities.
Agricultural Productivity: Agriculture is a major contributor to India's economy, employing a significant portion of the population. Irrigation helps increase agricultural productivity by providing water when needed, which is crucial for crop growth, yield improvement, and food security.
Drought Mitigation: Irrigation systems help mitigate the impacts of drought by providing water even in dry years.
Crop Diversification: Irrigation enables farmers to grow a wider variety of crops, including those that are not well-suited to rain-fed conditions.
Stabilizing Farm Income: Irrigation helps stabilize farm income by reducing the vulnerability of farmers to the uncertainties of weather patterns. When rainfall is inadequate or erratic, farmers with irrigation systems can still produce crops and generate income.
Industrial and Economic Growth: Apart from agriculture, water from irrigation sources can be used for various industrial purposes, such as power generation, manufacturing, and other sectors. A stable water supply supports economic growth beyond just the agricultural sector.
Environmental Conservation: Efficient irrigation practices can help conserve water resources by reducing water wastage and promoting more responsible water use. Modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems minimize water runoff and evaporation.
Climate Change Resilience: As climate change brings about shifts in rainfall patterns and increased unpredictability, having a robust irrigation infrastructure becomes even more critical to adapt to changing conditions and ensure food security.
Sources of irrigation
Tank irrigation: A tank consists of water storage which has been developed by constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and for other purposes. The tank irrigation is practiced mainly in peninsular India due to the following reasons:
The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
There is little percolation of rainwater due to hard rock structure and ground water is not available in large quantity.
Most of the rivers of this region are seasonal and dry up in the summer season. Therefore, they cannot supply water to canals throughout the year.
There are several streams which become torrential during rainy season. The only way to make best use of this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks.
The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favors tank irrigation.
Merits of Tank irrigation
Demerits of Tank irrigation
Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost of their construction.Tanks are generally constructed on rocky bed and have long life span.
Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most.Silting of tank bed is a serious problem and it required desilting of the tank at regular intervals.Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a strenuous and costly exercise.
Wells and Tube wells: A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. It is popular in areas where sufficient ground water is available. It accounts for about 16.6% of the net irrigated area in the country. A tube well is a deeper well from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.
Merits of Well and Tube well irrigation
Demerits of Well and Tube well irrigation
It is the simplest and cheapest source of irrigation.It is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises.A well can be dug at any convenient place.
Only limited area can be irrigated.The well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it.In the event of a drought, the ground water level falls and water is not available in the well.Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighboring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture.Well and tube well irrigation is not possible in areas of brackish groundwater.
Canals: Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low-level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Canals in India are of two types, viz. (i) Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs. (ii) Perennial canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. The percentage of canal irrigation in the country is about 23%.
Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)
The programme was launched in 1996-97 to provide assistance to major/medium irrigation projects in the country, with the objective to accelerate implementation of such projects which were beyond resource capability of states or were in advanced stage of completion.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
It was launched in 2015-16 which aimed at enhancing physical access of water on farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation, improve on farm water use efficiency, introduce sustainable water conservation practices, etc.
Objectives:
Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level.
Enhance the physical access of water on the farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation.
Enhance the adoption of precision – irrigation and other water saving technologies.
Enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices.
Ensure the integrated development of rainfed areas using the watershed approach towards soil and water conservation.
Promote extension activities relating to water harvesting, water management and crop alignment for farmers.
Attract greater private investments in precision irrigation.
IRRIGATION IN INDIA:
According to NITI Aayog, in 2022-23, of the 141 million hectares of gross sown area in the country, nearly 73 million hectares, or 52%, had irrigation access, up from 41% in 2016.
8 out of 73 million hectares have the micro irrigation facility
40% of the total irrigated area are watered through canal networks, the remaining through groundwater.
The total potential for micro-irrigation in the country is estimated to be 60 million hectares.
Conventional surface irrigation provides only 60% efficiency but drip irrigation has nearly 90% efficiency.
The country can create irrigation potential in about 60% of its arable land and 40% of the cultivable area will remain dependent on rains because it is not possible to create irrigation networks in certain regions due to hydrological and geographical reasons.
Related concepts & definition:
Net Area Sown: This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once.
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.
Area Sown more than once: This represents the areas on which crops are cultivated more than once during the agricultural year. This is obtained by deducting Net Area Sown from Gross Cropped Area.
Irrigated Area: The area is assumed to be irrigated for cultivation through such sources as canals (Govt. & Private), tanks, tube-wells, other wells and other sources. It is divided into two categories:
Net Irrigated Area: It is the area irrigated through any source once in a year for a particular crop.
Total/Gross Irrigated Area: It is the total area under crops, irrigated once and/or more than once in a year. It is counted as many times as the number of times the areas are cropped and irrigated in a year.
Cropping Intensity: It is the ratio of Net Area Sown to the Total Cropped Area.
Context: The world still depends on fossil fuels for 82% of its energy supply. The recent uptick in coal consumption in Europe, despite the increase in solar and wind power, suggests that reliable, 24/7 low-carbon electricity resources are critical to ensure the deep decarbonisation of power generation, along with grid stability and energy security.
What are Small Modular Reactors (SMR)?
Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. SMRs, which can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity, are:
Modular – making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
What are the benefits of SMR?
Due to smaller size, they can be sited on locations not suitable for larger nuclear power plants.
They have relatively lower carbon footprint as they have lower fuel requirements.
They are easy to manufacture, ship, transport and installed.
They offer savings in cost and construction time.
They can be deployed incrementally to match increasing energy demand. SMRs are designed to operate for 40-60 years with capacity factors exceeding 90%
They can be installed into an existing grid or remotely off-grid.
They are relatively safer as they operate on lower power and pressures and hence lower potential for the uncontrolled release of radioactive materials into the environment.
They require no human intervention or external power or force to shut down systems.
Hence, an efficient regulatory regime comparable to that in the civil aviation sector – which has more stringent safety requirements – is important if SMRs are to play a meaningful role in decarbonising the power sector. This can be achieved if all countries that accept nuclear energy direct their respective regulators to cooperate amongst themselves and with the International Atomic Energy Agency to harmonise their regulatory requirements and expedite statutory approvals for SMRs based on standard, universal designs.
What steps should be taken in India?
The Atomic Energy Act will need to be amended to allow the private sector to set up SMRs.
To ensure safety, security, and safeguards, control of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste must continue to lie with the Government of India.
The government will also have to enact a law to create an independent, empowered regulatory board with the expertise and capacity to oversee every stage of the nuclear power generation cycle, including design approval, site selection, construction, operations, certification of operators, and waste reprocessing.
The security around SMRs must remain under government control, while the Nuclear Power Corporation can operate privately-owned SMRs during the hand-holding process.
Indian government can negotiate with foreign suppliers to reprocess nuclear waste from all SMRs in a state-controlled facility under IAEA safeguards. The reprocessed material may also be suitable for use in other NPPs in India that use imported uranium. India can set up facility to reprocess spent fuel from SMRs.
Finally, the Department of Atomic Energy must improve the public perception of nuclear power in India by better disseminating comprehensive environmental and public health data of the civilian reactors, which are operating under international safeguards, in India.
Context:India's population has skyrocketed from 340 million at Independence to 1.4 billion, thanks to improved public health and medical advancements. This unexpected decline in mortality has transformed the lives of Indians, especially women, as they navigate longer lifespans and the consequences of fewer children.
Demographic transition
Demographic transition refers to the process of changes in population characteristics that occur as societies develop over time.
India’s Demographic transition
The growth of population was fuelled by receding starvation, improved public health and medical interventions.
In 1941, male life expectancy was about 56 years and only 50% of boys survived to age 28. Today, life expectancy for men is 69 years and nearly 50% of them live up to 75 years of age.
Due to rapid decline in mortality rates, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) fell from 5.7 in 1950 to 2.1 in 2019. #As per National Family Health Survey 5
Dynamics of Male Child in India
Social norms and patrilocal kinship patterns combined with lack of financial security reinforce a preference for sons.
According to India Human Development Survey (IHDS), 85% of women respondents expected to rely on their sons for old age support, while only 11% expected support from their daughters. #Report
Nowadays, Parents who want to ensure at least one son among their one or two child family, often resort to sex selective abortion.
Impact of declining fertility on Women’s life
Increased opportunities for Education: With declining fertility, women may choose to delay starting a family in order to pursue education, career goals, or personal aspirations. This can provide women with greater opportunities for personal and professional growth. In India, there has been significant progress in women's educational attainment, with over 70% of girls enrolling in secondary education.
Focus on family planning: Declining fertility rates often coincide with increased availability and acceptance of family planning methods. This empowers women to have greater control over their reproductive choices, allowing them to plan the timing and number of children they want to have.
Reduce gender disparities in society: When women have fewer children, they can allocate more time and energy towards their own pursuits, including education, careers, and personal interests. This can help break traditional gender roles and promote gender equality by challenging societal expectations placed on women as primary caregivers.
Improved employment opportunities: With fewer children to care for, women can participate more actively in the labour force, contributing to household income and economic growth. Women's financial independence can lead to greater decision-making power within families and promote their overall well-being.
Reduced maternal and infant mortality: When women have fewer pregnancies, the overall risk of complications and health issues associated with childbirth is reduced. Improved access to healthcare services, prenatal care, and skilled birth attendants further enhances maternal and infant health outcomes.
How early marriage and aging impacts Women’s empowerment?
Early motherhood may not lead to increased participation in the labour force for women. By the time their childcare responsibilities decrease, they may have missed out on opportunities in occupations that require specialized skills, leaving them with limited options for employment, mostly in unskilled work.
For widowed women, the lack of access to savings and property results in dependence on children, mainly sons, bringing the vicious cycle of son preference to full circle.
Practical strategies to harness Gender Dividend:
Enhancing women’s access to employment and assets will reduce their reliance on sons and could break the vicious cycle of disadvantage, stretching from childhood to old age.
Expansion of anganwadis to include a creche can result into increased participation of mothers in the work. E.g., Randomised control trial in Madhya Pradesh showed positive results as per World Bank.
State support should be provided for childcare, as it creates space for education and employment for Women. #CaseStudy: State support for childcare declined, employment rates for mothers fell from 88% to 66% in urban China.
Government can make staffing creche an acceptable form of work under National rural employment guarantee scheme (NREGS).
Self-help group movement can be harnessed to setup neighbourhood childcare centres in urban and rural areas.
Fully harnessing the gender dividend is crucial for realizing the long-awaited demographic dividend, and a significant aspect of accomplishing this is by ensuring optimal access to childcare.
