Indian Geography

Decline in National Coal Index

National Coal Index (NCI) Decline

NCI declined by 3.48% in June 2024, standing at 142.13 points.
Previous NCI value in June 2023 was 147.25 points.
The decline suggests adequate coal availability at lower prices in the domestic market.

Coal Auction Premium

The premium on coal auctions, which reflects industry conditions, has sharply decreased.
This confirms sufficient coal availability in the market.

Coal Production Growth

Coal production in India rose by 14.58% year-on-year in June 2024.
Total production reached 84.71 million tonnes (mt) in June 2024, up from 73.93 mt in June 2023.

Market Implications

The NCI's downward trend indicates a balanced market with improved supply and demand dynamics.
With ample coal availability, India can meet growing demands and support long-term energy needs.

Industry and Energy Security:

The increase in coal production contributes to national energy security.
The stability in supply strengthens the coal industry and supports a sustainable and prosperous future.

National Coal Index

-The concept and design of the Index have been developed by the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.
-NCI is a price index combining the prices of coal from all the sales channels- Notified Prices, Auction Prices, and Import Prices.
-The majority of coal is sold through the Notified Prices. For Non-Coking Coal, CIL fixes notified prices for each grade.
-There is price discrimination as to the Regulated Sector and Non- Regulated Sector (NRS).
-The NCI is used to determine the Premium (on a per tonne basis) or Revenue Share (on a percentage basis) based on a market-based mechanism.
-The Index is meant to encompass all transactions of raw coal in the Indian market.
*This includes coking and non-coking of various grades transacted in the regulated (power and fertilizer) and non-regulated sectors.

Ballast water convention

Context : The Tamil Nadu Water Resources Department (WRD) has informed the National Green Tribunal that it has sought ₹160 crore from the Kamarajar Port in Ennore, Tamil Nadu, to facilitate the removing of invasive Mytella strigata, or charru mussel.

What is Ballast water and how does it introduce invasive species?

Ballast water is fresh, or saltwater held in the ballast tanks and cargo holds of ships.
It is used to provide stability and maneuverability during a voyage when ships are not carrying cargo, not carrying heavy enough cargo, or when more stability is required due to rough seas.
Ballast water may also be used to add weight so that a ship sinks low enough in the water to pass under bridges and other structures.
Usually, ballast water is pumped into ballast tanks when a ship has delivered cargo to a port and is departing with less cargo or no cargo. Ballast water is then transported and released at the next port-of-call where the ship picks up more cargo. In such cases, the shipís ballast water contains a mix of waters from multiple ports.
The release of ballast water may introduce non-native organisms into the port of discharge. These introduced species, or bioinvaders, are also referred to as exotic species, alien species, and nonindigenous species.

Are there any global regulations in this regard?

The Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) came into force in 2017 to help prevent the spread of potentially harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ships’ ballast water.
The convention applies to ships registered under contracting Parties to the BWM Convention, which take up and use ballast water during international voyages.
According to this, the ships must manage their ballast water.
Recently constructed ship have the ballas waster management system in which they dose the water with some chemicals in order to remove invasive species.
The earlier ships which do not have such systems are required to exchange the ballast water they took in a port with “neutral” water from the middle of the oceans enroute to the loading port.

Note - The BWM convention does not apply to warships and hence there are no implications for the navies.

What is India’s position?

India acceded to the BWM convention in 2015.
as of July 2, 97 countries have signed on to the BWM as contracting states. India is not on the list of countries. This means that there is no obligation on the part of ships calling on Indian ports to enforce the BWM convention.
In any case, ports are only a facilitator of ship traffic and cannot be held liable in such cases. If there is any evidence that a vessel has pumped out the ballast water that led to the invasive species, then the vessel owner can be held liable if a law is in force.

How Tungabhadra dam gate was swept away, why farmers are fearful

Context: A flood alert has been sounded downstream of the Tungabhadra dam in Karnataka’s Koppal district after one of the 33 crest gates of the massive stone masonry dam across the Tungabhadra river was washed away

Important key facts related to Tungabhadra river and Dam:

The Tungabhadra is formed at the confluence near Shimoga of two streams, Tunga and Bhadra, that rise in the Western Ghats.
It flows into the Krishna at Sangameshwaram in Andhra Pradesh.

It is influenced chiefly by the South-West monsoon.
The river forms part of the boundary between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
TungaBhadra Dam (TB Dam) is a multipurpose dam built across TungaBhadra River in Hosapete, Ballari district.

It is one of the major reservoirs in South India that supplies water for irrigation and industrial use, as well as drinking water to Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The wedge of land that lies north of the Tungabhadra, between the Tungabhadra and the Krishna, is known as the Raichur Doab.

INDIA’S COAL SECTOR – PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES

Context - On July 13, three workers died of asphyxiation inside an illegal coal mine in Gujarat’s Surendranagar district.

What is the present status?

The installed generation capacity of coal and other fossil based resources is as follow:

A screenshot of a graph

Description automatically generated

India is 5^th when it comes to total coal reserves in the world.
In the last 10 years, domestic coal production has increased over 55 per cent and much of it has come over the last 5 years.
Annual coal production almost doubled from 565.77 million tonnes (mt) in FY14 to 997.4 mt in FY24,production surpassing a billion tonnes (bt) being the key achievement.
India aims to achieve a production of 1.5 bt by FY30 as the country’s power demand is likely to double by the end of the current decade.

Why is coal relevant for India?

Around 50% of the installed generation capacity comes from coal.
Huge demand - Due to the rising population, coal consumption has nearly doubled in the last decade.
Employment - Coal industry employs as many as four million people.
Sectors like steel, aluminium and cement are highly dependent on coal.
Large-scale sourcing of non-fossil fuels is quite challenging.
- Coal is cheaper than all other sources of energy.
- High cost of manufacturing & installation of solar energy.
- Unstable nature of Tidal, Solar energy.
- Lack of renewable energy infrastructure in rural areas.

What are the challenges associated with India’s coal sector?

Poor quality - High ash content, lack of high grade anthracite and bituminous coal.
Virtual monopoly: Coal India ltd commands the maximum share of coal production discouraging private investment and competition.
Environmental concern - India's coal-based power sector accounts for approximately 2.4% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 33% of India's GHG emissions, and around 50% of the country's fuel related emissions.
Quality of captive mines: Poor quality of captive mines being awarded to private players decreases their presence as well as production.
Illegal mining which not only is detrimental for the environment but also causes death of workers due to inhalation of toxic gasses and lack of protective gears. Also because it is considered as law and order issue, centre generally leaves it for the state government.
Other issues like issues land acquisition, green movements, strict rules & regulations.
International pressure by developed countries to phase out the coal based plants.

What steps can India take?

Attract private players by promoting transparency and ease of doing business.
Promote alternate uses of coal in sectors like coal gasification to use the surplus production of coal which is expected by 2026.
Upgrading existing coal based plants by retrofitting of thermal plants to ensure minimal Sulphur emissions, investing in supercritical technology and adopting CCUS methods.
Coal trading exchange can be set up by an exchange operator so that the g government only provides a platform to the sellers and the buyers of the fuel. The coal trading exchange could be similar to such platforms in the power and natural gas.
Leveraging technology to curb illegal mining especially in North East.
Investing in renewable energy by creating solar, wind parks, providing financial incentives and grid integration for renewable energy projects.
Enhancing energy efficiency by Enforcing energy-efficient building codes and promoting standards and labelling programs.
Policy reforms like carbon pricing can create economic incentives to reduce emissions and Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPOs) can mandate utilities to purchase a certain percentage of power from renewable sources.
International cooperation for climate finance to support renewable energy projects and technology transfer to bring advanced clean energy technologies to India, accelerating the transition to a low-carbon economy.

Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957

Context: A constitution bench of the Supreme Court held that the power of State Legislatures to tax mining lands and quarries is not limited by the Parliament’s Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957.

About Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary legislation governing the mining sector in India.

	Major minerals(Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals, Metallic and Non-metallic minerals such as Iron-ore, bauxite, gold, precious stones, Copper, Lead, Zinc etc.)	Minor minerals(Building stones, gravel, ordinary clay, ordinary sand and any other mineral which the Central Government can notify.)
Regulation	Central govt make rules for regulating the grant of lease for mining.	State govt make rules for regulating the grant of lease for mining.
Approval	· State govt grants mining lease for *Coal* and Lignite to those selected by the central govt based on the competitive bidding.· For other major minerals, the State govts provide grant.	· State govts directly grant mining lease to the applicants as per the rules prescribed by them.
Payment of Royalty	Fixed by the central govt and collected by the respective state governments.	Fixed and collected by the respective state governments.

Key Changes made through amendment in 2021:

Removal of restriction on end-use of minerals: The original act empowers the central government to reserve any mine (other than coal, lignite, and atomic minerals) to be leased through an auction for a particular end-use (such as iron ore mine for a steel plant). Such mines are known as captive mines. The amendment provides that no mine will be reserved for particular end-use.
Issue of composite licensing: Earlier, the private sector was required to separately apply for Prospecting Licence, Reconnaissance permit (RP) and Mining Lease (ML). The amendment empowered the government to provide a common composite licensing.
Transfer of statutory clearances: Earlier the statutory clearances (including Environmental clearances) do not get transferred to new lessee. The amendment Provides for transfer of statutory clearances from existing lessee to new lessee upon expiry of lease period.

Study of reservoir induced seismicity

Context: The Borehole Geophysics Research Laboratory (BGRL) in Karad, Maharashtra, is a specialised institute mandated to execute India’s scientific deep-drilling programme. Under BGRL, the aim is to drill the earth’s crust and conduct scientific observations to help expand our understanding of reservoir-triggered earthquakes in the Koyna-Warna region

About Project

Purpose of Deep Drilling in Maharashtra

Location: Koyna-Warna region, Maharashtra
Institute: Borehole Geophysics Research Laboratory (BGRL), Karad, under Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)

Objectives:

Conduct scientific deep drilling to a depth of 6 km in the earth’s crust.
Study reservoir-triggered earthquakes in the Koyna-Warna region.

Scientific Deep Drilling Overview

Definition: Strategically digging boreholes to analyse deeper parts of the earth’s crust.
Benefits: Provides insights into earthquakes, earth’s history, rock types, energy resources, climate change patterns, etc.

 Scientific Deep Drilling:

Considered the most effective method to study the Earth’s interior.
Provides direct, in situ measurements from deep within the Earth.
Allows retrieval of rock and sediment cores that align with Earth’s geological timeline.

Other Methods of Study:

Geophysical Measurements:
- Seismic wave speed: Provides insights into the structure and composition of Earth's interior.
- Gravitational and magnetic fields: Indicate variations in density and magnetic properties.
- Electrical conductivity: Reflects the presence of fluids and minerals.

Challenges of Scientific Deep Drilling:

Technical Challenges:
- Operates in a hot, dark, high-pressure environment.
- Requires advanced drilling technology and equipment.
Logistical Challenges:
- Labor-intensive and capital-intensive.

Key Findings from the Pilot Drilling Mission at Koyna:

Subsurface Geological Environment:
- Discovered 1.2-km thick Deccan trap lava flows dating back 65 million years.
- Revealed granitic basement rocks aged between 2,500 to 2,700 million years below the lava flows.
Downhole Measurements and Core Analysis:
- Conducted measurements and extracted core samples from a depth of 3 km.
- Provided new insights into:
  - Physical and mechanical properties of rocks.
  - Chemical and isotopic composition of formation fluids and gases.
  - Temperature and stress regimes.
  - Fracture orientations.
High-Resolution Imaging Techniques:
- Used acoustic and micro-resistivity methods to capture detailed images of the borehole wall.
- Validated data extracted from cores, enhancing reliability for global comparisons.
Hydraulic Fracturing Experiments:
- Conducted experiments to directly measure stress regimes in the rocks.
- Data expected to contribute significantly to understanding seismic activity in the region.
Detection and Study of Fault Zones:
- Integrated various datasets to detect buried fault zones and study their properties.
Presence of Water and Stress Conditions:
- Discovered water presence down to 3 km depth, identified as meteoric or rain-fed.
- Suggests deep percolation and circulation mechanisms.
- Found that the Koyna region is critically stressed, indicating susceptibility to small stress perturbations that could trigger frequent, small-magnitude earthquakes.

Future Implications and Utilization of Koyna Pilot Data:

Temperature Modelling and Equipment Design:
- Predicted temperature at 6 km depth: 110-130 degrees C.
- Future drilling equipment and downhole data acquisition systems need to be designed to withstand these conditions.
Facilitation of New Experiments:
- Koyna data and samples will facilitate numerous new experiments.
- Over 20 research groups across India are currently studying Koyna samples.
Research Areas and Studies:
- Fault Zone Gouge Analysis:
  - Studying gouges from fault zones to understand frictional properties in quake-prone regions.
- Microbial Characterization:
  - Characterizing microbes on rocks to understand life forms in hot, dark, nutrient-poor environments.
  - Potential for discovering new molecules and improving industrial processes.
International Collaboration:
- International geological research community seeking access to core samples.
- Projects include emerging fields like carbon capture and storage in the deep Deccan traps.
Impact of Koyna Exercise:
- Establishing India's presence and capability in scientific deep drilling.
- Lessons learned will inform and shape future deep-drilling endeavors.
- Expanding academic knowledge across various disciplines.

Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks.

Causes of earthquake

Major causes of earthquake are natural and occur mostly around the plate boundaries due to continuous interaction of plates.

Natural causes

Tectonics: tectonic movements associated with plate boundaries are ruptures and faults along the constructive plate boundaries, folding and faulting along the destructive plate boundaries, this sort of disequilibrium caused due to different types of plate movement and consequently earthquakes of varying degree are caused.

Volcanic: Explosive violent gases during process of vulcanicity try to escape upwards and hence they push the crustal surface from below with great force and thus is caused severe earth tremor of high magnitude. Example-Krakatoa volcano of Indonesia caused intense earthquakes.

Anthropogenic causes

Earthquakes are induced by human activities causes earth tremors of serious consequences.

Fracking: Injection of fluids into deep wells (Fracking)- can lubricate existing faults and crack rocks, triggering earthquakes.
Underground nuclear explosions: Detonation of large underground nuclear explosions-will accentuate the fault lines leads to earthquakes. Case study– North Korea’s 2017 nuclear bomb test set off aftershocks that lasted for about eight months after the explosion. The bomb was set off near a previously unmapped fault line, and a first produced a 6.3 earthquake, followed by a magnitude 4 quake just minutes later.
Mining: rocks and other materials are being removed from the Earth that instability in the ground is occurring, which is triggering earthquakes.

Reservoir induced earthquake: Earthquake triggered by the impoundment of water behind the dam of enormous quantity causes isostatic disequilibrium of already adjusted rocks or further augment the already isostatically adjusted rocks below the reservoir or further augment the already fragile structures due to faults and fractures underneath. Examples Koyna dam in India, Hoover dam in USA.

Brahmaputra's tributary Beki changes its course

Context: Recently, Beki which is a tributary of Brahmaputra changed its course resulting in displacement of thousands of people and a state highway in lower Assam.

About Beki River

Beki River is one of the right bank territories of Brahmaputra River.
Manas River originates in Bhutan, when it enters India - Manas River branches into three streams or channels- Manas, Beki and Hakuwa which later merge into the Brahmaputra River.
Since the channel of Manas and Hakuwa has been experiencing high siltation, almost all the flood discharge of the Manas River passes through the Beki River.
Beki River passes through the Manas National Park consisting of semi-evergreen, forest vegetation and mixed deciduous, littorals and swamps and interspersed with bamboo and cane.
Beki River causes large-scale flooding in the large part of Manas Bio-reserve.

(Map of Beki River)

Bt - Cotton Explained

Context: A new variety of advanced Bt cotton (Ht Bt or BG III) is undergoing trials for commercial cultivation. Expected to reduce production costs and expand cotton cultivation, benefiting the textile industry. Approval pending completion of assessments by ICAR (Indian Council of Agriculture Research).

Bt Cotton Detailed

Historical Context and Current Challenges:

Bt cotton (BG1) approved in 2002, followed by two-gene Bt cotton (Bollgard II) in 2006 to combat bollworms.
Pink bollworm resistance emerged, impacting cotton production until recent management strategies boosted output.

Sectoral Growth and Market Potential:

Textiles and apparel market valued at $168 billion, projected to grow at 10% CAGR, aiming for $350 billion by 2030.
India ranks third in textile exports globally, with expectations to reach $100 billion in exports.

Utilization of Self-Help Groups (SHGs):

Utilization of 10.2 crore SHG members for cost-effective labor in textile sector.
States like MP, UP, Bihar, and Odisha offering subsidies to promote textile industry growth.

Policy and Infrastructure Initiatives:

Promotion of 'hub and spoke' model to enhance domestic manufacturing.
Revival of Scheme for Integrated Textile Parks (SITP) to establish internationally standardized parks.

Geopolitical Perspective:

Minister dismisses Bangladesh as a threat, aims to surpass China in future textile dominance.
Cites challenges in Bangladesh including high water and raw material tariffs.

Bt Cotton:

Bt cotton is a genetically modified pest-resistant plant cotton variety modified by the insertion of one or more genes (Cry1 Ac) from the soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis.
Strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce toxins that are harmful to a variety of insects, and it has been found to combat American bollworm – moth larvae that commonly attack cotton crops.
Bt cotton is India’s first transgenic crop formally approved for commercial cultivation in 2002.
Aim of introducing Bt cotton to India was to reduce the amount of insecticide needed in farming cotton.
Benefits: Reduction in production cost, increase in profit, reduced farming risk and improved economic outlook for cotton, does not harm non-target beneficial insects, helpful in improving wildlife population, reduced run-off of insecticides and air pollution.

Krishna River System

Key facts about Krishna River

Second longest river of Peninsula that flows towards east.
Originates near Mahabaleshwar in Western Ghats
Basin states: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka having a total area of 2,58,948 Sq.km

Left bank tributaries	Right bank tributaries
Bhima (2^nd largest)	Venna
Musi (Hyderabad located at bank)	Koyna
Munneru	Panchganga
Paleru	Dudhganga
Don	Ghatprabha
	Malprabha
	Tungbhadra (Largest)

Pravara River

Context: Three personnel of the State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) died after their boat capsized during a rescue attempt the Pravara River in Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar district.

Key Facts about Pravara River

Location: Maharashtra, India
Origin: Eastern slopes of the Sahyadris between Kulang and Ratangad mountains in Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra.
It is the only major tributary of the Godavari to have both its source and confluence located within the same district—Ahmednagar.
It’s also the only tributary among the seven major ones that originates in the Western Ghats, similar to the Godavari itself.

Course:

Flows into Bhandardara town where Bhandardara Dam is constructed, forming Arthur Lake.
Arthur Lake periodically releases water, creating Umbrella Falls.
Flows eastward, reaches Sangamner where Mahalungi River merges.
Joins with River Mula before reaching Nevasa.
Empties into the Godavari River at Pravara Sangam, 208 km from its source.

Tributaries:

Mahalungi: Originates on southern and eastern slopes of Patta and Aundha mountains, merges with Pravara at Sangamner.
Mula: Rises on eastern slopes of Sahyadris between Ratangad and Harichandragad, joins Pravara before Nevasa.
Adhala: Originates north of Akole, merges with Pravara west of Sangamner.

Dams:

Bhandardara Dam: Located near Bhandardara town.
Nilwande Dam: Adjacent to the river.

Etymology: According to Indian Vedas, Sage Agastya meditated by consuming only water and air for a long time. Due to his incredible devotion, Lord Shiva appeared, blessed him, and left a stream of Ganga that came to be known as the Pravara River

GODAVARI RIVER SYSTEM

Longest river of Peninsula and third largest in India
Also known as Dakshin Ganga or Vridha Ganga because of its size, age and length.
Originates from Trimbak in Western Ghats in Nashik district, Maharashtra.

Left bank tributaries	Right bank tributaries
Kadana	Mula
Purna	Pravara
Dudhna	Dharna
Penganga	Manjra
Wainganga	Maner
Pranhita
Indravati
Sabari
Seluri

Lignite Coal

Context: Neyveli Lignite Coal India Limited (NLCIL) is a Central PSU headquartered in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. NLCIL is the largest producer of lignite in the country. The PSU has been diversifying its business into various spheres like power generation and renewable energy.

About Lignite in India

Lignite is also known as brown coal as it is brown in colour.
Higher carbon content in coal reflects the quality of coal. It is the lowest quality of coal. Carbon content of lignite ranges from 65-70%.
Lignite is prepared in the first stage of organic maturity. Initially the peat is converted into lignite or ‘brown coal’ – these are coal types with low organic maturity.
It is a softer coal with a high moisture content and contains the greatest number of compounds other than carbon such as sulfur and mercury.
Lignite resources in India: Indian lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts of peninsular shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat & Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir. The total known geological resources of lignite as on 01.04.2021 is about 46.02 billion tonnes, of which 79.3% resources (about 36.49 billion tonnes) are in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan (13.8%) and Gujarat (5.92%).
Production of Lignite: Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of Lignite in India accounting for 49.97% of total lignite production in India. Tamil Nadu is followed by Gujarat (27.37%) and Rajasthan (22.67%).
Neyveli Lignite Mine is the largest open cast mine in India with eco-friendly technology.

Overburden in Open Cast Mines

Lignite is mined in open-cast mines in India. In open cast mines, coal or lignite can be extracted only after removing layers of soil and stones. This soil and stone is known as overburden.
This overburden is removed and treated for other uses to reduce the environmental impact of mining.
To address these concerns following are focus areas:
- Sustainable end use of land resources.
- Scientific reclamation of mined lands.
- Establising community-centric land uses such as restored forests and eco-parks.
- Afforestation

Tank Irrigation in Tamil Nadu

Context: The climate change experienced in recent years has not only changed the rainfall pattern but also accentuated water scarcity across India. In many parts of Tamil Nadu, for instance, people meet their daily needs by paying ₹10 for a bucket of water.

Scenario

Ministry of Water Resources indicate that the demand for water will exceed supply by 2050 due to increased requirement for industry and agriculture.

Irrigation – Benefits, Types and Efficiency – UPSC Indian Geography ...

Tank Irrigation and associated benefits

Tank is main water source for Tamil Nadu since centuries.
State has tank with total storage capacity of 347 TMC (thousand million cubic feet) which is more than total storage of all dams of Tamil Nadu.
Tanks provide water for all activity at lower cost.
Unlike large dams, tanks are easy to manage due to their small size.
The maintenance cost of tanks is also very low as compared to canal irrigation.
Unlike canal irrigation, conflicts between tail-end and head-reach farmers are negligible under tank irrigation.
Increased storage of water in tanks helps in recharge of wells, reducing the over-exploitation of groundwater.
The tanks located in every village prevent women from having to walk long distances to fetch drinking water.

Declining Tank Infrastructure:

Tank irrigated area in India decreased from 46.30 lakh hectares in 1960-61 to 22.05 lakh hectares in 2021-22.
The share of tank-irrigated area to net-irrigated area has consistently declined from 38 per cent in 1960-61 to 14 per cent in 2022-23 in Tamil Nadu.
- The data from the Central Groundwater Board (March 2020) show that of the 1,166 blocks in Tamil Nadu, 723 are classified as over-exploited.
Despite above-average rainfall, tank-irrigated area in Tamil Nadu has not increased.

Causes of Decline:

Rapid urbanization leads to encroachment of water-spread areas for construction, reducing water storage capacity.
Neglect and poor maintenance contribute to the defunct status of many tanks.
Municipal and panchayat bodies encroach upon tanks for various purposes, as highlighted in government reports.

Consequences:

Sharp decline in area irrigated by tanks impacts agricultural productivity.
Encroachment exacerbates water scarcity, leading to over-exploitation of groundwater.

Proposed Solutions:

Repair, renovate, and restore tanks to increase storage capacity.
Remove encroachments on catchment areas and water-flow channels to facilitate rainwater flow to tanks.
Implement bans on construction activities near tank locations, respecting legal judgments.
Allocate funds for regular maintenance and modernization of tanks, possibly through partnerships with corporates under CSR schemes.
Emphasize repair of water-flow channels to ensure proper water retention.

Addressing Climate Change Impacts:

Climate change exacerbates water scarcity, with below-average rainfall becoming more common.
Initiatives must focus on increasing tank storage capacity to mitigate the effects of reduced rainfall and ensure water availability in the face of climate change.

The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)Central Ground Water Board was established in 1970 by renaming the Exploratory Tube wells Organization.
It is under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
Its responsibilities include providing scientific inputs for management, exploration, monitoring, assessment, augmentation, and regulation of groundwater resources across the country. The CGWB collaborates with the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) to regulate and control groundwater development and management