Indian Geography

Rivers of Kerala

Context: Kerala, often referred to as "God's Own Country," is blessed with numerous rivers that crisscross its verdant landscape.

About Rivers of Kerala

Periyar River:
- Origin: The Periyar River originates in the Western Ghats, specifically from the Sivagiri peaks near Peerumedu in the Idukki district of Kerala.
- Course: It flows in a southwest direction through the districts of Idukki, Ernakulam, and Thrissur, covering a total distance of approximately 244 kilometers.
- Tributaries: The major tributaries of the Periyar River include the Mullayar, Cheruthoni, and Perinjankutti Rivers.
- Significance:
  - Water Supply: The Periyar River is a vital source of water for both irrigation and domestic use in the region.
  - Hydroelectric Power Generation: It is the main source of water for the Idukki Dam, one of the largest arch dams in Asia, which generates hydroelectric power.
  - Tourism: The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, situated along the banks of the river, is a major tourist attraction known for its rich biodiversity, including elephants, tigers, and various bird species.
  - Ecosystem: The river and its surrounding areas support a diverse ecosystem and are crucial for the conservation of numerous species of flora and fauna.

Bharathapuzha (River Nila):
- Origin: Bharathapuzha originates from the Anaimalai Hills in the Western Ghats, specifically from the Pothigai hills in Tamil Nadu. It is believed to be one of the oldest rivers in Kerala.
- Course: The river flows in a westward direction, passing through the Palakkad district of Kerala before entering the Malappuram and Thrissur districts. It covers a total distance of about 209 kilometers before draining into the Arabian Sea.
- Tributaries: Bharathapuzha is fed by numerous tributaries, including the Gayathripuzha, Kannadipuzha, Thuthapuzha, and Kalpathipuzha.
- Cultural Significance: Bharathapuzha holds immense cultural significance in Kerala, often referred to as the "River of Bhārata" (India). It has inspired numerous works of literature, art, and music, contributing to Kerala's rich cultural heritage.
- Economic Importance: The river serves as a vital source of water for agriculture, supporting the cultivation of crops such as rice, sugarcane, and coconut in the surrounding areas. However, erratic rainfall patterns and water management issues have posed challenges to agriculture along its banks.
- Tourism: The banks of Bharathapuzha are dotted with temples, ghats, and scenic landscapes, attracting tourists and pilgrims alike. The river also hosts cultural events and festivals, adding to its allure as a tourist destination.
- Challenges: Bharathapuzha faces challenges such as pollution from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and solid waste, which threaten its water quality and the health of the ecosystem it supports. Additionally, sand mining along its banks has raised concerns about environmental degradation and erosion.

Pamba River:
- Origin: The Pamba River originates from the Pulachimalai hills in the Peerumedu taluk of the Idukki district in Kerala. It is one of the major rivers in the Western Ghats.
- Course: Flowing in a southerly direction, the Pamba River traverses through the districts of Pathanamthitta and Alappuzha before finally draining into the Vembanad Lake, which is the largest lake in Kerala. The river covers a total distance of approximately 176 kilometers.
- Tributaries: The Pamba River is fed by several tributaries, including the Kakki, Achankovil, and Manimala Rivers.
- Religious Significance: The Pamba River holds immense religious significance, particularly for devotees of Lord Ayyappa, a Hindu deity worshiped at the Sabarimala temple situated along its banks. The river plays a crucial role in the annual pilgrimage to Sabarimala, known as the "Makaravilakku pilgrimage," during which millions of devotees visit the temple.
- Ecological Importance: The Pamba River and its surrounding areas support a diverse ecosystem, including wetlands, marshes, and forests, which are home to various species of flora and fauna. However, like many rivers in Kerala, the Pamba River faces challenges such as pollution from agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and solid waste, which threaten its water quality and the health of the ecosystem it supports.
- Economic Use: The water of the Pamba River is utilized for irrigation purposes, supporting agriculture in the surrounding regions. Additionally, it serves as a source of drinking water for local communities.
- Hydroelectric Projects: The Pamba River also facilitates hydroelectric power generation through projects like the Sabarigiri Hydroelectric Project, which harnesses the river's water for electricity production.

Chaliyar River:
- Origin: Elambalari Hills (Nilambur, Kerala)
- Flow: Passes through Malappuram and Kozhikode districts
- Significance: Important for agriculture and industrial purposes

Meenachil River:
- Origin: Palai, Kottayam district, Kerala
- Flow: Drains into the Vembanad Lake
- Significance: Provides water for irrigation and supports agriculture

Swell Waves

Context: Hyderabad-based INCOIS has issued an alert to coastal States on the possibility of swell surges and rough sea conditions.

About Swell Waves:

High-Energy Swell Waves

All swells are created by wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. When strong winds persist over vast distances (such as during storms), they generate waves. The strength, duration, and area of the ocean that the wind affects determine the size of the waves, how far they’ll travel, and the energy they carry when they reach the shore.

Working:

Wind Energy: As winds blow across the ocean, they transfer energy to the water surface. This energy causes ripples to form, which eventually evolve into waves.
Distance and Duration: The longer the wind blows and the greater the distance it covers, the more energy is transferred to the waves. Consequently, the waves become larger and cover more distance.
Swells: Swells can be categorized based on their origin:
- Groundswell: These swells originate from winds far out at sea, covering longer distances. They have longer swell periods and more energy. Groundswells often result in cleaner, organized surf conditions.
- Windswell: Wind swell forms closer to the shore. The swell period is shorter, waves are less organized, and they arrive faster.

Issuing Authority: Hyderabad-based Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS).

Recipient States: Coastal States of Goa, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Lakshadweep, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Alert Content:

INCOIS alerted coastal states about the possibility of high-energy swell waves over the weekend.
Urged the total suspension of operational and recreational activities at beaches and nearshore regions on Saturday and Sunday.
Advised fishermen and coastal populations to be cautious about potential surge waves, especially in low-lying areas.

Scientific Explanation:

Senior scientist T. Balakrishnan Nair explained that high-period swells originating approximately 10,000 km away from the Indian coast in the southern Atlantic Ocean on April 26 were causing high-energy swell propagation towards Indian coastal regions.
Expected impact: hitting the southern tip of India early Saturday, potentially causing coastal flooding in low-lying areas when combined with high tide conditions.

Safety Recommendations:

Small vessels cautioned against plying nearshore.
Recommended anchoring boats at a fair distance from each other to prevent damage.

Special Advisory for Kerala:

Kerala coastal communities advised to remain vigilant.
State put on red alert for high-energy swell waves, locally known as 'Kallakadal' (rogue sea), likely lasting until 11:30 p.m. on Sunday.
Potential swell waves: ranging from 0.5 meters to 1.7 meters high in low-lying areas.

Actions by Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA):

Issued directions to suspend recreational activities along beaches.
Advised coastal residents to temporarily evacuate if necessary.
First instance of a red alert being issued for the State regarding the Kallakadal phenomenon, according to KSDMA member secretary Sekhar Kuriakose.

World Castor Sustainability Forum

Context: India launches the World Castor Sustainability Forum (WCSF) to establish a traceable supply chain for castor oil, aiming to improve economic, social, and environmental performance.

Purpose and Goals:

The WCSF aims to enhance economic self-sufficiency and sustainability in the global castor industry.
It focuses on providing a sustainable and traceable supply chain for castors while improving economic, social, and environmental performance.

Background:

India produces about 20 lakh tonnes of castorseed annually, meeting over 90% of the global demand for castor oil.
The WCSF was launched in response to the global shift towards renewable resources and increased emphasis on sustainability.
Key players in the castor industry, including companies like Adani Wilmar Ltd, Jayant Agro Organics Ltd, and Gokul Overseas, have joined the forum.

Collaboration and Impact:

Leading international buyers of castor oil are also interested in promoting sustainable castor oil through WCSF.
Nearly 30 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) have collaborated with WCSF, representing around 25,000 farmers.
WCSF aims to redefine industry norms, drive meaningful change, and create a future where castor production thrives in harmony with nature and society.

Economic Significance:

India’s export of castor oil and derivatives is estimated to be above ₹12,000 crore ($1.5 billion) annually.
The global castor derivatives market, estimated at over $4 billion per year, heavily depends on India.

Castor bean (Ricinus communis) seeds, oil meal and by-products | Feedipedia

Castor, scientifically known as Ricinus communis, is a multipurpose plant valued for its various industrial, medicinal, and cosmetic applications.
The castor plant is native to the Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India but is now cultivated worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions.
Castor oil extracted from the seeds is pale yellow and has a distinct odor. It is widely used in industries such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, lubricants, and biofuels.
The oil has numerous medicinal properties and is utilized in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and laxative effects.
Castor oil is also employed in the manufacturing of soaps, paints, varnishes, and plastics due to its ability to form a stable film and resist degradation.
Castor seeds are rich in ricinoleic acid, a unique fatty acid comprising nearly 90% of the oil content, contributing to its valuable properties.
Castor cultivation is relatively drought-tolerant and requires minimal inputs, making it an attractive crop for smallholder farmers in arid regions.
However, castor seeds contain toxic compounds, including ricin, which can be harmful if ingested.
Proper processing techniques are employed to remove these toxins, ensuring safe utilization of castor products.

The WCSF is a significant initiative that seeks to promote sustainability, economic self-sufficiency, and responsible practices in the castor industry. It brings together stakeholders to create a positive impact on both the environment and livelihoods.

Illegal mining in the Aravali range must stop: Supreme Court

Context - The Supreme Court on Thursday said illegal mining in the Aravali range in Rajasthan must stop.

Key facts related to Aravallis:

One of the oldest fold mountains of the world.
The Aravallis are assembled over a very large province of granite (called the Bundelkhand craton; a craton is part of Earth’s crust which has been stable for nearly a billion years or so) and gneiss (pronounced “nice” which is typically a hard, grey rock with long, white or grey ribbon-like bands).
Extends from Delhi ridge up to Palanpur (Gujarat).
Covers Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan & Gujarat.
The peaks reach their maximum height in the south-western segment, with some rising more than 1,000 m (like the 1,722 m-high Guru Shikhar near Mount Abu and hills around Udaipur). As we move north, the range begins to taper and the hills become modest.
Its highest peak is Guru Shikhar (on Abu Hills) in Rajasthan. Mt. Abu is also located nearby.
Goram ghat is located in the Southern part of Aravalli mountain range. It connects Marwar and Mewar regions of Rajasthan.
It gives rise to several rivers, including the Banas, Luni, Sakhi, and Sabarmati.
Though heavily forested in the south, it is generally bare and thinly populated, consisting of large areas of sand and stone and of masses of rose-coloured quartzite.

Direct Seeded Rice

Context: As rice is grown in India’s 45 per cent rain-fed area, as well as 55 per cent irrigated area, the average usage of water to produce one kilogram of rice is not 4,000-5,000 litres rather it is about 1,500 litres; Director-General of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

Direct Seeded Rice:

Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) is a modern agricultural technique where rice seeds are sown directly into the field, eliminating the need for transplanting seedlings.
DSR conserves water, reduces labour, and enhances crop productivity, contributing to sustainable agriculture and food security.
Steps involved in DSR include field preparation, seed sowing, weed management, irrigation, fertilization, and crop monitoring.
Benefits of DSR include significant water savings, labour reduction, potential yield increase, and environmental advantages such as reduced methane emissions.
At least 30 per cent water is saved when DSR technique is followed in place of conventional nursery and transplanting method.
By eliminating the need for nursery cultivation, farmers save approximately 30 days in the crop cycle. This allows them to start the rabi season early and avoid untimely rains during the harvesting phase.
Challenges in DSR cultivation include weed and pest management, proper irrigation practices, and the need for farmer training. DSR techniques include dry and wet methods, adaptable based on local water resources and environmental conditions.
Successful DSR requires high-quality seeds, proper field preparation, irrigation, weed and pest management, fertilization, and regular monitoring.
DSR reduces water consumption compared to traditional flooded rice fields, conserving water and minimizing environmental impact.
Economic benefits of DSR include cost savings for farmers and potential yield increase, while environmental benefits include reduced methane emissions and carbon footprint.
Future trends in DSR cultivation include the development of drought-tolerant varieties, precision agriculture techniques, and integrated weed and pest management systems.
In conclusion, DSR offers a sustainable approach to rice cultivation, addressing water scarcity, labour availability, and climate change challenges, contributing to food security and eco-friendly agriculture practices.

Coffee cultivation

Coffee

More expensive than tea and yields less beverage than tea.
Native of highlands of Southern Ethiopia (District of Kaffa).
Contains Caffeine as stimulants.
In 18^th century first plantation cultivation started in Dutch east indies
Leadership monopoly
- Arabia (Mocha coffee), Jamaica (Blue mountain coffee), Java coffee, Brazil.
Distribution across India:

Three Major Cultivated Species Are

ARABICA

Most important in World Trade
Finest coffee for flavor
Originated from Mocha
Least hardy

ROBUSTA

West African variety
Hardy but poor quality
Disease resistant

LIBERICA

Hardy disease resistant
Indigenous to Liberia
Suited to lowlands than uplands.
Instant coffee varieties are Robusta and Arabica.

Growing Conditions

1. Temperature:

Mean monthly 14-26, Growth most rapid in hot and rainy season.
During cool and dry season berries ripen and are ready for picking
Should not drop below 11 C in the coldest month.
Cultivation is almost invariably restricted to Tropical areas.

2. Rainfall:

Needs high rainfall and should be well distributed (100-200 cm)
In Ethiopia, thick sea mist compensates for less rainfall (50 cm)
Cannot tolerate stagnant water.
Dry period for harvesting and drying is ideal.

3. Shade:

Should be sheltered from direct sun light especially when young.
Tall leguminous plants are sometimes used.

4. Uplands conditions:

Well drained, cool conditions.
Best quality comes from high elevation and slopes.
2000-6000 ft.
Slopes which face sea benefit from sea mist

5. Soils:

Yield dependent on soil nutrients, decline sharply when soil is exhausted.
Well drained volcanic soil like Terra roxa of Brazil which contain much potash as well as organic material.

6. Labour:

Handpicked therefore no machine.
Every stage requires.

Mullaperiyar Dam

Context: The Supreme Court on Monday fixed July 10 for finalising the legal issues to be heard and decided by it in an original suit filed by Tamil Nadu against neighbouring Kerala over the construction of a mega parking project near the Mullaperiyar dam.

The Supreme Court earlier directed the Survey of India to examine whether a mega car park envisaged by Kerala near the Mullaperiyar dam area enters the property covered by the Periyar Lake Lease Agreement of October 1886.

About Mullaperiyar Dam

The river and the dam are so called because the dam is located after the confluence of the Mullayar and Periyar rivers.
The dam is 155 ft high and 1200 ft long. Its construction began in 1887 and was completed in 1895.
The first dam, which was built by the British Corps of Royal Engineers, was washed away by floods. Thereafter, a second stonework dam was built in 1895.
The dam's purpose was to divert the waters of the west-flowing River Periyar eastward to the arid rain shadow regions of the Theni, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram districts of Tamil Nadu.
The construction of the dam paved the way for the creation of the artificial lake at the Centre of the Reserve. The Periyar Tiger Reserve covers the area inclusive of and around an artificial lake, created because of the construction of the Mullaperiyar Dam.
The dam was built to meet the water requirements of the temple town of Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
Hence, though the dam is situated in Kerala, it is operated by the Tamil Nadu Government. It was according to a 999-year lease agreement (Periyar Lake Lease Agreement) made during the British rule that the operational rights were handed over to Tamil Nadu.
The Periyar Lease Agreement granted permission to Tamil Nadu to divert water from the Mullaperiyar river basin in Kerala to Theni to irrigate five arid districts.
As per the agreement, Tamil Nadu was given exclusive right and liberty to use the land at the confluence of the Periyar and Mullayar, in addition to 100 acres for constructing the dam.
The agreement also gave the right to the neighboring state to use water from the dam for irrigation purposes.

Navy chief inaugurates new facilities at Karwar naval base

Context: Chief Admiral inaugurated a 350-m-long major pier for Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs) at Naval Base at Karwar in Karnataka as part of Project Seabird.

More information from the news:

The naval base at Karwar can accommodate 32 ships and submarines, 23-yard craft, a dual-use naval air station, a full-fledged naval dockyard, four covered dry berths and logistics for ships and aircraft.
The pier would also provide strategic depths and operational flexibility on the western seaboard, especially against Pakistan.
The naval base is being expanded with the aim to make it the largest facility in Asia.

(Naval Bases in India)

INS Kadamba or Naval Base Karwar or Project Seabird:

It is an Indian Navy base located near Karwar in Karnataka.
The first phase of construction of the base, code-named Project Seabird, was commissioned in 2005.
Kadamba has become India’s third largest operational naval base, after Mumbai and Visakhapatnam.
The Navy's aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya is based at Karwar.
The base also has the country's first sealift facility, a unique shiplift and transfer system for docking and undocking ships and submarines.
Significance:
- During the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, the Indian Navy faced security challenges for its Western Fleet in Mumbai Harbour due to congestion in the shipping lanes from commercial shipping traffic, fishing boats and tourists.
- At the end of the war, various options were considered to address these concerns.
- Karwar base is a dedicated naval base, between the hills of the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.
- The location had significant advantages as being very close to the world's busiest shipping route between the Persian Gulf and east Asia and out of range of most strike aircraft from neighbouring countries.
- It also offered a natural deep-water harbour and significant land area for expansion, allowing larger aircraft carriers to berth.

Project Seabird:

In 1999, following Pokhran-II, Project Seabird was approved, to pursue the construction of the new naval base at Karwar.
The Binaga Bay was dredged and its rock outcrops blasted to allow even large aircraft carriers to turn inside the bay.
Anjadip Island is one of the two islands to which the breakwaters are linked for reinforcement.
- Located in the Arabian Sea, near the coast of Canacona, Goa.
- It is politically part of Goa state but geographically the nearest mainland is the coastal Kanara subregion of Karnataka.
- It was part of the Portuguese Indian settlements until 1961.
Phase I:
- Phase I of INS Kadamba was commissioned in May 2005.
- Key facilities: ship lift, a ship transfer system for dry docking at the Naval Ship Repair Yard.
Phase-II:
- The Phase-IIA expansion approval was obtained from the Cabinet Committee on Security in 2012, after getting approval from then Defence Minister.
- New facilities and infrastructure were inaugurated including, two major piers and residential towers.
- Phase II-B: INS Kadamba will be able to base 50 front-line warships and will be the biggest naval base east of the Suez-canal.

Lavender

Context: Lavender turned small farmers into big businessmen in J-K’s Doda.

Lavender Cultivation

The Union Ministry of Science and Technology initiated the Purple or Lavender Revolution through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research's (CSIR) Aroma Mission.
- The revolution as well as the mission aimed to increase lavender planting in Jammu and Kashmir.
- The goal was to take advantage of the location's assets in order to boost the homegrown market and farmers' revenue.

CSIR AROMA MISSION

The CSIR Aroma Mission aims to bring about transformational change in the aroma sector by implementing targeted interventions in agricultural, processing, and product development in order to boost the aroma industry's growth and rural employment.
The mission will encourage the development of aromatic crops for the production of essential oils, which are in high demand in the aroma sector.
Within the ambit of this mission, it is anticipated that Indian farmers and the aroma business will be able to become worldwide leaders in the production and export of various essential oils in the menthol mint pattern.
CSIR assisted in the cultivation of 6000 hectares of land in 46 Aspirational districts across the country during Phase I.
In addition, almost 44,000 employees were trained.
The CSIR has started Phase-II of the Aroma Mission, which will include over 45,000 skilled human resources and help over 75,000 farming families.

Lavender

Lavender (Lavandula) is a flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae) known for its fragrant aroma, beautiful flowers, and various uses in culinary, medicinal, and ornamental applications.
It is native to the Old World, primarily found across the drier, warmer regions of mainland Eurasia, with an affinity for maritime breezes.

Conditions required.

Climate:

Lavender thrives in sunny, warm climates with well-drained soil.
It prefers a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters.
Lavender does not tolerate excessive humidity or wet conditions, so regions with high rainfall or humidity may not be suitable unless proper drainage and air circulation are provided.

Soil:

Lavender prefers well-drained, alkaline soil with a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.
Sandy or loamy soils are ideal as they provide good drainage, preventing waterlogging which can cause root rot.
If your soil is heavy clay or compacted, consider amending it with sand or gravel to improve drainage.

Sunlight:

Lavender requires full sun to thrive, typically needing at least 6 to 8 hours of direct sunlight per day.
Plant your lavender in a location where it will receive plenty of sunlight throughout the day.

Watering:

While lavender is drought-tolerant once established, it still requires regular watering during its initial establishment period (first year).
After that, it's best to water sparingly, allowing the soil to dry out between waterings to prevent root rot.
Overwatering is one of the most common mistakes in lavender cultivation.

Spacing and Planting:

Lavender plants should be spaced 12 to 18 inches apart to allow for good air circulation and prevent overcrowding.
When planting, ensure the root ball is level with the soil surface and firm the soil around the plant to remove any air pockets.

Fertilizing:

Lavender generally does not require heavy fertilization.
Too much nitrogen can result in excessive foliage growth at the expense of flowers.
A light application of balanced fertilizer in early spring is usually sufficient.

Pests and Diseases:

Lavender is relatively resistant to pests and diseases, but it can occasionally be affected by issues such as root rot, powdery mildew, and aphids.
Proper cultural practices such as good air circulation and well-drained soil can help prevent these problems.
In cases of severe infestation or disease, organic or chemical treatments may be necessary.

China tops list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India

Context: As per the latest government data, India continues to be a net importer in most of the critical minerals and China topped the list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Facts about Critical Minerals; MMDR Act; Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL); Mineral Security Partnership.

Major Highlights:

In FY 2023-24, India’s net import bill for critical minerals in FY 2023-24 stood at over ₹42,000 crores, with Phosphorus being the highest at ₹15,123 crore.
Chinais a dominant supplier of critical minerals to India primarily in categories like ore, waste, scrap and unwrought (raw), metallic or finished product forms.
- The imports included- cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, potash and glauconite, rare earth elements (REE), tantalum, titanium and tungsten.
Apart from China, India imported critical minerals from other countries. It includes-
- Gallium and Indium (100% from the US), niobium (Germany and Russia), selenium (Japan), tin (Indonesia), platinum group of elements (UK and UAE), phosphorous (Jordan), vanadium (Germany and Mexico), and zirconium (Indonesia and France).

What are Critical Minerals?

Critical minerals are metallic or non-metallic elements that are:
- Essential for modern technologies, economy and national security, such as electronics, renewable energy, and defense.
- Subject to disruption of supply chain, often due to limited reserves, geopolitical issues, or complex processing.

Utility of Critical Minerals:

Renewable Energy sector: Graphite, Lithium, Cobalt, and Nickel are key components of batteries for electric vehicles (EVs).
Defense and Aerospace: Tungsten, molybdenum, and REEs are used in advanced weaponry, fighter jets, satellites, and aircraft.
High-Tech Manufacturing: REEs, Indium, and Gallium are used in electronics, semiconductors, and renewable technologies.
Agriculture: Fertiliser minerals like potash and phosphate.

China tops list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India

Global Distribution of Critical Minerals:

According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals. China is responsible for 60% of global production of rare earth elements.

Critical Minerals in India:

Different countries create their own lists of critical minerals based on their individual needs and strategic considerations. However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt.
In 2023, the Ministry of Mines, India classified 30 minerals as critical minerals.
- The list comprises 30 minerals including 17 rare earth elements (REEs) and six platinum-group elements (PGE).
- Ten minerals on the list are 100% import-dependent, including- Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Vanadium, Niobium, Germanium, Rhenium, Beryllium, Tantalum, and Strontium.
India relies heavily on imports (mostly from China) for critical minerals. The demand for these minerals may more than double by 2030.

Steps taken by the Government of India:

1. MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary legislation governing the mining sector in India.
The MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:
- Empowers Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite licence for 24 critical and strategic minerals (listed in the Part-D of the First Schedule to MMDR Act).
- Opened mining of critical minerals to private players which was previously limited to public sector undertakings.
- To boost exploration, Exploration Licence for reconnaissance and prospecting operations has been introduced for 29 deep-seated minerals.

2. Establishment of KABIL:

A Joint Venture Company among NALCO, HCL and MECL named Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL) was formed in August 2019.
KABIL's mandate is to ensure India's supply of critical and strategic minerals:
- Identifying, exploring, acquiring, developing, mining, and processing strategic minerals.
- Focus on procuring battery minerals like Lithium and Cobalt.

3. Global Partnerships:

India has joined the Mineral Security Partnership with 13 countries, including the U.S., Australia, and Japan aimed to catalyse public and private investment in critical mineral supply-chains globally.
India has signed an agreement with Argentina for lithium exploration through KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Limited).
India-Australia has signed the Critical Mineral Investment Partnership for investment in critical mineral projects and for developing supply chains between these two nations.

Kalanamak rice

Context: A Finance Ministry notification said that the export of Kala Namak rice will be permitted through 6 customs stations.

About Kalanamak Rice

Kala Namak rice is grown in the Tarai area of Siddharth Nagar and ten neighboring districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
- Kalanamak Rice is approved for 11 districts of Zone 7 of UP. These 11 districts are located in the divisions of Gorakhpur (Deoria, Gorakhpur, Mahrajganj, Siddharth Nagar districts), Basti (Basti, Sant Kabir Nagar, Siddharth Nagar districts), and Devipatan (Bahraich, Balrampur, Gonda, Shravasti districts).
It is a scented rice variety which is generally offered at a better price as compared to other rice varieties to the farmers.
The name Kalanamk Rice has been derived due to its black husk (kala = Black, & the suffix 'namak' means salt).
It is famous for its taste, palatability, and aroma.
It is also featured in speciality rice of the world by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
Kala namak Rice is in cultivation since the Buddhist period (600 BC).
The grains were found from excavation of Aligarhwa (district Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India), located at Nepal border.
Kalanamak rice was granted the Geographical Indication (GI) Tag in 2012 by the Government of India.
Nutritive Value: The Kala namak rice is rich in micronutrients like Iron and Zinc, has a low glycemic index, thus better for diabetic people and also has higher protein content when compared to other paddy varieties.

Cardamom

Context: Indian cardamom exports are expected to gain significantly in the near term, thanks to drought conditions in Guatemala, one of the largest producers globally.

Cardamom crop

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) is one of the oldest known spices in the world.
Evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India are considered as the centre of origin as well as natural habitat of cardamom.
Cardamom is commercially cultivated for its dried fruits (capsules), which is also referred as cardamom of commerce.

Types/cultivars

Based on adaptability, nature of panicle, shape and size of capsules, the cultivars are categorized into Malabar, Mysore and Vazhukka.
The cultivar Malabar with a prostate panicle (panicles spreading on ground) is widely grown in Karnataka.
The cultivar Mysore, characterized with erect panicles is extensively cultivated in Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.
The cultivar Vazhukka, a natural hybrid between Malabar and Mysore types with a distinct semi-erect (pendant) panicle, is the most popular cultivar in Kerala.

Climate and soil

The crop thrives well in regions which receive a well-distributed annual rainfall of 1500-2500 mm with a mean temperature of 15°C to 35°C and 600-1200 m above MSL (mean sea level).
Cardamom grows luxuriantly in forest loam soils, which are generally acidic in nature with a pH range of 5.5-6.5.
Growth of cardamom is enhanced, when planted in humus rich soils with low to medium available phosphorus and medium to high available potassium.

Propagation

Propagation by vegetative means through suckers is considered to be the most preferred method.
Production of planting materials from seeds and through tissue culture are alternative methods of propagation.
Seedling propagated plants may not be true to its parent.

Production of Cardamom

Kerala is the largest producer of cardamom in India (Share 58.6%), followed by Sikkim and Nagaland.