Indian Geography

Oju Hydroelectric Project in Arunachal Pradesh

Context: The Union Environment Ministry has recommended environmental clearance for the Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri River in Arunachal Pradesh. Once operational, it will be the largest hydroelectric project in the Subansiri basin by installed capacity, significantly expanding India’s renewable energy portfolio. However, the project has sparked debates over environmental sustainability, regional biodiversity, and strategic security.

Project Details

The Oju Hydroelectric Project will be developed by Oju Subansiri Hydro Power Corporation Pvt. Ltd., located about 5 km downstream of Redi village in the Taksing block of Arunachal Pradesh.

  • Installed Capacity: 2,220 MW (2,100 MW from the main power plant and 120 MW from the dam-toe plant).
  • Scale: It is expected to be the largest project in the Subansiri basin, surpassing the capacity of other ongoing hydro projects.
  • Strategic Location: The project lies close to the India-China border, giving it geopolitical importance in addition to energy significance.

Concerns and Criticism

  1. Outdated Studies: Environmental groups, particularly from Assam, have pointed out that the Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) and carrying capacity studies for the Subansiri basin were last conducted in 2014. Considering climate change, seismic activity, and increasing hydro pressures, these studies require urgent revision to reflect current realities.
  2. Biodiversity and River Ecology: The Subansiri basin is ecologically sensitive, hosting diverse species of fish and supporting riparian communities in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Multiple hydroelectric projects on the same river may alter river flow, impact sediment transport, reduce fish populations, and threaten local livelihoods.
  3. Geopolitical Sensitivity: Located near the India-China border, the project has strategic value for India’s control over water resources and infrastructure development in frontier areas. However, the ecological fragility of the Himalayas and the seismic risks of dam construction in this region heighten concerns.

Subansiri River: An Overview

The Subansiri River is a trans-Himalayan river that originates in the Tibetan Himalayas and is known locally as the “Gold River” due to the presence of gold dust in its riverbed.

  • It enters India through a deep gorge near Gerukamukh in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • It is the largest right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra River, joining it in Assam’s Lakhimpur district.
  • Major tributaries include the Laro, Nye, Yume, Tsari, Kamla, Jiyadhol, Ranganadi, and Dikrong rivers.
  • The river basin supports agriculture, fishing, and hydropower projects, but faces risks from over-exploitation and frequent floods.

Significance

  • Energy Security: At 2,220 MW, the project will contribute substantially to India’s renewable energy targets under the National Electricity Plan.
  • Regional Development: It promises improved infrastructure, employment opportunities, and potential revenue for Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Strategic Leverage: Hydro projects in border areas strengthen India’s water resource management and presence in geopolitically sensitive zones.

Conclusion

The Oju Hydroelectric Project reflects India’s drive to expand clean energy while strengthening its presence in the Northeast. However, balancing energy needs with ecological sustainability and community welfare is crucial. Updated environmental studies, better disaster preparedness, and active consultation with downstream states like Assam will be essential to ensure that the project contributes to national development without undermining the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.

Odisha and Chhattisgarh to ‘amicably’ resolve Mahanadi River Dispute 

Context: After a prolonged legal battle in a designated Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal over sharing of the Mahanadi river water, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have expressed willingness to resolve the dispute amicably between themselves.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provision for resolution of Inter-State River Water Dispute. 

Inter-State River Water Dispute

  • Article 262 of the Constitution provides for the adjudication of inter-state water disputes. It makes two provisions:
    • Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and control of waters of any inter-state river and river valley.
    • Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.

Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two laws:

1. The River Boards Act 1956: 

  • The Act provides for the establishment of river boards for the regulation and development of inter-state river and river valleys. 
  • A river board is established by the Central government on the request of the state governments concerned to advise them.

2. Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: 

  • The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act empowers the Central government to set up an ad hoc tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute between two or more states in relation to the waters of an inter-state river or river valley. 
  • The decision of the tribunal would be final and binding on the parties to the dispute. 
  • The Supreme Court nor any other court does not have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to such a tribunal under this Act. 

Mahanadi River System

  • Mahanadi river rises in the Sihawa hills, Chhattisgarh. This is south of the Amarkantak Plateau region. 
  • Basin states: Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1,41,589 sq. kms. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. 
  • The Mahanadi basin is geographically bounded by:
    • Central India hills on the north
    • Eastern Ghats on the south and east
    • Maikal range in the west. 
  • Major Dams: 
    • Hirakud Dam (Odisha): One of the longest earthen dams in the world. 
    • Hasdeo Bango & Arpa Projects (Chhattisgarh). 
Left bank TributaryRight bank Tributary
Seonath Ong
HasdeoTel
MandJonk
Ib
image 4

Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal: 

  • Mahanadi River Dispute: Odisha alleges that the upper riparian state Chhattisgarh had "illegally" constructed a number of barrages across the river and its tributaries, which has seriously affected inflow into the Hirakud reservoir in Odisha, particularly in the non-monsoon seasons.  
  • The Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal was established in 2018. The proceedings continued between 2018 and 2023 with data submissions, arguments, and inspections from both states.

It is to be noted that no inter-state water dispute in the country has ever been resolved entirely through tribunal proceedings. Hence, the move towards amicable resolution of the inter-state river water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh is a step in the right direction. 

Hydrology of Brahmaputra

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects. 

Hydrology of Brahmaputra River

  • Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang). 
  • Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region. 
  • The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
  • The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna. 
Left/ South bank Tributaries of BrahmaputraRight/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
DihangKameng
DibangManas
LohitSubansari
Noa DehingDhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing Sankosh
KopilliRonganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong
image 18

Hydro-statistics and Regional data

  • Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second. 
  • During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second. 
  • These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.

As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference. 

Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China

  • Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region. 

This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.

China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra

Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.

  • Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
  • South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.

As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.

India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:

Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.

  • The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
    • Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
    • Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
  • However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.

Environmental Risks: 

  • Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes. 
  • Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.

Key Facts:

  • Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually. 
  • The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.

India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.

Early Onset of Monsoon in India

Context: India Meteorological Department (IMD) has declared the monsoon onset over Kerala on May 24, 2025, eight days ahead of its normal date schedule of June 1. The onset of monsoon marks the beginning of the four-month (June-September) southwest monsoon season over India, which brings over 70% of the country’s annual rainfall.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Key facts about Indian monsoon- southwest monsoon season over India.

What factors contributed to the early onset of Monsoon?

Multiple, large-scale atmosphere-oceanic and local factors developed and favoured the early monsoon onset this year. The monsoon arrived over the south Andaman Sea and neighbourhood areas on May 13, against a normal of May 21.

The IMD termed the onset took place under very favourable conditions, including:

1. The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): It is one of the most important and complex ocean-atmospheric phenomena influencing Indian monsoons with origins in the Indian Ocean. A key feature is that a disturbance of clouds, wind and pressure moves eastward at a speed of 4-8 metres per second. Within 30 to 60 days, MJO winds can travel around the world and cause significant weather changes during their movement. In a favourable phase, it can enhance rainfall over India during the monsoon season.

2. Mascarene High: Mascarene High is a high-pressure area found around the Mascarene Islands (in the south Indian Ocean) during the monsoon period. The variation in the intensity of high pressure is responsible for heavy rains along India’s west coast.

image 86

3. Convection: An increase in the convective activity, i.e., the vertical transport of heat and moisture in the atmosphere also brings rainfall. E.g., a convective system over Haryana moved south-eastward and led to rains in the Delhi region (in mid May).

4. Somali Jet: It is a low-level, inter-hemispheric cross-equatorial wind band originating near Mauritius and north Madagascar. During May, after crossing the east coast of Africa, it reaches the Arabian Sea and the west coast of India. A strong Somali jet is associated with the strengthening of monsoon winds.

5. Heat-low: Following the movement of the Sun to the northern hemisphere, marking the summer season, a low-pressure area develops in the Arabian Sea. The development of a heat-low pressure zone over Pakistan and adjoining areas acted as a suction device for moist air along the monsoon trough, and its strong presence influences good monsoon rainfall.

6. Monsoon trough: It is an elongated low-pressure area extending from the heat low to the north Bay of Bengal. The north-south swinging of this trough causes rainfall during the June–September period across the core monsoon zone. Pressure gradient and monsoon onset vortex, a cyclonic formation in the Arabian Sea, also play a role in good monsoon.

7. Neutral El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions were observed during the period, which typically support a normal or stronger monsoon, unlike El Niño years that often suppress rainfall over India.

What is the onset of Monsoon?

The monsoon season in India typically lasts from June to September, although its timing and intensity can vary across different regions.

  • Pre-monsoon period (March to May): During this time, temperatures rise across the country due to the increasing solar radiation. As summer approaches, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the surrounding oceans, causing a low-pressure area to develop over the region.
  • Arrival of the southwest monsoon (end of May to mid-June): The southwest monsoon is responsible for the majority of the rainfall in India. It begins with the onset of the monsoon over the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean are drawn towards the low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, creating a monsoon trough.
    • Factors affecting onset of monsoon:
      • Intense heating of the Indian landmass and formation of intense low pressure.
      • Shifting of ITCZ over Gangetic plain.
      • Withdrawal of sub-tropical westerly Jetstream.
      • Deflection of SE trades after crossing the equator towards Indian west coast.
  • Advancement of the monsoon (June to July): The monsoon winds gradually advance across the country, starting from the southernmost state of Kerala and progressing northwards. This northward progression is known as the “monsoon onset line” and is closely monitored by meteorological departments.
  • Onset over different regions: The onset of the monsoon occurs at different times across various regions of India. The western coast and northeastern states receive the monsoon rains first, followed by the central and northern parts of the country. The Himalayan region experiences the monsoon last.
image 81
  • Monsoon progression and rainfall: Once the monsoon sets in, it brings heavy rainfall to different parts of India. The amount and distribution of rainfall vary from region to region. The western coast and north eastern states generally receive more rainfall compared to the arid regions in the northwest.

How does IMD declares that monsoon has arrived in India?

Following are the guidelines to be followed:

  • Rainfall
    • If after 10th May, 60% of the available 14 stations report rainfall of 2.5 mm or more for two consecutive days, the onset over Kerala be declared on the 2nd day.
  • Low outgoing longwave radiation
    • INSAT derived OLR value should be below 200 wm-2 in the box confined by Lat. 5-10ºN and Long. 70-75ºE.
  • Wind field
    • Depth of westerlies should be maintained upto 600 hPa, in the box equator to Lat. 10ºN and Long. 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bounded by Lat. 5-10ºN, Long. 70-80ºE should be of the order of 15 – 20 Kts. at 925 hPa. The source of data can be RSMC wind analysis/satellite derived winds.

Note – Similar to above the onset of NE monsoon also has its own criteria:
India Meteorological Department (IMD) made the following criteria in August 1988 for declaring NE monsoon onset, which was further amended in August 2006 (IMD, 2008).

The criteria are: 

  • Withdrawal of Southwest monsoon up to Latitude 15-degree N 
  • Onset of persistent surface easterlies over Tamil Nadu Coast 
  • Depth of easterlies up to 850 hPa over Tamil Nadu Coast 
  • Fairly widespread rainfall over coastal Tamil Nadu, South Coastal Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas.

Impact of Climate Change on Monsoon:

  • According to IMD, there has been overall decrease in monsoonal rainfall of about 6%-10% since 1951. However, changes in monsoon remains within 10% of the long period average (LPA).
  • Intermittent rainfall has increased with increase in dry as well as wet spells.
  • Onset of monsoon and its withdrawal has also been delayed. For e.g. based on data from 1901-1940, the date of withdrawal was 1 September which was revised to 17th Sept in 2020. Despite this, monsoon 2023 was delayed by around 20 days.
  • It has impacted the regional spread also. Indo-Gangetic plains + Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal -> reduced. Saurashtra and Kutch, southeastern Rajasthan, northern Tamil Nadu, -> Increased
  • Rainfall extremes have risen by 3 times.

Siang hydropower project of Arunachal Pradesh

Context: Protests broke out at the Upper Siang district in Arunachal Pradesh as Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) is gearing up to carry out a pre-feasibility study for the proposed 11,000 MW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project. Locals are protesting citing concerns over its environmental and social impacts.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Siang Hydropower Project; Siang River; Adi Tribes

Siang Upper Multipurpose Project:

  • Proposed 11,000 MW Multipurpose Project in the Siang river. 
  • Location: Upper Siang district, Arunanchal Pradesh. 

Need for the Project: 

  • Handle possible threats from the 60,000 MW power project (the world’s biggest hydropower dam) being constructed by China in the upper reaches of Yarlung Tsangpo river in Tibet (called Siang in Arunachal Pradesh). China is not a signatory to the International Water Conventions. It intends to divert the water from the multiple water reservoirs to dry regions of Tibet and elsewhere in the country. 
  • Siang Upper Multipurpose Project aims to maintain natural flow of water in the Siang river throughout the year, and flood modulation in case of sudden water release by China.

Concerns: 

  • Displacement: The project is estimated to affect at least 100,000 local residents (in the upper Siang district) who could be displaced. 
  • Environmental concerns: There are also concerns about the environmental impact of the project involving construction activities on the Siang River.

About Siang River

  • The Tsangpo – Yarlung Zangbo, as it is known in China – enters Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River.
  • It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the towering Namcha Barwa peak, and enters Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang). 
  • It turns towards the south and enters Assam, where it is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang, and thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.
  • River Teesta joins Jumna (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) as a right bank tributary.
  • Jumna moves further and joins Padma which then joins Meghna. Meghna flows into the Bay of Bengal. 
  • The sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri, Kameng, and Bhareli rivers) , Assam (Manas, Kopili, Sankosh, and Dikhow rivers), Nagaland {Doyang (flows into Dhansiri)}, Meghalaya (Umngot and Kynshi rivers), West Bengal and Sikkim (Teesta)
  • It meanders through the heartland of Arunachal Pradesh, inhabited by the Adis.
image 36
Left/ South bank Tributaries of BrahmaputraRight/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
DibangSubansari
LohitKameng
Burhi Dihang Manas
KopilliSankosh
Dhansiri (South)Dhansiri (North)
KelangTeesta (Sikkim, WB)
NoadehingRonganadi

Who are the Adi Tribes?

  • It is one of the major tribes of Northeast India.
  • It consists of 14 sub-tribes, namely Ashing, Bori, Bokar, Karko, Komkar, Minyong, Millang, Pasi, Padam, Panggi, Pailibo, Ramo, Shimong and Tangam.
  • They are predominantly inhabited in sub-tropical regions of the Siang belt and Dibang Valley of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • They have Mongoloid features patriarchal society, and possess a strong base of traditional knowledge about forest structure and ecosystem function.
  • They mostly follow the age-old tradition of Animism known as “Donyi Polo”, and practice jhum for their agriculture.
  • The Adi people speak a language also called Adi, which is distantly related to Chinese and Tibetan languages.

India begins boosting Reservoir Capacity in Indus River System 

Context: Following the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty, India has commenced reservoir flushing and maintenance work at the Baglihar and Salal hydroelectric projects on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir. 

These operations aim to boost reservoir holding capacity and improve power generation efficiency. This has resulted in reduction of downstream water flow to Pakistan by nearly 90%.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Indus river system and its tributaries; River Valley Projects on Indus river system. 

Indus River System

  • Nature: Antecedent
  • Source: near Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
  • Flow direction: First north-west in India, and then sharp bend towards south-west into Pakistan. 
  • Important locations: Enters India near Damchok Forms deep gorge by cutting Ladakh range at Bunzi, north of Nanga Parbat. Enters Pakistan near Chillas. 
image 14

Tributaries of Indus River

  • Panjnad refers to five rivers of Punjab which are tributaries of the Indus – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. Jhelum and Ravi join Chenab, Beas joins Sutlej, and then Sutlej and Chenab join to form Panjnad.
JhelumOrigin from Sheshnag lake near Verinag (SE Kashmir).

Flows through Wular lake. 

Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. 
ChenabFormed by the confluence of two rivers- Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. 

Largest tributary of Indus river. 
RaviIt originates from Rohtang pass in Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. Flows between the Dhauladhar and Pirpanjal ranges.
BeasIt originates from Beas kund near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh. Joins Satluj within India at a place called Harike in Punjab.
SatlujIt originates in the ‘Rakshas tal’ near Mansarovar in Tibet, where it is known as Langchen Khambab. 

Antecedent river which cuts through the Himalayas at Shipki La and enters India. Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

River Valley Projects on Indus System

Bhakra Nangal projectOn river Satluj India’s largest multipurpose project Reservoir–Gobind Sagar
Naptha Jhakri projectOn Satluj in Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi ProjectAlso known as Rajasthan canal. Drawn out from Harike barrage. Goes up to Jaisalmer and Barmer.
Pong projectOn Beas Reservoir- Maharana Pratap Sagar
Pandoh projectOn Beas
Chamera projectOn Ravi in Himachal Pradesh
Thein projectOn Ravi in Punjab
Salal projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Baglihar projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Dulhasti projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Tulbul projectOn Jhelum in Jammu & Kashmir Dam is built on Wular lake Also known as Wular barrage. 
Uri projectOn Jhelum in Jammu & Kashmir

India puts Indus Waters Treaty on Hold with Pakistan

Context: In the wake of the deadly terrorist attack in Pahalgam, India has announced that the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 will be held in abeyance with immediate effect, until Pakistan credibly and irrevocably abjures its support for cross-border terrorism. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Indus Water Treaty; Dispute Resolution Mechanism in IWT.

Mains: Issues associated with the Indus Water Treaty. 

Indus Water Treaty (IWT)

  • Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, signed in 1960, facilitated by the World Bank. 
  • Sharing of water as per IWT: It provides India 20% of the water from the Indus River System and the rest 80% to Pakistan.
    • Eastern rivers: Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej were allocated to India for unrestricted use.
    • Western rivers: Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated largely to Pakistan. India is permitted certain agricultural uses and can build 'run of the river' hydropower projects with limited storage. 
  • Permanent Indus Commission (PIC): Commissioners are appointed by both countries for cooperation and information exchange regarding their use of the rivers.
image 71

Significance of putting the Treaty on Hold for India:

The decision to suspend the IWT gives various options to India on how to use the waters of the Indus river system.

  • India can immediately stop sharing water flow data with Pakistan. There will be no design or operational restrictions on India for the use of the water of the Indus and its tributaries.
  • India can now create storage on the Western Rivers, Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.
  • India can undertake reservoir flushing (a technique used to remove accumulated sediment from reservoirs by releasing water through low-level outlets to scour out the sediment and transport it downstream) on the Kishenganga project, which will increase the life of the dam.
  • India can stop visits by Pakistani officials to the two hydroelectric projects currently under construction in Jammu & Kashmir — the Kishenganga HEP on Kishenganga, a tributary of the Jhelum, and the Ratle HEP on the Chenab.

Limited Options for Pakistan

  • The Indus Waters Treaty lacks an exit clause, meaning neither India nor Pakistan can legally abrogate it unilaterally. The Treaty has no end date, and any modification requires the consent of both parties.
  • While the Treaty cannot be exited, it contains a dispute resolution mechanism that lays out procedures for raising grievances — first before the Permanent Indus Commission, then a neutral expert, and eventually, a forum of arbitrators. However, arbitration may not offer much recourse if India chooses not to follow the Treaty.
  • In case India ‘revokes’ the treaty, the dispute resolution mechanism will be of no use and assistance to Pakistan. It is limited to a dispute under the treaty and not meant to provide for specific performance of the treaty itself.
  • Since there is no provision in the IWT about its duration or suspension, there is no avenue that Pakistan can approach for ‘revival’ of the treaty. Nor can Pakistan approach the International Court of Justice seeking specific performance to implement the Treaty because of the Indian reservation given under the ICJ statute that bars the filing of a case by Pakistan against India. 

Also Read: World Bank Neutral Expert supports India’s stand on IWT 

However, the suspension of IWT will not have an immediate impact on the flow of water to Pakistan for a few years at least. India does not currently have the infrastructure to either stop the flow of water into Pakistan, or to divert it for its own use.  

Snow persistence in Hindu Kush Himalaya hits record low: ICIMOD Report

Context: According to the latest Snow Update Report by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), snow persistence in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region hits 23-year low, impacting water security for 2 billion people.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Major findings of the Report; Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. 

Key Findings of the Report

  • Snow persistence over the Hindu Kush Himalaya region between November 2024 and March 2025 was 23.6% below normal levels, a record low in the last 23 years.
    • Snow persistence measures the fraction of time snow remains on the ground after snowfall. 
  • This marks the third consecutive year of below-normal seasonal snow across the region. 
  • The most alarming decline in snow persistence is in the Mekong region, with ~52% decline.

Factors contributing to Low Snow Persistence

  • Climate change: Low snow persistence is a classic fallout of climate change. The rise in temperature in the Himalayas has exceeded the global average for at least four decades. An ICIMOD report of 2019 had warned that even if the global temperature rise is limited to the Paris climate pact’s threshold of 1.5 degrees Celsius, the HKW region will witness a warming of 0.3 degrees Celsius. 
  • Carbon emissions have caused an irreversible course of recurrent snow anomalies in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region.
  • Local developments like changes in the land system — the transformation of farmlands into urban areas — have combined with broader climatic changes to drive the temperature rise. 
  • Weaker western disturbances: Extra-tropical storms from the Mediterranean are known to contribute to winter precipitation in the Himalayas. But weaker western disturbances in recent years have disrupted the timing of seasonal precipitation, leading to shifts in snowfall patterns.

Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region:

  • HKH mountains extend around 3500 km over eight countries — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan. 
  • HKH are called ‘freshwater towers of Asia’ as water originating from their snow, glaciers and rainfall feed the ten largest river systems in Asia — Amu Darya, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, Yangtse, Yellow river, and Tarim. 
  • These river basins provide water to almost one-fourth of the world’s population and are a significant freshwater source for 240 million people in the HKH region.
image 67

Consequences

On an average, seasonal snowmelt contributes about one-fourth of the total annual runoff of the rivers originating from Hindu Kush Himalaya region. 

  • Continued deficit of seasonal meltwater means lesser river runoffs and early-summer water stress, especially for downstream communities, and would contribute to food insecurity. 
  • Agriculture in the region is timed with the seasonal flows of water and predictable cycles of rain. The unpredictability of the hydrological (water) cycle would contribute to food insecurity. 

Way Forward

  • Improvements in Weather forecasting and Early warning systems. 
  • Improving water infrastructure and developing policies for protecting areas receiving snowfall are important.
  • Investments in better water management and drought-proofing agriculture.
  • Transition towards greener forms of development and reduce emissions. 
  • Reforestation with native tree species can help the ground retain more snow.
  • Communities involvement in local and national level decision-making. 
  • Greater regional cooperation on data-sharing mechanisms on river flows, flood and natural resources. 

To tackle this regional snow crisis and the challenges, India needs long-term food, water and energy resilience. The nation needs to embrace a paradigm shift toward science-based, forward-looking policies and foster renewed regional cooperation for transboundary water management and emissions mitigation. 

China imposes export restrictions on Rare Earth Elements

Context: As a part of the US–China trade war, China has imposed export restrictions for all countries on seven heavy REEs (rare earth elements), which cannot be exported out of China by refiners until and unless specific authorisation is obtained.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Rare Earth Elements; National Critical Minerals Mission.

Major Highlights: 

  • Export restrictions by China would not directly hamper India because:
    • Manufacturers using REE are in relatively early stages of shifting production to India, and thus, the quantities of REEs imported to India has been low. E.g., Semiconductor fabrication, advanced electronics, and defence manufacturing is still in the setting-up stages in India.
    • India imports finished products (semiconductor chips using REEs) from the US, Europe and China. However, India may get indirectly affected if the REE supply chain to the US is disturbed. 
  • Indian imports of rare earth elements (REEs) such as dysprosium, gadolinium, lutetium and samarium have been quite small. According to the recent government data, only 2270 tonnes of REEs and compounds of REEs were brought into India in FY24. 

What are Rare Earth Elements?

  • REE are a set of 17 metallic elements. These include the 15 lanthanides on the periodic table, plus Scandium and Yttrium.
  • Often dubbed as ‘vitamins of modern industry’, REE are essential components of:
    • High-tech electronics, E.g., cellular telephones, computer hard drives, flat-screen monitors, televisions etc.
    • Defence applications, E.g., electronic displays, guidance systems, lasers, and radar and sonar systems. 
    • Electric vehicle batteries and Renewable energy infrastructure. 
  • China controls over two thirds (~69%) of the total global rare earth mine production and nearly 90% of processing capacity. 
image 62

Rare Earth Minerals in India

  • India is estimated to be the fifth largest holder of REE (6% of the global REE reserves). However, it only produces 1% of global output, and lacks the advanced extraction technologies required for self-sufficiency. 
  • India meets most of its requirements for REE from China. In FY19, 97% of REE imports by quantity were sourced from China. 
  • REEs available in India: Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium, Praseodymium, Samarium. Monazite and Thorium are the principal source of rare earths. 
  • Heavy REEs are not available in India: Dysprosium, Terbium, and Europium, in extractable quantities.
  • REEs are one of thirty substances listed as critical minerals, whose production and imports have been made a priority under the National Critical Mineral Mission, by the Ministry of Mines.

Also Read: National Critical Mineral Mission 

The government of India under the National Critical Minerals Missions aims to streamline permissions for exploratory activities, fund research, and conduct more auctions of mineral blocks to increase the domestic production of Critical Minerals. 

Kancha Gachibowli

Context: Telangana state government’s decision to auction off 400 acres of Kancha Gachibowli forested land in the heart of Hyderabad triggered massive student protests.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Kancha Gachibowli.

About Kancha Gachibowli

image 7
  • Kancha Gachibowli is one of Hyderabad’s last remaining urban forests. The forest lies in close proximity to Gachibowli, one of the most rapidly developing IT and commercial corridors of Hyderabad. The forest is situated near the University of Hyderabad.
  • The forest belongs to the Deccan scrub forest ecosystem - one of India’s most ecologically significant and under-protected landscapes.
  • It borders the Gopanpally Reserve Forest and lies near the Osman Sagar lake catchment, both of which are vital ecological buffers for the city.

Flora and Fauna

  • This ecological enclave is home to over 730 species of flowering plants, 10 species of mammals, 15 species of reptiles, and 220 species of birds. 
  • Dominated by native species such as neem, banyan, palash, and jamun, forming a thriving habitat for pollinators and birds. 
  • Key Fauna: spotted deer, wild boars, porcupines, monitor lizards, snakes, Indian star tortoise etc.
  • It is one of the only known habitats of the Hyderabad tree trunk spider, a species found nowhere else in the world. 
  • The forest contains unique rock formations, including the 2.5-billion-year-old Mushroom Rock. 

Concerns

  • The trees here help lower the ambient temperature of surrounding areas, especially during Hyderabad’s sweltering summers. A recent study pointed out that losing such cover could lead to a rise in temperature by as much as 1.4°C locally.

Environmentalists warn that clearing this green cover could lead to irreversible habitat fragmentation, exacerbate the urban heat island effect, and intensify water crises.

Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve

Context: The Supreme Court has directed the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) to conduct an extensive survey of the entire tropical forest ecosystems of the Agasthyamalai landscape in the southernmost Western Ghats to identify non-forestry activities and encroachments. 

Relevance of the Topic Prelims: Key facts related to Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve.

Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve

  • The Biosphere Reserve is a protected area in the southern Western Ghats, spanning parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
  • It covers a combined area of 3500 sq. km. in both the states and is known for its rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems, 
  • Declared as a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve.
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve
Not to scale

Key Facts about Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve: 

  • Protected Areas: It encompasses:
    • Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala)
    • Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala)
    • Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala)
    • Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu)
  • Flora & Fauna: 
    • Home to many endemic species like lion-tailed macaque, slender loris, and great pied hornbill. 
    • Contains evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist-deciduous, tropical forests, and grasslands.
    • Referred to as the cradle of traditional Indian medicine. 
  • Tribes: The reserve is home to Kani tribes from both Tamil Nadu and Kerala. 
  • Major rivers originating from here: Thamirabarani, Karamana, and Neyyar.
  • Cultural Significance: Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is named after Sage Agastya, a revered figure in Indian mythology.  

What is a Biosphere Reserve?

  • Biosphere reserves are large areas of Protected land for conservation of wildlife, plants and animal resources.
  • It also conserves the traditional life of the people living in that area. 

Divided into Three Zones:

  • Core zone: Strictly protected for conservation.
  • Buffer zone: Activities like environmental education, tourism, and research permitted.
  • Transition zone: Sustainable economic and human activities allowed. 

Three main functions of Biosphere Reserve: 

  • Conservation of Biodiversity and Cultural diversity.
  • Ecological development that is socio, culturally and environmentally sustainable.
  • Logistic support, underpinning development through research,  monitoring,  education and training

Biosphere Reserves in India: 

  • There are 18 Biosphere reserves in India. 12 Biosphere Reserves are recognised under Man & Biosphere Reserve Program. 
image 21
Source: Mapsofindia.com, (not to scale)

UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme:

  • Launched in 1971. 
  • Aim: To improve the relationship between people and their environments. 
  • Encourages interdisciplinary research, conservation, and sustainable development. 
  • As of now, over 700 biosphere reserves in over 130 countries are part of the network. 

India’s Coal Reliance has Risen to 79%: MOSPI

Context: India’s coal reliance has risen to 79% in FY2024, as per the MOSPI’s latest Energy Statistics in India. Renewable energy sources have not seen any meaningful rise in the share of the total energy produced in the past decade, despite the push for renewable energy. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key highlights of the MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025.

Mains: Reasons behind high reliance on coal. 

Key Stats in the Energy Sector

  • The share of coal in India’s total energy generation increased to 79% to 16,906 petajoules (PJ) in 2023-24, about two percentage points more than previous year (MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025). 
  • Coal has consistently accounted for over 70% of India's energy output since 2014-15. Despite increased domestic production, coal import dependence remains high (26%), peaking at 31% in 2019-20.
  • Crude oil’s share has been at 6% in 2023-24. This share has reduced from 2014-15 when it was 11% in 2014-15.
  • Natural gas was 7% of the total energy produced in 2023-24, down from 9% in 2014-15.
  • Renewable energy sources (hydro, solar, nuclear) have not significantly increased their share, standing at 7% in 2023-24 compared to 6% in 2014-15. Their share in total energy production has always been under 10% in the past decade. 
  • Estimated potential for generation of energy from renewable resources has reached 2109 GW as of March 2024. The highest potential for generation of energy comes from wind at 1163 GW (55%), followed by solar energy 749 MW (35.5%) and large Hydro.
    • India’s total renewable energy-based electricity generation capacity: 203 GW (2024).
    • India’s ambitious renewable energy target: 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030.
image 1

Major Initiatives related to Renewable Energy Transition: 

  • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM): Focuses on solarisation of irrigation pumps. 
  • PLI Scheme for Solar PV Modules: Promotes domestic manufacturing of solar panels. 
  • Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana: Aims to provide rooftop solar to households. 
  • Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power: Encourages large-scale solar power projects. 
  • Green Energy Corridor Scheme: Facilitates transmission infrastructure for renewable energy. 
  • National Green Hydrogen Mission: Focuses on developing green hydrogen technology. 
  • National Bioenergy Programme: Promotes the use of biofuels. 
  • Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (SAUBHAGYA): Aims to provide electricity to all households. 
  • Green Energy Corridor (GEC): Facilitates the transmission of renewable energy. 
  • National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) and Smart Meter National Programme: Modernises the electricity grid. 
  • Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME): Promotes the adoption of electric vehicles. 

Reasons for High Reliance on Coal despite Renewable Energy Transition Efforts: 

  • Stable and Reliable Energy Source: Coal-based power plants provide consistent base load electricity, essential for meeting India’s growing energy demands. Unlike intermittent renewable sources (like solar and wind), coal ensures uninterrupted power supply.
  • Economic Viability: Coal is one of the cheapest energy sources in India due to vast domestic reserves. Setting up coal-based power plants has lower upfront costs compared to renewable infrastructure. RE technology requires large capital investment, and large contiguous land, which are in short supply. 
  • Employment and Socio-economic Factors: Coal mining and associated industries provide jobs to millions, especially in coal-rich states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Phasing out coal would impact livelihoods and local economies, making the transition politically sensitive. 
  • Infrastructure Constraints to scale RE Energy: India has a well-established network of coal-based thermal power plants, which would require significant investment to replace. There is inadequate infrastructure for transmission of RE generated in remote locations to load centres. 

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