Indian Geography

Master Plan for Urban Areas

Context: India’s G20 Sherpa, stressed at a recent Urban-20 City Sherpas’ meet that a master plan is crucial for any city to manage urbanisation.

About Master Planning

It is an instrument of governance for urban local bodies (ULBs).
It is a statutory plan document, prepared for stream-lining the land use within the delineated planning area.
It is a long-term plan that provides a conceptual layout for future urban growth and development.
It includes analysis, recommendations, and proposals for a site’s population, economy, housing, transportation, community facilities, and land use.
It is based on public input, surveys, planning initiatives, existing development, physical characteristics, and social and economic conditions.
The validity of a Master Plan is for a specific period and after the expiry of the period it needs revision and modifications.
During the 11th Five-Year Plan, it was proposed to prepare Master Plan for priority towns and growth centers.
Recently, most States/UTs have revised their respective bye-laws based on the Model Building Bye Laws 2016 (MoHUA, 2016). It is imperative that the city governments adapt the model regulations and as per their context and economic growth drivers.
The powers to prepare master plans remain with State governments.

Significance of Master Planning

Growth & development of the city: It helps ULBs in achieving integrated development by considering various aspects such as land use, transportation, infrastructure, housing, environment, and social amenities.
Efficient land utilisation: It enables efficient land utilisation by identifying suitable areas for different purposes, and preventing haphazard development.
Infrastructure planning: It assists ULBs in identifying the infrastructure requirements of the city or town, such as roads, water supply, sewage systems, etc. to support the growing needs of the population and economic activities.
Environmental Sustainability: It incorporates environmental considerations and sustainability principles into the development process to foster a greener and more resilient urban landscape.
Disaster Resilience: It helps ULBs in incorporating measures to enhance the resilience of cities and towns to natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, and cyclones by identifying vulnerable areas, designing appropriate infrastructure, and implementing disaster risk reduction strategies.
Social equity: It takes into account the social aspects of urban development for the economically disadvantaged, provision of basic services to marginalized communities, and accessibility for people with disabilities to create inclusive cities where all residents have access to essential services and opportunities.

Challenges

Rapid Urbanisation: Many cities and towns are experiencing rapid population growth and urbanization, which can strain existing infrastructure and resources. Managing this rapid growth and ensuring that the master plan can accommodate future needs is a significant challenge.
Limited Resources: ULBs often face financial and resource constraints, making it challenging to implement comprehensive master plans.
Inconsistencies in decision-making: Frequent changes in political leadership, lack of continuity in governance, and bureaucratic challenges can hinder the execution of the master plan and result in inconsistencies in decision-making.
Data and Information Management: Limited capacity for data collection, data quality issues, and inadequate technology infrastructure can hinder the planning process.
Informal Settlements and Slums: Integrating these areas into the master plan and providing adequate housing, basic services, and infrastructure to these marginalized communities can be a complex and challenging task.
Environmental Concerns: Balancing urban development with environmental sustainability is a critical challenge.
Implementation and Monitoring: Monitoring progress, assessing the impact of implemented projects, and adapting the plan as needed are important but often challenging tasks due to limited capacity, coordination issues, and institutional barriers as per the NITI Aayog Report 2021.
No statutory backing: Some city governments lack much authority while some city administrations have developed mitigation plans without statutory backing. For example Bengaluru has not had a master plan to control its development and the Mumbai plan lacks any statutory backing and does not prescribe any regulatory controls.
Urban Planning: It is the State subject and as per the 12^thschedule of the Constitution and the function of Urban Local Bodies / Urban Development Authorities but the state government has powers to prepare master plans.

Way forward

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recommended that master plans in cities should be revisited for the improved governance of cities. The National Mission for Clean Ganga has been advocating such a step to protect urban water bodies.
Many plans to improve sanitation, infrastructure, and social inclusion are dependent on particular programmes, but these are at best ephemeral and incremental as they are centrally funded.
It is simply a spatial plan of land-use allocation supported by bye-laws and development control regulations. Thus, it essentially embodies a spatial vision for cities.
The era of planetary urbanisation brings spatial planning into sharp focus, and calls for reimaging the spatial planning framework in India.
Recent moves such as Gati Shakti and Model Rural Transformation Acts are a reflection of this growing demand. The Centre must work with the States to reconsider the spatial planning framework in India.

The Advisory Committee of Niti Aayog recommends a National Council of Town and Country Planners to be constituted as a statutory body of the Government of India.

National Workshop On Integrated Management Of Sediments In River Basins And Reservoirs For Sustainable Development

Context: The Central Water Commission under Ministry of Jal Shakti organized a one-day national workshop on ‘Integrated Management of Sediments in River Basins and Reservoirs for Sustainable Development” at India International Centre in New Delhi. It was largely agreed that short and long term action plans need to be prepared along with measures to control silt deposition in Reservoir which may be implemented in phases.

What are sediments?

Sediment is a naturally occurring material, organic and inorganic, that is moved and deposited in a new location by water, wind or ice.
It is broken down and transported by processes of weathering and erosion.
They can consist of rocks, minerals, remains of plants and animals.
It can be as small as a grain of sand or as large as a boulder.
Sediment that is light enough to be carried by water without touching the stream bed is called suspended sediment.
Sediment created and deposited by glaciers is called moraine.

What is siltation and sedimentation?

Rivers flowing in the alluvial plains tend towards a stable flow condition. In other words, they try and maintain a balance between the silt load carried and the volume and velocities achieved by the flow. This is usually called a stable sediment regime for the river.
When the core parameters of volume and velocities are disturbed, either due to a low gradient (while it enters the plains) or encroachment in flood plain, widening of the channel (braiding of river streams) suspended silt particles in the river water settle down. This is called siltation.
This phenomenon is normally called sedimentation when it occurs in a reservoir.

Why sediments are important?

Source of nutrients: Sediment is important because it usually enriches the soil with nutrients forming large fertile plains. Areas rich in sediments are often also rich in biodiversity. The rivers lacking in sediments (mostly downstream rivers of dams,) are known as ‘hungry waters’.
Landform development: Sediment deposition create several landforms like natural levees, embankments, deltas and river banks, flood plains beaches, spits and sand bars etc.
Ecological functions: Sediment processes are an extremely important part of many ecosystems as well as of primary importance to particular species. For example, various organisms in both marine and freshwater environments rely on replenishment of sediment for their reproductive habitat.
Natural water filtration: When water passes through soil, it is cleaned via physical, chemical and biological processes. In addition to soil's physical filtration capacity, soil contains important biota that helps transform and decompose certain chemicals and other contaminants from soil, thus helping filter them out of the water.
Disaster management: Sediment is one of the main tools in coastal zone management. Huge amounts of sediment are being used for flood protection (e.g. beach nourishment), and habitat and wetland protection.
Following chart can help us to analyse the role of sediments in various spheres;

What is the effect of sand mining on sedimentation in rivers?

Mining of sand, if done at an optimum level, removes excessive sediment deposit in rivers.

Unscientific and excessive sand mining depletes the mineral at rates at which the river system cannot replenish it.
Excessive mining creates high over banks with steep slopes, which are not stable due to the limited shear strength of the constituent soil materials.
Continued collapse of such banks leads the river course to deviate towards developed lands and poses an ever-increasing threat to them.

What are the causes of reservoir sedimentation ?

Generally, soil erosion is the major cause of reservoir sedimentation and subsequent sedimentation of reservoirs is a complex process dependent upon a number of natural and anthropogenic factors.

The causes are classified into two with respect to the factors, namely;

Natural Causes
1. Geomorphology - configuration of the land surface including the location, size and shape of such physical features as hills, ridges, valleys, streams and lakes.
2. Hydrology - To be successful, a dam and reservoir project must have an adequate and continuous supply of water. The annual rainfall, the ratio of watershed area to reservoir area, and the volume of stream of the year must be known.
3. Hydrogeology - to determine whether groundwater would contribute to the reservoir or whether the reservoir would lose water to the groundwater system is also essential.
4. Soil characteristics - The type of soil and its properties such as porosity and permeability can cause or lead to erosion within and around the reservoir.
Anthropogenic Causes
1. Tillage practices: Wrong tillage practices can cause loose soil thereby leading to washing away of top soil.
2. Overgrazing: Too much grazing of vegetation by animals can lead to exposure of the soil in an area thereby causing erosion.
3. Mining and logging: Mining activities can lead to erosion due to wearing off of the surface through surveys and excavation as well.

What are the problems with sedimentation in dams?

Reduction of storage capacity: When a river is put to halt behind a dam, the sediment it contains settles at the bottom of the reservoir. Reservoirs have become settling tanks for the sediment in most cases. This means the dam has less and less space for water, which it was supposed to hold.
Impact on stability: Higher siltation of reservoirs exerts pressure on the reservoir thereby compromising the dam stability.
Reduced efficiency of power generation: The high rate of reservoir sedimentation pose a challenge to dam operators due to the abrasion of turbines and other dam components. The cracking of the tips of turbine blades by waterborne sand and silt considerably reduce their generating efficiency and needs costly repairs.
Reduced discharge capabilities: Sediments will often block low-level outlets designed to allow for reservoir drawdown. Reduction of spillway capacity can occur as a result of the loss of approach depth when the sediment front reaches the dam.
Environmental impacts: Plant and animal species are sensitive to alteration of both the sediment supply and flow regime. Increases in sediment concentration in upstream areas can create turbid waters with a smaller euphotic zone. This decreases plant productivity, negatively impacting fish and bird species and can also cause visual impairment for predatory fish, affecting their feeding habits. Finally, sediment is a primary carrier of suspended pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphorous and heavy metals. Sediments released as a result of sediment management or a dam breach may have environmental effects that can persist for decades.

In India, government statistics on 11 of the country’s reservoirs with capacities greater than one cubic kilometre show that all are filling with sediment faster than expected, with increases over assumed rates ranging from 130 percent (Bhakra) to 1,650 percent (Nizamsagar). A 1990 World Bank paper on watershed development concluded that in India, "erosion and reservoir sedimentation are not only severe and costly but accelerating. It is now obvious that the original project estimates of expected sedimentation rates were faulty, based on too few reliable data over too short a period”.

What steps can be taken in this regard?

Reducing sediment inflow: Sediment delivery to reservoir can be reduced by techniques such as erosion control and upstream sediment trapping.
Routing the sediments: Some or the entire inflowing sediment load may be hydraulically routed beyond the storage pool by techniques such as drawdown during sediment-laden floods, off stream reservoirs, sediment bypass etc
Sediment removal: Deposited sediments may be periodically removed by hydraulic flushing, hydraulic dredging or dry excavation.

Adopting Erosion Control and Soil Conservation Measures:This includes all those general methods which are adopted to reduce erosion of soil and to make it more and more stable. They may include: plantation, control grazing, terracing benching, cover cropping like grassing and contour binding, etc.

Pokkali System

Traditionally, the coastal wetlands in many parts of India have been used for sequential paddy-fish cultivation under different forms of institutional structures. In Kerala it is called Pokkali. In the recent years there’s a decline in Pokkali cultivation.

Pokkali rice is a saline-tolerant, indigenous rice variety grown in the Alappuzha, Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala.
This lesser-known rice variety is developed in low-lying coastal areas and employs one of the oldest organic farming techniques.
Pokkali is a system in which the farming alternates between rice and prawn; the fields are used alternately for rice farming and prawn and shrimp cultivation.
Pokkali is cultivated with no fertilisers, be it chemical or organic, as it is grown in waterlogged areas.
This organically-grown rice is famous for its medicinal qualities and peculiar taste and has high protein and fibre content.
Due to its geographical specificity, Pokkali was conferred a geographical indication (GI) tag in the year 2008.

Challenges faced:

A shortage of skilled labour, the lack of technology that suits a soggy soil, low crop prices and the disturbance to and encroachment of the marine and estuarine ecosystems are the main factors for the decline of this sustainable farming practice.

Note:

In West Bengal, this agriculture-fisheries integration is known as bheries, in Karnataka it is called gajani, in Goa and Maharashtra it is called khazaan and in Kerala it’s pokkali.
Kuttanad below-sea level farming system has been recognised by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS). It is unique as it practices rice cultivation below sea level.

Kuttanad is a region covering the Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta Districts, in the state of Kerala

Imperative for India to formulate national resourcing strategy for critical minerals

What are critical minerals?

A critical mineral is a metallic or non-metallic element that has two characteristics: It is essential for the functioning of our modern technologies, economies or national security and. There is a risk that its supply chains could be disrupted.
But these supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing value chain. Many times the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or due to politically unstable regions.
Based on their individual needs and strategic considerations, different countries create their own lists.
However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt.

Utility:

These minerals are now used everywhere from making mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.

Aerospace, communications and defence industries also rely on several such minerals as they are used in manufacturing fighter jets, drones, radio sets and other critical equipment.

Global distribution:

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According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals.
China, according to a report on the role of critical minerals by the International Energy Agency, is “responsible for some 70% and 60% of global production of cobalt and rare earth elements, respectively, in 2019.
The level of concentration is even higher for processing operations, where China has a strong presence across the board. China’s share of refining is around 35% for nickel, 50-70% for lithium and cobalt, and nearly 90% for rare earth elements.”
It also controls cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo, from where 70% of this mineral is sourced.

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Indian steps in this regard:

India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited, a joint venture of three public sector companies, to “ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to the Indian domestic market”
Indo- Australia partnership

What are rare Earth Elements?

Rare Earth Elements or Rare Earth Metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table — the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties.
The 17 Rare Earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y).
Despite their classification, most of these elements are not really “rare”. One of the Rare Earths, promethium, is radioactive.Although originally thought to be rare, many of the minerals are actually common in the Earth’s crust. However, due to the difficulties in extracting the metal from the ore, rare is a fitting term. These elements rarely exist in pure form; they are usually found within other minerals, making them costly to mine.
These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others.
Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer.
Rare Earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones. Cerium, the most abundant Rare Earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme.

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Examining the available data, it is found that China consumes around 104,000 metric tons (MT) of rare earth, which is 67 per cent of the total consumption worldwide.
China is followed by Japan, the US, and the EU with 16 per cent, 13 per cent and four per cent respectively.
Data further suggest China controls about 90 percent of global production of rare earth metal while it possesses only 36 percent of the global reserve of this rare metal

India has the 5^th largest reservoir and recognised the importance of rare earth back in 1950 and started extracting rare minerals through the establishment of the Indian Rare Earth Limited. India could not, however, make progress in this sector due to several reasons.

Why did India fail?

Lack of separate guiding policy to expand the production of rare earth.
The Indian rare earth industry keeps on operating on the downstream production process only.
Associated risks
High level of technology is required.
failure to promote entrepreneurship in this sector
Foreign investors have always kept a distance from this sector. This is mainly because the sector was reserved for the public sector.
Stiff competition from China-> Easy to import at much lower prices.

In 2016, a study, supported by the Indian government’s Department of Science and Technology (DST), provides a framework for India to assess the impact of critical minerals including rare earth in the manufacturing sector, considering both economic importance and associated supply risks. The study argues the development of this mineral will also give a fillip to India’s ambitious Make in India plan by enhancing the volume of rare earth production.

Warmer Arabian Sea behind more severe and frequent cyclones

Context: Behind extremely severe cyclone Biparjoy’s evolution is a gradual but undesirable change in the nature of the Arabian Sea: it was always relatively cooler compared to the Bay of Bengal in the north Indian Ocean.

Why traditionally West Indian Ocean experienced less number of tropical cyclones?

The ratio between Arabian Sea (A.S) and Bay of Bengal (B.O.B) has been 1:4 in terms of yearly cyclones because of the following factors:

Average temperature of B.O.B is higher than A.S. B.O.B is a warm pool region. On the other hand A.S has higher salinity and lower temperature which is disadvantageous for cyclone formation.
B.O.B has abundant water availability due to continuous influx of water from large rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra etc. This freshwater influx makes it further impossible to mix with the cooler water below
Shape of the land around B.O.B weakens the wind speed thus allowing the winds to spin faster.
B.O.B also experiences the offshoots of tropical cyclones from Pacific-ocean.

On the other hand, Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds hand Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds help dissipate the heat and lack of constant fresh water helps the warm water to mix with the cool water underneath, reducing the surface temperature.

Changing nature of Arabian Sea:

Sea surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea have increased by 1.2 to 1.4 degrees C in recent decades compared to four decades ago.
According to a 2021 paper published in Nature, there is a significant increasing trend in the intensity, frequency, and duration of cyclonic storms (CS) and very severe cyclonic storms (VSCS) observed over the Arabian Sea during the study period, 1982 to 2019.
There is a 52% increase in the frequency of CS during the recent epoch (2001–2019) in the Arabian Sea, while there is a decrease of 8% in the Bay of Bengal, the paper highlighted.
Further, there has been an 80% increase in the total duration of cyclones in the Arabian Sea over two decades to 2021. The duration of very severe cyclones increased by 260% in the same period, the paper added.
The change in the Arabian Sea’s character has also led to more severe cyclones forming and sustaining over it which also means India’s west coast is now more vulnerable.

Climate change affecting frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones:

According to Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) India, in the last 50 years, has recorded a 12-fold surge in the number of associated cyclonic events such as extreme rainfall, floods, sea-level rise, and thunderstorms.

Increased sea surface temperature: Over the past 50 years, the global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated due to man-made climate change leading to higher convection and rapid intensification of cyclones.
Rising sea level: on account of Antarctic melting has increased the moisture availability for cyclones.
Micro-climatic changes on land: Local heating of coastal land is pulled by adjacent ocean further heating it up.
Changing weather events: El-Nino and rising marine heat waves lead to prolonged warm periods over oceans by reducing the ocean upwelling.
Higher Atmospheric moisture: due to anthropogenic global warming increase cyclonic precipitation rates thereby increasing the frequency.
Changes in wind systems: Occasionally intense winds drive the low-pressure regions to other areas rising the frequency in those areas. Ex. Gulab cyclone shifted to Arabian sea from B.O.B.

Central Electricity Authority Fast-tracks Approval Mechanism for Pumped Storage Projects

Context: The government has taken various steps recently in order to ensure that Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs) get commissioned on a fast track, thereby accelerating the growth of India’s renewable energy capacity.

To cite a recent example, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has accorded concurrence to Upper Sileru Pumped Storage Project (PSP) of 1350 MW being developed at Sileru, Alluri Sitharama Raju district of Andhra Pradesh by APGENCO (A Government of Andhra Pradesh Undertaking) in record time of 70 days against the stipulated timeline of 90 days.

What is Pumped Storage Hydropower?

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage.
It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate power as water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.
The system also requires power as it pumps water back into the upper reservoir (recharge).
PSH acts similarly to a giant battery, because it can store power and then release it when needed.
- During periods of excess electricity supply or low demand, typically when renewable energy sources like wind or solar are producing more electricity than needed, the excess electricity is used to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir, thereby storing the energy. This pumping process usually takes place during off-peak hours when electricity is cheaper.
- When there is a demand for electricity or during periods of high demand, the stored water in the upper reservoir is released back to the lower reservoir.
- As the water flows downhill, it passes through the turbine, which generates electricity. The electricity generated can be dispatched to the grid to meet the demand.

Importance of Pumped Storage System for India’s Energy Future

Hydro Pumped Storage Projects are necessary to achieve Government of India’s commitment of 500 GW installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by the year 2030 and Net Zero carbon emissions by the year 2070.
PSPs will help integrate intermittent Renewable Energy with the Grid. It will enable supply of dispatchable RE power and help in meeting the peaking requirement of the Grid.
In recognition of its role, 39 Hydro PSPs of 47 GW are being pursued to be commissioned by the year 2029-30.
Pumped Storage System utilises surplus grid power available from thermal power stations or other sources to pump up water from lower to upper reservoir and reproduces power during peak demand when there is scarcity of power.

Oil reserves in salt caverns: The potential in India

Context: Government-owned engineering consultancy firm Engineers India (EIL) is studying the prospects and feasibility of developing salt cavern-based strategic oil reserves in Rajasthan, in line with the government’s objective of increasing the country’s strategic oil storage capacity.

What are strategic petroleum reserves (SPR)?

Strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs) are stockpiles of crude oil maintained by countries for release in the event of a supply disruption.
For example India currently has an SPR capacity of 5.33 million tonnes, or around 39 million barrels of crude, that can meet around 9.5 days of demand.
India’s strategic oil reserves come under the Petroleum Ministry’s special purpose vehicle Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPRL).

Locations in India:

The country’s three existing strategic oil storage facilities — at Mangaluru and Padur in Karnataka, and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh — are made up of excavated rock caverns.
The country is in the process of expanding its SPR capacity by a cumulative 6.5 million tonnes at two locations — Chandikhol in Odisha (4 million tonnes) and Padur (2.5 million tonnes).
So far India stores crude oil in the rock based caverns and not in salt based caverns.

What are rock based caverns?

Rock caverns are mined underground cavities in solid rock deep underground, using conventional mining techniques, and consist of a system of shafts or ramps and drifts, forming cavities, e.g., in granite.

How salt based caverns are different from rock based caverns?

Unlike underground rock caverns, which are developed through excavation, salt caverns are developed by the process of solution mining, which involves pumping water into geological formations with large salt deposits to dissolve the salt.
After the brine (water with dissolved salt) is pumped out of the formation, the space can be used to store crude oil.
- Advantages of salt caverns:
  - The process is simpler, faster, and less cost-intensive than developing excavated rock caverns.
  - Salt cavern-based oil storage facilities are also naturally well-sealed, and engineered for rapid injection and extraction of oil. This makes them a more attractive option than storing oil in other geological formations.
  - The salt that lines the inside of these caverns has extremely low oil absorbency, which creates a natural impermeable barrier against liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, making the caverns apt for storage.
  - Also, unlike rock caverns, salt cavern-based storages can be created and operated almost entirely from the surface.
  - Salt caverns are also used to store liquid fuels and natural gas in various parts of the world. They are also considered suitable for storing compressed air and hydrogen.

Strategic petroleum reserves programme: story so far

India’s strategic oil reserves are part of the effort to build sufficient emergency stockpiles.
Crude oil from the reserves are to be released by an empowered committee set up by the government, in the event of supply disruptions due to a natural calamity or an unforeseen global event leading to an abnormal increase in prices.
The International Energy Agency (IEA), a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organisation in which India is an ‘Association’ country, recommends that all countries should hold an emergency oil stockpile sufficient to provide 90 days of import protection.
In India, apart from the SPR the oil marketing companies (OMCs) have storage facilities for crude oil and petroleum products for 64.5 days — which means there is sufficient storage to meet around 74 days of the country’s petroleum demand.
India has also decided to commercialise its strategic petroleum reserves, as part of which the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) stored about 0.8 million tonnes of crude oil in the Mangaluru strategic reserve.
In the second phase of the programme, the government wants to develop strategic reserves through public-private partnerships so as to reduce government spending and exploit the commercial potential of the reserves.

Census in India

Context: Last month, an annual report by the UN Population Fund revealed that India was all set to become the world’s most populous country by the middle of this year. It estimated that India’s population would be 1,428 million (or 142.8 crore) by that time, slightly ahead of China’s population of 1,425 million.

Importance of Census

India would have had a far more accurate number for its population had the 2021 Census exercise been carried out. The 2021 Census had to be postponed because of the Covid pandemic, the first time in the 150-year history of India’s census operations that the exercise was not completed on time. Curiously, the Census has been pending even after the end of the pandemic and the restoration of normalcy.

As of now, there is no clarity on the timeline. The enumeration work — the actual counting of people — has traditionally been done in February of the Census year, and if the same practice is to be followed, the earliest it can now be done is in February next year.

Ten-year cycle – A constitutional or just a Legal mandate?

A Census is Constitutionally mandated in India. There are repeated references to the Census exercise in the Constitution in the context of reorganisation of constituencies for Parliament and state Assemblies. But the Constitution does not say when the Census has to be carried out, or what the frequency of this exercise should be. The Census of India Act of 1948, which provides the legal framework for carrying out the Census, also does not mention its timing or periodicity.
There is, therefore, no Constitutional or legal requirement that a Census has to be done every 10 years. However, this exercise has been carried out in the first year of every decade, without fail, since 1881. Most other countries also follow the 10-year cycle for their Census. There are countries like Australia that do it every five years.

Census Act, 1948

Although the population Census of India is a major administrative function, the Census Organisation was set up on an ad-hoc basis for each Census till the Census of 1951.
The Census Act, enacted in 1948, then provided for the permanent scheme of conducting population Census with duties and responsibilities of Census Officers.
The Act makes it obligatory on the part of every citizen to answer the Census question truthfully and also penalises for giving false information.
One of the most important provisions of the Census Act 1948 is that it makes provisions for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the Census of each individual. All information collected under the Census is confidential and is not shared with any agency- Government or private.

Authority Involved

The Government of India in May 1949 decided to initiate steps for developing the systematic collection of statistics on the size of the population, its growth, etc.
For this purpose, it established an organisation viz. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner under Ministry of Home Affairs (which is responsible for conducting the decennial Census).
Later, this office was also entrusted with the responsibility of implementation of Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969 in the country.

It is not the legal requirement but the utility of the Census that has made it a permanent regular exercise. The Census produces primary, authentic data that becomes the backbone of every statistical enterprise, informing all planning, administrative and economic decision-making processes. It is the basis on which every social, economic and other indicator is built. Lack of reliable data – 12-year-old data on a constantly changing metric is not reliable – has the potential to upset every indicator on India, and affect the efficacy and efficiency of all kinds of developmental initiatives.

Besides, a break in periodicity results in data that is not comparable in some respects to the earlier sets.

Population censuses are important for several reasons:

Planning and Policy: Census data provides vital information for governments and policymakers to make informed decisions and develop effective plans. It helps in determining the allocation of resources, such as healthcare, education, infrastructure, and social welfare programs, based on the population's needs. Census data assists in identifying demographic trends, population distribution, and changes in population size over time, which guides policy formulation and implementation.
Resource Allocation: Census data helps in the fair distribution of resources. It provides accurate population counts and demographic information, which enable governments to allocate funds and services equitably across different regions and communities. By understanding the population characteristics, governments can identify areas with specific needs and allocate resources accordingly.
Infrastructure Development: Census data aids in infrastructure planning and development. It provides insights into population density, migration patterns, and urbanization trends, which help in determining where new infrastructure, such as roads, schools, hospitals, and utilities, should be built. It assists in efficient urban planning and ensures that infrastructure projects are aligned with the population's requirements.
Economic Analysis: Census data plays a crucial role in economic analysis and decision-making. It provides information on employment, occupation, income levels, and other socioeconomic indicators. Governments, businesses, researchers, and policymakers utilize this data to analyze market trends, assess labor force needs, identify potential investment opportunities, and develop economic policies.
Social Research and Demographic Studies: Census data serves as a valuable resource for social research and demographic studies. Researchers and analysts utilize this data to study population dynamics, social inequalities, migration patterns, family structures, and other demographic characteristics. It helps in understanding societal changes, tracking population trends, and formulating social policies.
Electoral Representation: Census data is utilized for determining electoral boundaries and ensuring fair political representation. It provides information on population distribution, allowing governments to redraw electoral districts to ensure each district has roughly equal populations. This process helps maintain democratic principles by ensuring that each citizen's vote carries equal weight.
Monitoring Progress and Evaluating Policies: Census data provides a baseline for monitoring progress and evaluating the effectiveness of policies and programs. By conducting periodic censuses, governments can compare population data over time and assess the impact of various interventions. It enables policymakers to identify areas where policies have been successful and areas that require further attention.

Overall, population censuses are crucial for informed decision-making, equitable resource allocation, policy formulation, and monitoring societal changes. They provide a comprehensive understanding of the population, facilitating better governance, planning, and development for the benefit of society as a whole.

Challenges faced during conduct of Census in India:

The enormous financial costs of conducting the exercise pose one of the biggest challenges associated with census in poor countries. Conducting a census is widely known to be extremely costly.
Conducting censuses in countries with high illiteracy rates presents a significant obstacle. These nations struggle with large proportions of their populations being illiterates, making the census process more challenging.
Poor infrastructural facilities in certain areas make it very difficult to undertake an efficient population census. Inaccessible or insufficient roads that connect various towns and villages create hurdles for conducting the census exercise.
Census officers encounter serious challenges in underdeveloped parts of the world where traditional and religious beliefs prevail. Traditional beliefs often interfere with the counting process when officers reach these areas.
Corruption adds another layer of complexity to the census process. When corruption occurs during census activities, it becomes difficult to achieve an efficient and accurate population count.
Certain parts of the world suffer from a shortage of census experts. The insufficient number of professionals with the necessary knowledge and experience of conducting a census poses a problem for conducting censuses in these regions.
The success of a census exercise heavily relies on an effective educational campaign. The level of effectiveness of the campaign conducted prior to the census determines the overall success of the census exercise.
Unreliable demographic maps make it challenging for authorities to identify and reach all remote areas, especially very remote regions of the country, for conducting the census exercise.

In conclusion, the population census holds immense importance as a constitutional and administrative function in India. Although not legally required to be conducted every ten years, the census has been consistently carried out since 1881, providing primary and authentic data that serves as the foundation for various statistical endeavors. The census data plays a vital role in planning, policymaking, resource allocation, infrastructure development, economic analysis, social research, electoral representation, and monitoring progress and evaluating policies. By understanding demographic trends and population characteristics, governments can make informed decisions and address the needs of different regions and communities.

However, the conduct of the census in India faces significant challenges, including financial constraints, high illiteracy rates, inadequate infrastructure, traditional beliefs, corruption, a shortage of experts, insufficient educational campaigns, and unreliable demographic maps. Overcoming these challenges is crucial to ensure accurate and reliable data, which forms the basis for effective governance, planning, and development for the betterment of society as a whole.

India may join offshore wind alliance

Context: India is “very actively" considering joining the Global Offshore Wind Alliance in an attempt to improve its energy transition standing, said Gauri Singh, deputy director general of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), which played a key role in forming the alliance.

What is global offshore wind alliance (GOWA)?

The alliance was initiated by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Denmark and the Global Wind Energy Council.
It will bring together governments, the private sector, international organisations and other stakeholders to accelerate the deployment of offshore wind power.
It has the aim of reaching global offshore wind capacity of at least 380 GW by 2030.
Countries joining GOWA have agreed to work together to drive national, regional, and global ambitions and remove barriers to the deployment of offshore wind in new and existing markets.
Offshore wind can be deployed at large scale, in short timeframes and at competitive cost.

What is Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)?

The Global Wind Energy Council is the international trade association for the wind power industry.
GWEC is a member-based organisation that represents the entire wind energy sector.
The members of GWEC represent over 1,500 companies, organisations and institutions in more than 80 countries, including manufacturers, developers, component suppliers, research institutes, national wind and renewables associations, electricity providers, finance and insurance companies.

GWEC India – a single advocacy and research body representing the entire value chain of India’s wind industry, from IPPs to OEMs to end-users to service-providers – will work closely with central and state governments to improve the enabling environment for sector growth, creating the conditions for inward investment in the tens of billions of dollars.

What is offshore wind energy?

Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the energy taken from the force of the winds out at sea, transformed into electricity and supplied into the electricity network onshore.
It is the clean and renewable energy that is produced on the high seas, where it reaches a higher and more constant speed than on land due to the absence of barriers. In order to make the most of this resource, mega-structures are installed that are seated on the seabed and equipped with the latest technical innovations.

Benefits:
1. Renewable, unlimited and non-polluting.

2. Reduces pressure on land resource.

3. Barrier free regions thus higher wind speed and efficiency

4. Visual and acoustic impact is small5. No issues of land acquisition.
6. The ease of maritime transport, which has few limitations with regard to cargo and dimensions in comparison with land transportation, has made it possible for offshore wind turbines to reach much larger unit capacities and sizes than onshore wind turbines.

India and offshore wind energy:

India is blessed with a coastline of about 7600 km surrounded by water on three sides and has good prospects of harnessing offshore wind energy. Considering this, the Government had notified the “National offshore wind energy policy” as per the Gazette Notification dated 6th October 2015. As per the policy, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy will act as the nodal Ministry for development of Offshore Wind Energy in India and work in close coordination with other government entities for Development and Use of Maritime Space within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the country and shall be responsible for overall monitoring of offshore wind energy development in the country. National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai will be the nodal agency to carryout resource assessment; surveys and studies in EEZ demarcate blocks and facilitate developers for setting up offshore wind energy farms.

Update NPR to enumerate self during next Census

Context: Census 2021, which has been postponed indefinitely, will be the first digital Census giving citizens an opportunity to “self-enumerate” as and when it is conducted. The government has not announced when the next Census will be held, with a January 2, 2023 notification ruling out the exercise at least till September.

About Self enumeration

The Office of the Registrar of General of India (ORGI), which conducts the Census, has developed a “self-enumeration (SE)” portal which is presently available in English only.
With the help of this SE portal, any usual resident of India can update census-related information on their own without involving government enumerators.
If citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators, they will have to first update their National Population Register (NPR) details online . The NPR, first put together in 2010 and updated in 2015, already has the details of 119 crore people.
During self-enumeration in NPR, Aadhaar / mobile number is mandatorily collected.

Benefits of Self Enumeration

Respondents can update the details of their family members online without the help of an enumerator for “privacy” and to reduce the financial and administrative burden incurred in the collection of field data.
The portal accessible to “respondents of India” will offer “ secure and controlled access to the respondent’s family information and authentication based on pre-filled information available with ORGI and One Time Password (OTP) sent to a registered mobile number,” the report said.
The respondent will be allowed to change the family member details and add details of new family members. Those who are no longer part of the household shall be marked as “moved out or died”.

The Census is conducted in two phases-

1. The first phase — the House-listing Operations (HLO) and Housing Census — is to be conducted with simultaneous updating of NPR.

2. The second phase- Population enumeration is the main phase, which collects details on key social and economic parameters.

Initially, it had been decided that during the HLO, the mobile number from the households willing to share them would be collected, and then, used for giving people access to self-enumeration during the second phase — the population enumeration. “Later, when the Census and NPR exercise was postponed due to COVID-19, it was decided to extend the self-enumeration facility for HLO also.
According to the Citizenship Rules 2003, the NPR is the first step towards the compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
The yet-to-be-launched mobile-friendly portal will allow users to register their mobile number in the NPR database, self-enumerate and fill in the details under house listing Operations.

National Population Register (NPR)

The NPR pre-test form in 2019 collected details on 14 parameters of all family members of a household. The sub-heads included:

1. Passport number,

2. Relationship with the head of the family,

3. Whether divorced/widowed or separated,

4. The mother tongue and the kind of occupation, among others.

The trial form had a column on Aadhar, mobile phone number, Voter ID and driving licence numbers to be provided if available with the respondent. The final form is yet to be published.
The government earlier said that the objective of the NPR is to create a comprehensive identity database of every usual resident in the country and it is “mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR.”
While similar data is collected through the Census, according to Section 15 of the Census Act, of 1948, individual data are confidential and “only aggregated data are released at various administrative levels.”
The Home Ministry had earlier said that data collected under the NPR are shared with States and used by the Central government for various welfare schemes at the individual level.

"Nine Years On: The Lingering Krishna River Water Dispute between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana"

Context: Despite the passage of nine years since the bifurcation of the combined state, the ongoing dispute between Andhra Pradesh (A.P.) and Telangana regarding the allocation of water from the Krishna river remains unresolved.

What is the origin of the Krishna water dispute?

The water dispute between Andhra Pradesh (A.P.) and Telangana traces back to the formation of Andhra Pradesh in November 1956.
Before the formation of Andhra Pradesh, a Gentlemen's Agreement was signed in February 1956, which aimed to protect Telangana's interests in water resource utilization and ensure equitable distribution based on global treaties.
However, the focus on irrigation facilities by the combined dispensation was predominantly on Andhra, neglecting the drought-prone areas in Telangana that had already suffered due to the development of water systems by the British.
In 1969, the Bachawat Tribunal (KWDT-I) was established to resolve water sharing disputes among Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh (prior to bifurcation).
The Tribunal allocated 811 tmcft dependable water to Andhra Pradesh, which was later divided in a 512:299 tmcft ratio between Andhra (including parts of Rayalaseema which comprise the Krishna Basin) and Telangana respectively, based on the command area developed or utilization mechanism established at that time.
The Tribunal also recommended utilizing water from the Tungabhadra Dam( a part of the Krishna Basin) for the drought-prone Mahabubnagar area in Telangana, but this recommendation was not implemented, leading to growing discontent.
Telangana has repeatedly voiced its grievances, highlighting the perceived injustices in water resource distribution within Andhra Pradesh.

What was the arrangement for water sharing after the bifurcation?

The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 did not specify water shares as the KWDT-I Award was still in effect and had not made any region-wise allocation.
In 2015, a meeting organized by the Ministry of Water Resources resulted in an ad hoc arrangement for water sharing between Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
The agreement set a ratio of 34:66 (Telangana : A.P.) for sharing water, and it was stipulated that the arrangement would be reviewed annually.
The focus of the Act was primarily on the management of water resources, leading to the establishment of the Krishna River Management Board (KRMB) and the Godavari River Management Board (GRMB).
Despite opposition from Telangana, the KRMB continued to maintain the same 34:66 ratio for water sharing year after year.
In October 2020, Telangana demanded an equal share of water until a final water-sharing agreement was reached.
In a recent board meeting, Telangana firmly insisted on an equal share and refused to continue with the existing arrangement.
As the member states could not reach a consensus, the matter has been referred to the Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS) for resolution.

What does each State claim?

Claims by Telangana:

Telangana asserts its right to a larger share of water based on global norms and agreements followed for sharing river waters.
Telangana has been asking the Centre to finalise water shares from day one of its formation. Citing treaties and agreements followed globally in sharing river waters.
Telangana argues that, considering the basin parameters, it is entitled to at least a 70% share in the allocation of the 811 tmcft of water.
Telangana highlights how Andhra Pradesh has been diverting around 300 tmcft of water from fluoride-affected and drought-prone areas within the basin in Telangana to areas outside the basin.

Claims by Andhra Pradesh:

Andhra Pradesh claims a higher share of water to protect the interests of command areas that have already been developed.

What is the stand of the Centre?

The Centre has convened two meetings of the Apex Council, which includes the Union Minister and Chief Ministers of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, in 2016 and 2020 to address the water-sharing issue.
However, the Centre has not taken any concrete steps to resolve the dispute, and the issue remains unresolved.
In 2020, the Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS) suggested that the matter of water shares be referred to a Tribunal, leading Telangana to withdraw its petition from the Supreme Court with the assurance that the Ministry would address the issue.
Despite this, the Centre has not taken any significant action on the matter for over two years.
As a result, the two states continue to engage in ongoing disputes and disagreements regarding water sharing without a clear resolution.

Inter-state Water Tribunals

Article 262 of the Constitution provides for the adjudication of interstate water disputes.
It makes two provisions:

(i) Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute

or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and control of

waters of any inter-state river and river valley.

(ii) Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme Court nor

any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such

dispute or complaint.

Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two laws [the River Boards Act (1956) and the Inter-State Water Disputes Act (1956)].
The River Boards Act provides for the establishment of river boards for the regulation and development of inter-state river and river valleys. A river board is established by the Central government on the request of the state governments concerned to advise them.
The Inter-State Water Disputes Act empowers the Central government to set up an ad hoc tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute between two or more states in relation to the waters of an inter-state river or river valley. The decision of the tribunal would be final and binding on the parties to the dispute. Neither the Supreme Court nor any other court is to have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to such a tribunal under this Act.

IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS – INTER-STATE RIVER WATER DISPUTES ACT, 1956

Request by States to Centre to refer river water sharing dispute to the Tribunal.
Notification in official gazette of Tribunal by Centre within 1 year of request.
Investigation and Submission of Report by Tribunal to the centre and disputing states.
Publication of Decision of Tribunal in the Official Gazette.
Decision of the Tribunal is final and binding on the parties to the dispute.
Dissolution of Tribunal by Central Government after it forwards its report and when Centre is satisfied that no further reference to the Tribunal would be

needed.

Supreme Court or any other Court shall NOT have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to a Tribunal under this Act.

CONCERNS & PROBLEMS - INTER-STATE RIVER WATER DISPUTES ACT, 1956

No timeline has been provided in the Act for completion of the Award.
No mechanism for negotiation prior to constitution of Tribunal.
Delay in notifying of Tribunal’s decision (Award) by the Centre – perpetuates disputes.
Continuous River-Water disputes fuels animosity and furthers regionalism.
Formation of new state (Telangana) further aggravates river-water sharing.
Hesitation of Centre in constituting Tribunal leads to judicial intervention - Example –Tribunal constituted to settle Mahadayi River water dispute.

Non-adherence of Award by the Tribunal is another concern as hardly states agree on the award and approach Supreme Court for final hearing.

Krishna River

The Krishna River originates in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar in the state of Maharashtra in central India.
It is the third-longest river in India, after the Ganges and Godavari. It is also the fourth-largest in terms of water inflows and river basin area in India, after the Ganges, Indus and Godavari.
It is a major source of irrigation in the Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Its principal tributaries include the Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River and Musi River. The Bhima River is the longest tributary of the Krishna River.

Why late onset is not a worry

Context: While the IMD has predicted that the monsoon will be delayed this year, that’s not a cause for concern. Regional variations in rainfall, extreme rainfall events, and the developing El Nino are bigger worries.

What is onset of monsoon?

The monsoon season in India typically lasts from June to September, although its timing and intensity can vary across different regions.

The monsoon in India is primarily influenced by the seasonal reversal of winds, known as the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and the movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Pre-monsoon period (March to May): During this time, temperatures rise across the country due to the increasing solar radiation. As summer approaches, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the surrounding oceans, causing a low-pressure area to develop over the region.
Arrival of the southwest monsoon (end of May to mid-June): The southwest monsoon is responsible for the majority of the rainfall in India. It begins with the onset of the monsoon over the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean are drawn towards the low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, creating a monsoon trough.
- Factors affecting onset of monsoon:
  - Intense heating of the Indian landmass and formation of intense low pressure.
  - Shifting of ITCZ over Gangetic plain.
  - Withdrawal of sub-tropical westerly Jetstream.
  - Deflection of SE trades after crossing the equator towards Indian west coast.
Advancement of the monsoon (June to July): The monsoon winds gradually advance across the country, starting from the southernmost state of Kerala and progressing northwards. This northward progression is known as the "monsoon onset line" and is closely monitored by meteorological departments.
Onset over different regions: The onset of the monsoon occurs at different times across various regions of India. The western coast and northeastern states receive the monsoon rains first, followed by the central and northern parts of the country. The Himalayan region experiences the monsoon last.

Monsoon progression and rainfall: Once the monsoon sets in, it brings heavy rainfall to different parts of India. The amount and distribution of rainfall vary from region to region. The western coast and north eastern states generally receive more rainfall compared to the arid regions in the northwest.

What is Indian ocean dipole?

IOD measures differences in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean. It is basically like the El Nino weather system that develops in the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in the eastern and western Indian Ocean

Impact on weather patterns: IOD alters the wind, temperature, and rainfall patterns in the Indian Ocean region.

Positive IOD event is known to bring floods to eastern Africa and droughts and bushfires to eastern Asia and Australia. Ex. 2020 Australian Bushfires.
Positive IOD is known to increase the intensity of Monsoon in the Subcontinent and leads to above normal rainfall. A simultaneous occurrence of Positive IOD and El Nino balances the negative impact of El Nino on the Indian Monsoon rainfall. Ex. above normal rainfall in India in 2019.
In contrast, Negative IOD coupled with El - Nino leads to poor Monsoon rainfall. Ex. Deficient rainfall in 1992.