Indian Geography

"Forest Fury: Nationwide Protests Ignite as Forest Rights Act Falters Across 12 States"

Context: More than 100 indigenous, forest-dwelling, and tribal delegates from 12 States across the nation spoke out against State governments and the Centre on Monday after a two-day convention on forest rights in Delhi, criticizing their failure to implement the Forest Rights Act of 2006.

About Forest Rights Act of 2006

Historical Background

• Tribals and other traditional forest dwellers have been residing in deep forests since eternity.

• Along with their stay, they have also come to develop unique mutualistic relationship with the forest in terms of their dependence on forest resources.

• As the British rule started hunting for resources, they constrained the entry of Indians, especially tribals into the forests. Hence, fury of acts and policies such as the Indian Forest Act of 1927 curtailed centuries‐old, customary‐use rights of local communities.

• This continued even after independence till much later until enactment of The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

Forest Rights Act, 2006

  • The act recognizes and vest forest rights and occupation in Forest land in forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD)who have been residing in such forests for generations.
  • The act also establishes the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance of FDST and OTFD.
  • It strengthens the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the FDST and OTFD.
  • It seeks to rectify colonial injustice to the FDST and OTFD who are integral to the very survival and sustainability of the forest ecosystem.

The Act Identify Four Types of Rights

  • Title rights: It gives FDST and OTFD the right to ownership to land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands will be granted.
  • Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, to pastoralist routes, etc.
  • Relief and development rights: To rehabilitate in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to provide basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection
  • Forest management rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.

Who can claim these Rights?

  • Members or community of the Scheduled Tribes who primarily reside in and who depend on the forests or forest lands for bona fide livelihood needs.
  •  It can also be claimed by any member or community who has for at least three generations (75 years) prior to the 13th day of December 2005 primarily resided in forests land for bona fide livelihood needs.
  • Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature and extent of Individual Forest Rights (IFR) or Community Forest Rights (CFR) or both that may be given to FDST and OTFD.

Importance

  • Recognized and provided the rights of Tribals and OTFD over forest resources.
  • The Act has also helped in the reduction of Naxal problems. Because Land (Jameen) has been one of the three demands of this movement.
  • Recognizing the community rights over forest resources paves the way for management of forest by the dwellers.

Challenges

  • Administrative Apathy:
    • The existing laws related to Environment and Wildlife protection are not compliant with FRA, 2006
    • Many incidents where Supreme Court had to intervene to enforce the provisions of the act.
  • Lack of Awareness:
    •  Specially among the tribals. This creates a demand reduction for the rights.
    • The forest bureaucracy has misinterpreted the FRA as an instrument to regularize encroachment instead of a welfare measure for tribals.
  • Reluctance of the forest bureaucracy to give up control
  • As more and more people legally settle on forested lands, the forest officials fear loss of control over these lands.

Institutional Roadblock

  • Rough maps of community and individual claims are prepared by Gram Sabha which at times often lack technical knowhow and suffers from educational incapacity.
  •  Intensive process of documenting communities’ claims under the FRA makes the process both cumbersome and harrowing for illiterate tribals

Way forward

  • Tribals have been living in harmony with forests and the biodiversity therein. The MoU recognizes important role tribal and forest dwellers can play in protection of forests and biodiversity.
  • Government views MFP rights to curb Naxalism since states most affected by Naxalism are also home to people dependent on forest produce.
  • Recognition of CFR rights would shift forest governance towards community conservation that is more food security and livelihood oriented.
  • Large-scale awareness campaigns are required at local level informing both tribal and lower-level officials.
  • Developing a detailed strategy of training and capacity building of people responsible for implementing the FRA, such as Panchayats, Gram Sabha, village level Forest Rights committee etc.
  • Relevant maps and documents should be made available to the Forest rights committee and claimants to simplify the task of the Gram Sabha in identifying and filing claims for individual and community rights.
  • Providing clarity on the time limit for settling claims the act does not specify any time limit for resolving claims. In most of the areas, both the officials and beneficiaries are unaware of this fact.
  • Centre should take more proactive role in pushing states to honour a law that could change the lives of millions.

IMD issues 4th heatwave alert in Konkan region, other Maharashtra districts.

Context: Heatwave conditions have been declared by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in various regions of Maharashtra, including Mumbai, Palghar, Thane, Konkan, central Maharashtra, and Vidarbha. This is the fourth heatwave alert for the Konkan region and the first for the month of May, according to the IMD.

Heat Wave

  • A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India. 
  • Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July. 

Extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.

Criteria for Heat Wave

IMD has given the following criteria for Heat Waves:

Two conditions which need to be satisfied:

  • Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions. Following criteria are used to declare heat wave:
    • Based on Departure from Normal
    • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C 
    • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 6.4°C
  • Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
    • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 45°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 47°C

Declare heat wave, above criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days.

Favourable Conditions for Heat Wave

  • Transportation/Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
  • Absence of moisture in upper atmosphere (As presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
  • Sky should be cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
  • Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
  • Heat waves develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not westwards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to north westerly). 

But on some occasions, heat wave may also develop over any region in situ under the favourable conditions.

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What are the heat wave prone states over India? 

Heat wave generally occurs over plains of northwest India, Central, East & north Peninsular India during March to June. It covers Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra & Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telengana. Sometimes it occurs over Tamilnadu & Kerala also. Heat waves adversely affect human and animal lives. However, maximum temperatures more than 45°C observed mainly over Rajasthan and Vidarbha region in month of May.

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Impacts of Heat waves:

Heat waves affect each and every aspect of life. Following picture shows its multiple impacts in various dimensions:

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Health Impacts of Heat Waves? 

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows: 

♣ Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39 degree C 

♣ Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating. 

♣ Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40 degree C or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition

To cope up with heat waves, IMD issues colour based warnings as follow: 

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Resilience Strategies For Extreme Heat

  • Identifying vulnerable populations and creating heat preparedness plans with all residents in mind, which may include steps like opening cooling centers during periods of extreme heat and adopting workplace heat stress standards.
  • Installing cool and green roofs and cool pavement to reduce the urban heat island effect.
  • Planting trees to provide shade and to cool the air through evapotranspiration.
  • Pursuing energy efficiency to reduce demand on the electricity grid, especially during heat waves.
  • Reducing concretisation in urban areas.
  • Adopting architectural designs to reduce heat load on built structures.
  • Emergency Measures: Democratization of access to public cool spaces in adverse heat waves. Ex. Metro Stations with air-cooled atmosphere should be made accessible to poor. 
  • IMD should start measuring Heat Index and Wet Bulb Temperatures, which is a better indicator of heat.

Cyclone Mocha likely to develop over Bay of Bengal today: IMD

Context: A cyclone, which is most likely to swerve away from the Indian coast, is all set to develop over the southeast Bay of Bengal by Wednesday, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said Tuesday.

Key facts about Mocha Cyclone

  • Once intensified, it is to be identified as Cyclone Mocha (pronounced as Mokha), a name suggested by Yemen.
  • India has dual cyclone seasons – pre-monsoon (April-June) and post-monsoon (October-December). Of these, the most cyclone-prone months are May and November.
  • In the IMD’s possible cyclone track released Monday, the storm is expected to move north-northwestwards, that is, away from India’s east coast.

How the naming of tropical cyclones are done?

In general, tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at regional level. 

Northern Indian Ocean Names - Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal

The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, agreed in principal to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced from September 2004, with names provided by eight Members. Since then, five countries have joined the Panel.

  • The Panel Member’s names are listed alphabetically country wise.
  • The names will be used sequentially column wise.
  • The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row in the column thirteen.
  • The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated, once used it will cease to be used again. The name should be new. It should not be there in the already existing list of any of the RSMCs worldwide including RSMC New Delhi.
  • The name of a tropical cyclone from south China Sea which crosses Thailand and emerge into the Bay of Bengal as a Tropical cyclone will not be changed. 

The RSMC New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Center is responsible to name the tropical cyclones that have formed over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea when they have reached the relevant intensity.

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IBM flags illegal transport of manganese ore in Odisha

Context: The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) has recently flagged the issue of illegal transportation of manganese ore leading to massive loss of revenue in Odisha.

About the news

  • In November 2022, the Ministry of Steel and Mines had alerted the Odisha Government about the under-reporting of grades of chromite and manganese ores.  
  • It had recommended the State Government come up with Standard Operating Procedure for preventing loss of revenue due to declaration of higher-grade ores as lower grade.

What is under–reporting?

  • Under-reporting of grades of minerals is a serious issue and causes loss to State exchequer by way of lower collection of various payments such as auction premium, royalty, district mineral foundation funds and national mineral foundation trust. 

Responsibility to frame laws:

  • As per Section 23C of MMDR Act, State Governments are empowered to make rules for preventing illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals. 
  • It is the responsibility of the State Governments to establish the correct grade of mineral being dispatched and change action premium, royalty and other payments on the correct grade of mineral.
  • As per ule 45(7)(b) and (c) of the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR), 2017, the state government can suspend licence / permit in case it is found that the person or the company engaged in trading or storage or end-use submits incomplete or false information in monthly or annual returns – the trading companies have managed to go with impunity without submitting any timely returns.

Odisha's Mineral Resources

  • Odisha is a mineral-rich State having 96.12% of the country’s chrome ore, 51.15% bauxite reserve of India, 33.61% of hematite iron ore and 43.64% of manganese.
  • Manganese ore containing 25% Mn content and below is considered to be low grade and are generally priced much lower. 
  • Auctions are finalised and mines are leased out on the basis of highest bid premium per tonne of ore offered by the private bidders. 
  • The price of ore with less than 25% Manganese content is ₹3,228 while the same for ore containing Manganese content over 46 % is ₹20,407. 
  • If the Manganese ore is low grade, the leaseholders pay lesser royalty to the National Mineral Exploration Trust and District Mineral Fund.

About Manganese:

  • It is a hard, gray-white metal, which is very brittle, and fairly reactive. It is naturally found in a variety of minerals, but never on its own.
  • It  is one of the most common elements in Earth's crust and is widely distributed across the planet's surface. 
  • It is mainly associated with Dharwar system.
  • It is found in the Earth's crust at a concentration of 1000 ppm, making it the 12th most abundant element.
  • It  is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro alloys.
  • It is vital to human and animal life in metabolic functions. 
  • Many alloys containing manganese are used in steel production, glass making, and even to make the aluminium in soda cans thinner and stronger.
  • Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese. Major mines in Odisha are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.

All eyes on monsoon as cooler summer delays crucial pattern

Context: The large parts of country have logged temperatures that are up to 10°C lower than normal due to rains. An uncharacteristically cooler start to the summer, which is likely to persist for a few more weeks in several parts of the country, may hurt the arrival of the crucial monsoon season, weather scientists have said, at a time when the rainy season is expected to anyway be sapped by the Pacific warming phenomenon El Nino.

How lower temperatures are going to affect monsoon?

  • Relative thermal differences create pressure differences which play very significant role in the onset of monsoon. 
  • More heating over northwest India helps with the onset of monsoon. When the ground heats up, especially in heatwave prone parts of northwest India (which includes Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi), it creates an area of low pressure. There is something called the heat low which forms over northwest India.
  • Hence low temperatures over NW part will lower the advance of monsoonal winds. 

What is heat low? What are its impacts on monsoon rainfall? 

  • During the northward march of sun in northern hemisphere, the continent surrounding the Arabian Sea begin to receive large amounts of heat; not only in the form of radiation from sun, but also flux of heat from the earth’s surface into atmosphere. 
  • As a result of this large input of power, trough of low pressure forms over this region. 
  • Intense heat low acts as suction devise for moist air along the monsoon trough and to some extend related to good monsoon over India. 
  • During weak heat low monsoon rainfall over India is greatly affected and results in deficient or scanty rainfall over vast area of country.
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What is the role of monsoon trough? 

  • Monsoon Trough is an elongated low-pressure area which extends from heat low over Pakistan to Head Bay of Bengal. 
  • This is one of semi-permanent feature of monsoon circulation. 
  • Monsoon trough may be a characteristic of east west orientation of Himalayan ranges and north south orientation of Khasi-Jaintia Hills. 
  • Generally eastern side of monsoon trough oscillates, sometimes southwards and sometimes northwards.
Shifting positions of monsoon troughImpacts on distribution of rainfall across India
image3• When we say that the trough is in normal position, that means it passes through Ganganagar, Allahabad, Calcutta and Head Bay.

• This gives good rain to Central India.

• As a effect of low formation and it’s passage along the trough, the strong wind currents form over the west coast.

• These currents are blocked by Sahyadri mountains resulting in formation of offshore trough.

• Hence due to this offshore trough west of coast of India receives good rain.
image2• When the trough shifts to the south of it’s normal position, than the monsoon conditions are active giving excessive rainfall in central India and over the west coast of India due to offshore trough.

• This position is best for monsoon condition giving rain to all over Peninsular India.
image4• When the trough shifts to north of normal position it means that it shift to foothills of Himalayas giving good rain to Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and to all Northeast states of India.

• This condition is known as “Break Monsoon” where rainfall activity over rest of India ceases.

Water metro in Kochi

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated India's first water metro in Kerala's Kochi which will connect 10 islands around the city in Malabar coast through battery-operated electric hybrid boats.

Waterways - Kochi Scenario

  • The Kerala backwaters are a network of brackish lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (Known as Malabar Coast) of Kerala state in southern India. Kochi is the largest city in the south Indian state of Kerala. Kochi is less vulnerable to storm surges or cyclones compared to cities on the eastern coast of the country. The city sits within a complex estuarine system comprising Lake Vembanad and the many rivers flowing into the lake, including the Periyar and Muvattupuzha rivers.

Inland water ways India Scenario

India has approximately 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprise of rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. Navigable waterways are a fuel-efficient, environment friendly and cost-effective mode of transport. Despite the inherent advantages, the share of Inland waterway transport (IWT) in India is currently estimated to be only around 2% in comparison to 35% in Bangladesh and 20% in Germany.

Initiatives

  • Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI): Statutory authority created under the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) Act, 1985 for regulation and development of Inland Waterways.
  • National Inland Navigation Institute (NINI): Setup by IWAI to develop human resources for Inland Water Transport sector
  • National Waterways Act, 2016: Under this act, Parliament has declared 111 National Waterways which cover a total length of 20300 Kms and spread across 24 States.
  • Sagarmala Program: Promote port-led development through 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways
  • Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP): Capacity augmentation of navigation on National Waterway-1 with the technical and financial assistance of the World Bank.
  • Central Road and Infrastructure fund (CRIF): Set up under the CRIF Act, 2000 and administered by Finance Ministry. The money for this fund is raised through the cess on petrol and high-speed diesel. The fund can be used for various social and physical infrastructure projects, including inland water transport. 
  • International Cooperation such as Kaladan Multi- modal Transit Transport Project, Treaty of Transit between India and Nepal, agreement between India and Bangladesh for use Chaogram and Mongla Ports for transit movement of Indian Goods. 

Some important operational National Waterways in India

S.no.National WaterwaysDetails of waterways States
1National Waterway 1Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River System (Haldia - Allahabad)Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand & West Bengal
2National Waterway 2Brahmaputra River (Dhubri - Sadiya)Assam
3National Waterway 3West Coast Canal (Kottapuram - Kollam), Champakara and Udyogmandal CanalsKerala
4National Waterway 4Krishna River (Vijayawada – Muktyala)Andhra Pradesh
5National Waterway 5Dhamra-Paradio via Mangalagadi to PankopalOdisha
6National Waterway 8Alappuzha- Changanassery CanalKerala
7National Waterway 9Alappuzha-Kottayam – Athirampuzha CanalKerala
8National Waterway 16Barak RiverAssam
9National Waterway 27Cumberjua RiverGoa
10National Waterway 68Mandovi River Goa
11National Waterway 86Runarayan River West Bengal
12National Waterway 97Sunderbans Waterways West Bengal
13National Waterway 111Zuari River Goa

Ports & Shipping and Inland Waterways 

India has a coastline spanning about 7,500 km, forming one of the biggest peninsulas in the world. Around 90 per cent of India’s external trade by volume and 70 per cent by value are handled by 12major ports and 205 non-major ports operate on India’s coast. Yet, roads and railways continue to be the dominant mode for cargo movement. Despite being the most cost-effective and efficient mode, water transport accounted for mere 6 per cent of freight transport in India in 2016-17. 

Constraints before inland water ways 

  • Modal mix: Roads (54 per cent) continue to be the dominant mode of transporting cargo, followed by rail (33 per cent). Transportation of cargo through waterways – shipping and inland water – accounts for a minuscule modal share (6 per cent) despite it being the most cost effective and efficient mode. 
  • Draught levels: Most Indian container handling ports lack the capability to handle large container vessels due to inadequate depth; a minimum draft depth of 18 metres is needed to enable mother vessels to dock at ports. 
  • Connectivity to ports: Weak hinterland connectivity between production centres and gateway ports 
  • Transhipment port: A large percentage of containers in India are currently transhipped through other ports, such as Colombo (just south of India), Singapore (East) due to the absence of a transhipment port in the country. This has led to additional costs and delays due to the feeder voyage from India to the hub port. 
  • Capital for inland vessels: At present, the cost of capital is very high and makes IWT freight uncompetitive. 
  • Technical issues in inland waterways: The varying and limited depths due to the meandering and braiding of alluvial rivers and the erosion of their banks causing excessive siltation, lack of cargo earmarked for IWT, non-mechanized navigation lock systems and insufficient unloading facility at terminals hinder the use of IWT by shippers. 

Way forward

  • Open up India’s dredging market: At present, the Dredging Corporation of India (DCI) and a limited set of private vendors serve the Indian dredging market, limiting competition.
  • Expedite the implementation of Sagarmala to modernise ports.
  • Enhance last mile connectivity to inland waterways: IWT should be integrated to multimodal/ intermodal connectivity. Inland terminals with proper road and/or rail connectivity and seamless transfer of goods from one mode to the other are important for an efficient logistics supply chain.
  • Facilitate access to capital for inland vessels: Financing for inland vessels could be made part of priority sector lending by banks. Categorizing inland vessels as infrastructure equipment will further ease access to capital issues for a sector where capital investments and operational costs are high.
  • Address technical and regulatory constraints in inland waterways to ease movement of inland vessels- Detention of a vessel without a valid reason should not be allowed; A clear directive needs to be issued for security of inland vessels, crew and cargo; Strengthen existing Inland Water Transport Directorates or Maritime Boards or set them up in states where they do not exist to ease the IWT business and to ensure efficient regulation and facilitation of IWT for cargo movement.
  • Streamline the governance of inland waterways: Currently, inland waterways are governed by multiple authorities including the Central Inland Water Corporation Limited (CIWTC Ltd), port authorities and state governments. Streamlining the regulatory structure and bringing an overarching body to oversee Inland Water Transport such as the IWAI will bring more consistency in the rules and strategy of the sector.
  • Develop measures for year-round navigation: Currently, due to weather conditions, several inland waterways are only serviceable during a part of the year. The seasonality of this mode of transport reduces its adoption. Efforts should be made to develop deeper stretches of the river, i.e., at least 2.5 m to 3 m. 

Zero Shadow Day in Bengaluru

Context: Bengaluru witnessed a unique celestial phenomenon called ‘Zero Shadow Day’ on April 25. In this all the vertical objects in the city will not have a shadow for a short period of time.

What is Zero Shadow Day?

  • It is a day on which the Sun does not cast a shadow of an object at solar noon, when the sun will be exactly at the zenith position (the highest point in the sky).
  • The Zero Shadow Day is restricted to locations between the tropics, and so places north of Ranchi in India are out of it.
  • For every point on Earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, there are two Zero Shadow Days a year.
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Why does a Zero Shadow Day happen?

  • Movement of the Sun from south to north from winter solstice to summer solstice (Uttarayan)and back from north to south (Dakshinayan) happen because Earth’s rotation axis is tilted at an angle of roughly 23.5° to the axis of revolution around the Sun.
  • The Sun’s location moves from 23.5°N to 23.5°S of Earth’s equator and back. All places whose latitude equals the angle between the Sun’s location and the equator on that day experience zero shadow day, with the shadow beneath an object at local noon.
  • The Earth’s rotation axis is inclined at 23.5 degrees to the plane of its revolution around the Sun, which is why we have seasons. This also means that the Sun, in its highest point of the day, will move from 23.5 degrees south of the celestial equator to 23.5 degrees north of the equator (Uttarayan), and back again (Dakshinayan), in a year. The northern most and southern most points are the two solstices, and the crossing of the Sun across the equator are the two equinoxes.

What is an equinox?

  • During the equinox, the sun crosses the plane of Earth’s equator, making nighttime and daytime (roughly) equal length all over the world.
  • In the Northern Hemisphere, the spring equinox, or vernal equinox, occurs around March 21, when the sun moves northward across the celestial equator.
  • The autumnal equinox occurs around September 22 or 23, when the sun crosses the celestial equator going south.
  • In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the reverse.

What is a solstice?

  • A solstice is one of the two times of the year when the positioning and tilt of Earth relative to the sun results in the most amount of daylight time or the least amount of daylight time in a single day.
  • Technically, a solstice is one of the two the exact moments in the year when the sun reaches its northernmost point (around June 21, when the North Pole tilts closest to the sun) or southernmost point (around December 22, during the winter solstice) from Earth’s equator.
  • The solstices are traditionally considered to mark the start of summer and winter. 
  • In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs in June and the winter solstice occurs in December. 
  • In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the opposite.
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First waterbodies census

Context:  As a step towards making policies for the judicious use and conservation of water, the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of water resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation has taken the “first census of water bodies(2018-2019)” under the centrally sponsored scheme, “Irrigation Census”  in convergence with the 6th Minor Irrigation Census for 2017-18.

  • The objective of the census of water bodies is to develop a national database for all water bodies by collecting information on all important aspects of the subject including their size, condition, status of encroachment, use, storage capacity etc 

What is waterbody?

  • The census defines a waterbody as “all natural or man-made units bounded on all sides with some or no masonry work used for storing water for irrigation or other purposes 
  • Example industrial, pisciculture, domestic/drinking, recreation, religious, ground water recharge etc
  • Waterbodies are usually of various types known by different names like tank, reservoirs, ponds and bundhies etc.
  • A structure where water from ice-melt, streams, springs, rain or drainage of water from residential or other areas is accumulated or water is stored by diversion from a stream, nala or river will also be treated as waterbody.

Highlights of the first census of waterbodies 

India has 24.24 lakh waterbodies like ponds, tanks and lakes, with West Bengal accounting for the most (7.47 lakh) and Sikkim the least (134)

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  • Out of total number of waterbodies-  97.1% (23,55,055) are in rural areas and only 2.9% (69,485) in urban areas.
  • 59.5 per cent (14,42,993) of waterbodies are ponds, followed by tanks (15.7 per cent i.e. 3,81,805), reservoirs (12.1 per cent i.e. 2,92,280), water conservation schemes/percolation tanks/check dams (9.3% i.e. 2,26,217), lakes (0.9% i.e. 22,361) and others (2.5% i.e. 58,884)”.
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  • West Bengal has the highest number of ponds and reservoirs, whereas Andhra Pradesh has highest number of tanks. Tamil Nadu has the highest number of lakes and Maharashtra is the leading state with water conservation schemes.
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  • West Bengal’s South 24 Parganas has been ranked as the top district having the highest (3.55 lakh) number of waterbodies across the country. In addition to West Bengal, six other states have over one lakh waterbodies, while four states and UTs account for less than 1,000 waterbodies each.
  • The census also collected data on encroachment of waterbodies for the first time. 1.6% waterbodies out of all the enumerated waterbodies are reported to be encroached, out of which 95.4% are in rural areas and remaining 4.6% in urban areas. 
  • 55.2% (13,38,735) water bodies are under private ownership whereas 44.8% (10,85,805) water bodies are in the public domain 
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Hakki Pikki tribe

Context: The Hakki Pikki tribe has captured national headlines after 31 members of the tribe were left stranded in Sudan where war suddenly broke out. The 31 had reached Sudan on a routine business trip to sell Ayurvedic medicines when fighting broke out among military factions in the country.

About Hakki Pikki tribe

  • According to SPPEL (Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages) established by Ministry of Education (Government of India), ‘Hakki-Pikki’ is one of the major tribal communities in Karnataka. The population is predominantly found in Shivamogga, Davanagere and Mysuru districts of Karnataka.
  • In Kannada, the word ‘Hakki’ stands for ‘bird' and ‘Pikki’ stands for the verb ‘to catch’. Therefore, the community is known as the ‘bird catcher,’ which is their traditional occupation.
  • According to the 2011 census, the population of Hakki-Pikki is 11,892. After their trade of bird hunting was outlawed under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Their traditional habitat was taken away when the government established wildlife sanctuaries and national parks to conserve forests.
  • They are also known for knowledge of traditional and herbal medicine in high demand in African countries as they are less expensive than allopathic medicines. The popularity of the medicines turned the once bird-hunters to global traders of herbal medicine.
  • The Hakki-Pikkis are said to be a matriarchal group.
  • Despite being surrounded by Dravidian languages and living in southern India, the community speaks an Indo-Aryan language. Their mother tongue was designated 'Vaagri' by scholars. They communicate in 'Vaagri' at home but speak in Kannada when conducting daily business.
  • UNESCO has listed 'Vaagri' as one of the endangered languages.
  • The community is known for the strange names they give for their children. A father of a newborn often names his child based on the first thing that comes to his mind. The community has members with names such as Congress, Mysore Pak, Cycle etc.

Read also: List of Major Tribes in India

What is a normal Monsoon and what factors lead to the weakening of the Monsoon?

Context: According to the private weather forecasting agency Skymet, India is likely to get "below normal" monsoon rains in 2023 with an increased likelihood of El Nino, which typically brings dry weather to Asia.

About Normal Monsoon

  • The IMD predicts a “normal”, “below normal”, or “above normal” monsoon in relation to a benchmark “long period average” (LPA). 
  • According to the IMD, the “LPA of rainfall is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc”.
  • The IMD’s prediction of a normal monsoon was based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period, during which India received 87 cm of rain for the entire country on average.
  • The IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:
    • * Normal or near normal, when the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA, that is, between 96-104% of LPA;
    • * Below normal, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA;
    • * Above normal, when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA;
    • * Deficient, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA; and
    • * Excess, when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.

Factors which affect the Monsoon

El Niño

  • The warming in the tropical Pacific Ocean because of El Niño weakens the southeast trade winds flowing to the intertropical convergence zone over India. 
  • Since these winds are the main driving force of the Indian summer monsoon, El Niño events are associated with weak monsoons and lower than average rainfall. 
  • The location of the El Niño event also influences its effects on the Indian monsoon – warming in the central Pacific Ocean affects the Indian monsoon more than if the warming is in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
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La Niña

  • The La Niña has the opposite effect to the El Niño and is responsible for stronger monsoons and above-average rainfall.
  • Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO): 
  • It is thought to arise as an effect of the Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD) and refers to increased and decreased cloud formation between the western and eastern equatorial Indian Ocean. 

Although the IOD was discovered only in 1999, and the EQUINOO in 2002, both have been recognised as important modulators of the Indian summer monsoon. Positive Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD) and EQUINOO events are associated with more rainfall as these events increase moisture transport from the southeastern parts of the Indian Ocean.

Indian Ocean Dipole(IOD):

  • IOD measures differences in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean.
  • Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is basically similar to the El Nino weather system that develops in the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in the eastern and western Indian Ocean

Atlantic sea surface temperature(SST) variability

  • The Atlantic SST variability affects the Indian summer monsoon in the same way that the ENSO does. 
  • A warming of the surface of the Atlantic Ocean weakens the monsoon, just as cooling of the ocean’s surface has the opposite effect. 
  • The effects of this phenomenon, also known as the Atlantic Niño on the Indian summer monsoon is thought to be mediated through perturbations in the jet streams above India.

Mascarene High

  • The Mascarene High is a semi-permanent high-pressure zone in the south Indian Ocean, about 4,000 km from India, near the Mascarene Islands. 
  • The Mascarene High begins developing in mid-April and is a major factor in driving the circulation between the northern and southern hemispheres that powers the summer monsoon winds towards the Indian subcontinent from the Indian Ocean.
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Irrigation

  • One of the rather surprising local factors that affects the Indian monsoon, is irrigation. 
  • According to a 2019 study in the journal Climate Dynamics, the trend of decreasing rainfall over the Indo-Gangetic plains could be due to the extensive irrigation in this area. 
  • This is likely because irrigation affects soil moisture levels and temperature simultaneously, which affects atmospheric stability. Since the irrigation is over vast tracts of land, these changes shift the moisture convergence zone to the south, during the active phase of the monsoon.
  • The study finds that winter irrigation (November-March) actually strengthens the monsoon rains over the region for the following year and also reduces intra-seasonal variations in rainfall. 
  • However, with year-round irrigation, there is a noticeable decrease in the summer monsoon rainfall (June-September).

Aerosols and dust

  • Aerosols and dust are other local factors that have been shown to affect the monsoon rainfall in India. 
  • In a recent study in 2022, researchers at IIT Bhubaneswar have shown that dust transported to the Arabian sea from the Middle-Eastern deserts (the Sahara and the Sinai) could increase rainfall in India and south Asia over short time scales of one or two weeks. 
  • In a similar study in 2014, scientists showed that dust aerosols likely heat up the atmosphere over north Africa and west Asia, which increases the flow of moisture over India. This results in rainfall, usually within a week of the event, over central India.

Monsoon Impact

  • The monsoon is critical for a healthy rural economy as 51% of the country’s farmed area, accounting for 40% of production, is rain-fed, according to the agriculture ministry. 
  • As much as 47% of the country’s population is dependent on agriculture, one of the mainstays of India’s economy, for livelihood, according to Economic Survey 2022-23.
  • It spurs farm produce and improves rural spending besides impacting inflation, jobs, and industrial demand, for ex. Good farm output keeps food inflation under check and ample harvests raise rural incomes and help inject demand into the economy.

El Nino and the monsoon

La Niña: 

  • La Niña basically refers to an abnormal cooling of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean waters off the coasts of Ecuador and Peru. 
  • Such cooling (sea surface temperatures i.e. SSTs falling) is a result of strong trade winds blowing west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia. 
  • The warming of the western equatorial Pacific, then, leads to increased evaporation and concentrated cloud-formation activity around that region, whose effects may spread to India as well.

Latest La Nina event:

  • The latest La Nina event was one of the longest ever, lasting from July-September 2020 to December-February 2022-23. And it brought copious rains to India – just as two previous “strong” La Nina in 2007-08 and 2010-11, followed by one “moderate” episode in 2011-12, had done.

El Niño:

  • It is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. 
  • El Niño is the “warm phase” of a larger phenomenon called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). La Niña, the “cool phase” of ENSO, is a pattern that describes the unusual cooling of the region’s surface waters. El Niño and La Niña are considered the ocean part of ENSO, while the Southern Oscillation is its atmospheric changes.
  • During El Niño, the trade winds weaken or even reverse: 
  • Instead of blowing from east (South America) to west (Indonesia), they could turn into westerlies. 
  • As the winds blow from the west to east, they cause the masses of warm water to move into the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. 
  • The rise in SSTs there, thus, produces increased rainfall along western Latin America, the Caribbean and US Gulf Coast, while depriving Southeast Asia, Australia and India of convective currents.
  • El Niño occurs simultaneously with the Southern Oscillation. The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific Ocean. When coastal waters become warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Niño), the atmospheric pressure above the ocean decreases.
  • An El Niño event can be identified by the variations in sea surface temperature (SST) over the equatorial Central Pacific (the Nino 3.4 region). 
  • El Niño events are classified as weak, moderate, strong, and very strong depending on the strength of the positive SST variations. 
  • An El Niño event is announced when monthly Nino 3.4 SST deviations reach +0.50 °C, along with consistent atmospheric features, and when these anomalies persist for three consecutive months.

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Impact on Indian Monsoon:

  • El Nino may result in a weakening of the Indian monsoon, leading to drier conditions and reduced rainfall. 
  • On the other hand, La Niña events, which bring cooling to the Pacific Ocean, can result in stronger monsoons and more precipitation in India.

El Niño years and its trends in India

  • According to statistics, about 60 per cent of the time there will be a probability of drought in India during an El Niño year.
  • Chances of below-normal rain will be 30 per cent, while the prospect of normal rain remains very rare at 10 per cent.
  • However, El Niño conditions have been known to be unpredictable as well. For instance, even the strongest El Niño has given normal Monsoon rains of 102 per cent in 1997, while weak El Niño conditions resulted in severe drought in 2004 to the tune of 86 per cent.
  • Drought years:
  • Statistics from the year 2000 till 2019 show that there have been four instances of drought years. 
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  • In 2002 and 2009, the countrywide deficiency was 19 per cent and 22 per cent, respectively, which were considered severe drought years. 
  • While in 2004 and 2015 the deficiency stood at 14 per cent each, which was again a drought.
  • Surplus: 
  • There has been only one instance in the last 25 years, since 1997, when the country saw surplus rain of 2 per cent despite El Niño.
  • Recent research indicates that the frequency of extreme El Niño events increases linearly with the global mean temperature, and that the number of such events might double (one event every 10 years) under 1.5°C of global warming. 
  • This pattern is projected to persist for a century after stabilisation at 1.5°C, indicating continuing high risks.
  • Changes to the frequency of extreme El Niño and La Niña events may also increase the frequency of droughts and floods in South Pacific islands.

Subansiri river

Context: Recently, Subansiri Lower Dam project on the Assam-Arunachal border (at Gerukamukh in Assam’s Dhemaji district) was hit by a landslide during pre-monsoon rain in the region.

The Subansiri river

  • The Subansiri river has its origin in Tibet and it is an antecedent river. 
  • It enters India near the town of Taksing (Arunachal Pradesh) and flows east and southeast through Miri Hills, then south to the Assam Valley at Dulangmukh in Dhemaji district, where it joins the Brahmaputra River at Jamurighat in Lakhimpur district. 
  • Small tributaries of the Subansiri include Rangandi, Dikrong and Kamala. 
  • The Subansiri lends its name to two districts in Arunachal Pradesh: Upper Subansiri and Lower Subansiri. 
  • The high topographic variation makes this river a potential zone for harnessing it for hydropower. The districts situated on the bank of the Subansiri River are flood prone during monsoon season.
  • The Subansiri River is the largest tributary of Brahmaputra River. 

The Brahmaputra river

  • The Brahmaputra has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar Lake. From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally in a dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo. 
  • The Rango Tsangpo is the major right-bank tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa.
  • The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang. 
  • It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra.
  • The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its long journey through the Assam valley. Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari whereas the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh. 
  • The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
  • In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.