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India to display relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand

Context: India will be holding an exposition of some of the relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand in February. The relics will be kept at the National Museum, Bangkok at first and then would be exhibited at different venues in Thailand. 

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(Fig.: Case containing four pieces of the Holy relics of Lord Buddha)

More about the news: 

  • Relics of Lord Buddha along with the relics of two of his disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) preserved in Madhya Pradesh’s Sanchi are being sent. 
  • These relics (known as Kapilavastu relics) are under the protection of the National Museum, India, were excavated from Piprahwa in Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh. 
    • Siddharthnagar, is an ancient city of Kapilavastu region.
    • Kapilavastu, where Buddha is believed to be born in 563 BC (in the Sakya Kshatriya clan).
  • In 1952, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took ownership of Piprahwa and this enabled further excavations at the site.
  • The collection of sacred relics has been earlier taken to Sri Lanka in 1976 and 2012, Mongolia in 1993 and 2022, Singapore in 1994 and 2007, South Korea in 1995 and Thailand also in 1995.
  • These relics are categorised as ‘AA’ (rare) antiquities, which means they are not meant to be lent for exhibitions, within India or in foreign nations.
  • However, the exposition in Thailand was being held upon a ‘special request’ by the Thai Government. 
  • The event will be organised by the Ministry of External Affairs in collaboration with the Indian Embassy in Thailand, the International Buddhist Confederation and the Madhya Pradesh government.

About Buddhism: 

  • Buddhism belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements (means one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic). 
  • Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth is the event when Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.
  • Buddha died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP) and the event is known as Mahaparinirvana. 

Religious teachings of Buddha: 

  • Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e., Buddha(the enlightened), Dhamma(doctrine) and Sangha(commune).
  • The core of his doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-sachchani (Four Noble Truths):
    • there is suffering (dukkha);
    • it has a cause (dukh samudaya);
    • it can be removed (nirodha); and
    • There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow (dukh nirodha gamini pratipada)
  • The way to achieve this is following the Atthanga-magga (Eight-fold Path)/ Ashtangik marga/ Madhya Marga (one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism. It consists of right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
  • Buddha was against caste system and opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes.
  • Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained (free from the cycle of birth and rebirth). 

Relics associated with Buddha

  • Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta (in Digha Nikaya) mentions that after attaining Parinirvana, the body of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.
  • First it was considered that ashes should go to the Sakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged. 
  • However, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions, for erecting stupa over the sacred relics.
    • to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha;
    • to the Licchavis of Vaishali;
    • to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu;
    • to the Bullis of Allakappa;
    • to the Koliyas of Ramagama;
    • to the Brahmana of Veṭhadipa;
    • to the Mallas of Pava;
    • to the Mallas of Kushinagara. 
  • Stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
  • Two other important relics were distributed: 
    • Drona (the Brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated; 
    • Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.
  • Research and excavations support the authenticity of the stupa at Piprahwa, as well as the Relic Stupa of Vaishali and the Ramabhar Stupa at Kushinagar.
    • But the archaeological investigations to date have not definitively identified other remaining stupas.
  • Mahavaṃsa and Ashokavadana mentions that Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, collected seven of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them across 84,000 stupas. These stupas were constructed around the world.
  • As per the 5th century scholar, Buddhaghosha, the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, believes that a proper Buddhist monastery was that which possessed the relics. 
  • Relics of Buddha's noble disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) are preserved in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. 

Some of the sacred Relics in India: 

  • Kapilavastu relics: 
    • During an excavation in 1898, five small vases was found containing bone fragments, ashes, and jewels in a stupa in Piprahwa. (the Archaeological Survey of India has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu)
    • The inscription on the lid, refers to the relics of Buddha and his community, the Sakya: ‘Sukiti bhatinam sa-bhaginikanam sa-puta-dalanam iyam salila nidhare Bhaddhasa bhagavate sakiyanam.’
    • Means: ‘this shrine for relics of the Buddha, is that of the Sakyas. The brethren of the distinguished One, in association with their sisters and with their children and their wives.’
  • Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali (Bihar) as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE. 
  • Devni Mori, Gujarat (a Buddhist archaeological site): Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third or fourth century were found during an excavation in 1962–1963. 
  • Dhamma Vinaya Monastery Pune, Maharashtra, was constructed and relics of Gautam Buddha's and Arhant’s were enshrined.
    • An Arhant is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment).
  • Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai, and the relics of the Buddha were enshrined in the central locking stone of the dome, making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha.
  • Lalitgiri, Odisha: A casket was discovered, believed to contain bones of Buddha.

To read about Buddhism, follow the link: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/india-to-host-maiden-global-buddhist-summit/

Chhau Dance

Context: Tarapada Rajak and team performed Purulia Chhau at an event in Kolkata. 

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About Chhau dance form: 

Introduction: 

  • It is a semi-classical Indian dance form that intricately weaves together martial and folk traditions.
  • Some narrations also use natural themes such as Sarpa Nritya (serpent dance) or Mayur Nritya (peacock dance) 
  • Chhau encompasses elements from martial arts, folk themes and religious motifs inspired by Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism.
  • In 2010, UNESCO inscribed Chhau in the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
  • Traditionally performed by all-male troupes, Chhau holds regional significance in the East Indian region and is believed to have its origins traced to various linguistic roots.
    • Some propose a connection to the Sanskrit term Chaya, signifying shadow, image, or mask, while others associate it with the Sanskrit root Chadma, implying disguise. 
    • An alternative research, adds that it is derived from the Odia language, pointing to the term Chhauni, encompassing meanings related to military camp, armour, and stealth.

Characteristics: 

  • In Chhau dance, costumes inspired by Shaktism themes, such as the depiction of Durga with a lion, are prominently featured, particularly in the Purulia style.
  • This vibrant dance form is primarily showcased during festivals, with a notable emphasis on community participation, especially during the spring festival of Chaitra Parva.
  • Masks hold a significant role in the Purulia (West Bengal) and Seraikella styles (Jharkhand), contributing to the unique visual appeal of the dance.
  • Chhau dance in northern Odisha (Mayurbhanj) incorporates masks only during the initial stage when the artists make their introductory appearance to the audience.
  • The transmission of knowledge related to dance, music, and mask-making is often passed down orally.
  • The masked styles of Chhau dance seamlessly blend elements of dance and martial practices, incorporating mock combat techniques (khel), stylized walk of birds and animals (Chalis and Topkas), and movements inspired by the daily chores of village housewives (Uflis).
  • Executed exclusively by male dancers, Chhau performances take place at night in open spaces referred to as Akhada or asar.
    • However, several all-women troupes are also participating now. 
    • Mousumi Chowdhury, from Purulia’s, is credited with starting the trend.
    • In 2010, Mousumi set up the first all-women Chhau troupe of Purulia known as Mitali Chhau Maldi.
  • The featured instruments are: reed pipes (Mohuri), shehnai, a variety of drums such as cylindrical dhol, the large kettle drum Dhumsa, and the Kharkai or chad-chadi.
  • The roots of Chhau dance, particularly in the Purulia style, can be traced back not only to Paika and Natua but also to the significant influence of Nachni dance.
    • Nachni dance contributed female walks and movements to Chhau, introducing elements of Lasya Bhava from the Natya Shastra, characterized by elegance, sensuality, and beauty.
    • Conversely, the male dance movements in Chhau are attributed to Shiva's Tandava style, adding a dynamic dimension to the dance form.

Three Varieties of Chhau:

  • There are three main styles of Chhau dance:
    • Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand;
    • Mayurbhanj Chhau in Odisha;
    • Purulia Chhau in West Bengal;
  • Mayurbhanj Chhau artists don’t wear masks.
  • The distinctiveness of the three primary styles of Chhau, lies in their regional origins and distinctive characteristics.
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(Seraikela)

Seraikela Chhau: 

  • It evolved in the region of Seraikela, during the era of Kalinga's Gajapati rule (1434 to 1541 CE), in Jharkhand.
  • The Seraikella Chhau's techniques are shaped by the erstwhile nobility of the region, who not only performed but also choreographed the dance.
  • In the contemporary era, individuals from diverse backgrounds engage in the performance of Seraikella Chhau.
  • This style employs symbolic masks, with the acting itself establishing the role played by each performer.
  • Notably, these masks are skillfully crafted by potters who specialize in creating clay images of Hindu deities.
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(Mayurbhanj)

Mayurbhanj Chhau:  

  • Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district, bordering Bengal and Jharkhand and known for the Similipal biosphere, was ruled by the Bhanja dynasty from 7th century AD.
  • The rulers were great patrons of the arts. 
  • Chhau, which is believed to have derived its name from the Chhauni or military camp, evolved from the mock fights and drills that used to be held to keep the soldiers battle-ready.
  • Mayurbhanj Chhau opts for a mask-free approach, yet shares technical similarities with Seraikella Chhau in its execution.
  • Mayurbhanj Chhau is the most vigorous of the three styles of Chhau. 
  • The technique and choreography are directly drawn from war practices of Odia soldiers, who were popularly known as Paikas. 
  • The Government of Odisha took significant steps to promote Chhau dance by establishing the Mayurbhanj Chhau Nritya Pratisthan in Baripada in 1960.
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(Purulia)

Purulia Chhau: 

  • The Chhau dance that originated from Purulia finds its inspiration from martial arts and combative training.
  • The dancers perform a repertoire that explores a variety of subjects like mythological episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas, local legends and folklores and abstract themes.
  • The traditional dance is performed at open spaces at the rhythm of various kinds of drums and other musical instruments.
    • Indigenous drums like Dhol, Dhumsa and Kharkai are used along with the melody of Mohuri and Shehnai.
  • Over the centuries, this dance form was patronized by the royal families, rich landlords as well as by a few British Governors of the region.
  • It is believed that the Raja (king) of Baghmundi in Purulia was the main patron of these dances. 
  • The Chhau mask from Purulia has been officially recognized under Geographical Indications, emphasizing its unique and traditional nature
  • The masks for Purulia Chhau are crafted by artists from the Sutradhar community.

Read about folk dances in India: 

Folk Dances in India

Indian Martial arts training for Army troops

Context: The Indian Army has added martial arts to the regular training of troops in addition to the usual physical exercise, post the Galwan violent clash (Between India and China). For example, the Punjab regiment has incorporated Gatka in the training regime and the Udhampur-based Northern Command introduced the Israeli-origin martial art Krav Maga.

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Need:

  • Regions like, along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Kibithu in Eastern Arunachal Pradesh are of difficult terrains like mountains and jungles, unpredictable and heavy rains. 
  • To face such challenges, the Army continuously undertakes training and the martial arts is one of them. 

Krav-Maga, Israeli origin Martial art:

  • Krav-Maga is an Israeli martial art.
  • Developed for the Israel Defence Forces, it is derived from a combination of techniques used in aikido, judo, karate, boxing, and wrestling.
  • It is known for its focus on real-world situations and its extreme efficiency.

Martial Arts in India

Khukri:

  • Type of short sword with a distinct recurve in its blade that originated in the Indian subcontinent.
  • Serves multiple purposes as a weapon and also as a regular cutting tool.
  • National weapon of Nepal, traditionally serving the role of a basic utility knife for the Nepali-speaking Gurkhas.
  • Symbol of Gurkha soldier in Indian Army.

Kalaripayattu:

  • One of the oldest martial arts in India, Kalaripayattu. It is also widely practiced by women. 
  • Practiced in most parts of southern India, originated in the state of Kerala in the 4th century A. D. According to legends, sage Parasurama, who built temples and introduced martial arts, started Kalarippayattu.
  • Kalari, refers to a specific type of school/gymnasium/training hall where martial arts are practiced.
  • This art form includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and physical exercises.
  • Not accompanied by any drumming or song, the most important aspect is the style of fighting (Footwork).
  • Other aspects are: fighting with Otta (an ‘S’ shaped stick), Puliyankam or sword fight, Verumkai or bare-handed fight, AngaThari or use of metal weapons. 

Silambam:

  • The kings which ruled in Tamil Nadu, including Pandya, Chola and Chera, had promoted it during their reign.
  • The reference to the sale of silambam staves, pearls, swords and armour to foreign traders can be found in a Tamil literature known as Silappadikaram, which dates back to second century A.D.
  • There are four different kinds of staves used in this art.
  • First, torch silambam, lights balls of cloth at one end of the staff.  
  • Second produces a sonorous swishing sound.
  • Third is a non-elastic staff that gives clattering sounds.
  • Fourth is quite short yet powerful staff. 

Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak:

  • Created by the Meitei people of Manipur, Thang-ta is an armed martial art and one of the most lethal combat forms.
  • Sarit Sarak, on the other hand, is an unarmed art form that uses hand-to-hand combat.
  • In the 17th century, it was successfully used by the Manipuri kings to fight the British. 
  • Thang refers to a ‘sword’, while Ta refers to a ‘spear’, thus sword and spear are the two main elements of Thang-ta.
  • The two components thang-ta and Sarit Sarak are together called Huyen Langlon.

Cheibi Gad-ga:

  • One of the most ancient martial arts of Manipur, it involves fighting using a sword and a shield. It has now been modified to a stick encased in soft leather in place of a sword and a leather shield. 

Pari-khanda:

  • Created by Rajputs, it is a form of martial art from Bihar. 
  • It involves fighting using sword (Khanda) and shield (Pari).
  • Its steps and techniques are widely used in Mayurbhanj Chhau dance.

Thoda:

  • Originating in the State of Himachal Pradesh, Thoda is a mixture of martial arts, sport and culture.
  • It takes place during Baisakhi (13th and 14th April) every year.
  • The martial art relies on a player’s skill of archery.
  • The equipment required for this game, i.e. wooden bows and arrows, are prepared by traditional skilled artisans.
  • In the game, there are two groups of roughly 500 people each. Most of these are not archers but dancers who come along to boost the morale of their respective teams.
  • The two teams are called Pashis and Saathis, who are believed to be the descendants of Pandavas and Kauravas of Mahabharata.

Gatka:

  • It is a weapon based martial art form, performed by the Sikhs of Punjab.
  • Gatka features the skillful use of weapons, including stick, Kirpan, Talwar and Kataar.
  • The attack and defence in this art form is determined by the various positions of hands and feet and the nature of the weapon used.

Mardani Khel:

  • This is a traditional Maharashtrian armed martial art, which is practiced widely in the district of Kolhapur.
  • Mardani Khel focuses primarily on skills of weaponry, especially swords, swift movements and use of low stances that are suited to the hill ranges.
  • It is known for the use of the unique Indian Pata (sword) and Vita (corded lance). 

Inbuan Wrestling:

  • It is believed to have its genesis in 1750 A.D.
  • It has very strict rules that prohibit stepping out of the circle, kicking and knee bending. The way to win this is by lifting the opponent off their feet.
  • This art form was regarded as a sport only after the people of Mizoram migrated from Burma to Lushai hills.

Kuttu Varisai:

  • First mentioned in Sangam literature (first or second century B.C.), mainly practiced in Tamil Nadu. 
  • It is known for ‘empty hand combat’ and considered as an unarmed component of Silambam.
  • It is used to advance athleticism and footwork through starching, yoga, gymnastics and breathing exercises.
  • The major techniques used in this art include grappling, striking and locking.
  • It also uses animal-based sets including snake, eagle, tiger, elephant and monkey.

Musti Yuddha:

  • Originated in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, it is an unarmed martial art form resembling boxing.
  • Musti Yuddha incorporated the development of all three aspects, physical, mental and spiritual.
  • The fights in this art are divided into four categories and are named according to the Hindu Gods.
    • Jambuvanti
    • Hanumanti
    • Bhimaseni
    • Jarasandhi

Paika:

  • Paika Akhada is an Odia term, translates as ‘warrior gymnasium’.
  • Performed by the people of Khandayat caste (peasant-militias) and Gopal caste in Odisha, eastern India.
  • In former times they served as the Paikas (foot Soldiers) under the kings.
  • Incorporates Acrobatic manoeuvres, use of the khanda (straight sword), patta (gauntlet-sword), sticks, and other weapons.

Sqay:

  • Sqay is a South Asian martial art from Kashmir, which involves fighting with a sword and shield.
  • In 2023, the Indian Army's Chinar Corps organized a Sqay session for girls in the Shopian district of Kashmir.
  • Sqay is one of 43 sports that was included in the 2023 National Games of India.

Kathi Samu:

  • It is one of the ancient martial arts of Andhra Pradesh, practiced by the royal armies.
  • This prestigious martial art employs various kinds of swords.
  • The place where Kathi Samu is performed is known as 'Garidi.'
  • Stick fighting known as 'vairi' has an important role in Kathi Samu and it is the prelude to the actual sword fight.
  • 'Gareja' in which a participant holds four swords, two in each hand and 'Dal Farri Khadga' are other important aspects of the sword skills.

Bandesh:

  • Regarded as an empty-handed combat technique.
  • In the competition of this ancient martial art, the conqueror is the one who takes the weapon from the other.
  • There are six different stages namely, Pavithra (footwork), Rokh (blocking), Lapet (Twisting), Fekan (Throw), Cheen (Snatching) and Bandesh (Lock hold).
  • Although the main principle of Bandesh is to use unarmed techniques to defeat the adversary, it is also practiced with weapons, maintaining the same principle of not wounding the enemy fatally.

Mallakhamba:

  • It is a traditional sport, originating from the Indian subcontinent, in which a group of gymnasts perform aerial yoga and gymnastic postures.
  • The pole is usually made from sheesham (Indian rosewood) polished with castor oil.
  • Other popular versions of mallakhamba are practiced using a cane or a rope instead of a pole.
  • In 2013, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared mallakhamba the state sport.

InsuKnawr and Kirip Saldu: 

  • Insuknawr or Rod Pushing Sport is an indigenous game of Mizoram, a state in North-East India.
  • Kirip Saldu: It is an indigenous form of wrestling quite popular with the Nicobarese tribe.

Varma Ati/Marma ati:

  • Practised in old Travancore including Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. 
  • It is called the southern style of Kalaripayattu. 
  • Its a unique ‘Neuro Martial Art’ in warfare practised by the Royal Thiruppad Nadans to defeat the enemy without any external injuries. 

Mughal ruler Aurangzeb

Context: The case of Gyanvapi Mosque in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh is caught in the midst of a legal and social controversy. The mosque is said to have been built during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th century. 

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About the news article: 

  • Historian Audrey Truschke, in ‘Political motives, writing in Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth’, mentions that ‘Hindu and Jain temples dotted the landscape of Aurangzeb’s kingdom and these institutions were protected by the state.
    • According to Truschke, the support for the temples could be revoked when they acted against the imperial interests or the Mughal state and therefore, targeted destruction of temples were undertaken. 
    • Truschke also talks about how in 1659, Aurangzeb asked the imperial officials to check for the unlawful harm or disturbances being created for the Brahmins of Benares and nearby places. 
  • Historian Catherine Asher, in ‘Architecture of Mughal India’, portrays the destruction of Temples during the reign of Aurangzeb, as results of several political events. 
    • As per the historical records, Man Singh’s great-grandson, Jai Singh, helped Shivaji flee from the court of Aurangzeb in 1666. 
    • As per the writings of Asher, the destruction of Vishvanath temple in Benares in 1669, which was rebuilt by Raja Man Singh (during Akbar’s reign) was largely to punish those who were suspected of supporting Shivaji.
    • The Vishvanath temple was built before the entry of the Muslims in India and in the 12th century was attacked by Qutbuddin Aibak. 
  • Scholar, Satish Chandra, in his works has mentioned that the destruction of temples during Aurangzeb’s reign was mainly to check on the spread of subversive ideas against the Mughal state. 
    • In Maasir-i-Alamgiri ( A Persian language chronicle by Saqi Mustaid Khan) mentioned that, Aurangzeb learned that at Benares, the Brahman disbelievers used to teach false books in established schools to their admirers and students (both Hindu and Muslim).
    • In 1669, Aurangzeb took strong actions against some temples in Thatta, Multan and Benares.
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History Kashi Vishwanath temple: 

  • Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
  • It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India. 
  • Built in Nagara style of temple architecture which is characterized by its towering spire (shikhara) and intricately carved stone facades.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India are: Somnath in Gujarat; Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh; Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh; Kedarnath in Uttarakhand; Bhimashankar in Maharashtra; Vishvanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra; Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand; Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat; Rameshwar at Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar in Aurangabad in Maharashtra. 

  • Kashi Khand of Skanda Purana is dedicated to the city of Varanasi. As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva.
  • The original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when  Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
  • In 1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avi Mukteshwar Temple, away from the main site, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
  • It was demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
  • Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar 
  • Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.
  • In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
  • In 1780, Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
  • In 1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.
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About Mughal ruler Aurangzeb: 

  • Served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647. 
  • He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648-1652 and continued the expeditions into neighbouring Safavid territories. 
  • Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession. 
  • In April 1658, the allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of Dharmat. 
  • Then, at the decisive battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort. 
  • The ‘Fatawa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. 
  • He reigned for fifty years and during the first twenty-five years he resided in the North and personally occupied the affairs of northern India. 
  • Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital, but after some two decades the capital was shifted to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
  • In 1681, his son, Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer '' kept him engaged. He died at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra in 1707. 

Deccan Ulcer: 

  • Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan was basically motivated by curtailing the influence of the Marathas, containing the rebellions by Shia kingdoms-Golconda and Bijapur and keeping in check his own son’s rebellions.
  • He successfully annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Historians see the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms as the major blunder, as these kingdoms acted as the barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.
  • Now, Mughals had to face direct confrontations with the Marathas. 
  • As per the historian, J.N. Sarkar, the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ ruined Aurangzeb. 
  • Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, generals of Aurangzeb, were sent to capture Shivaji. 
  • Jai Singh successfully captured Shivaji, but Shivaji escaped to the Deccan, using the Guerrilla warfare tactics, which was not an integral part of Mughal Army strategies. 
  • The long battle with Marathas severely impacted the Mughal treasury. 

Religious Policy of Mughal state under Aurangzeb: 

  • He implemented a religious policy marked by orthodox Islamic principles. His policy had two aspects: to promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly and to adopt anti-Hindu measures.
  • Influenced by the teachings of Ahmad Sirhindi, Aurangzeb aimed to transform India from Dar-ul-harb (land of infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (Islamic land). 
  • He rejected the Persian concept of kinship (Farr-i-Aizadi) in favour of a rule based on the Quranic concept of kingship.
  • Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, discouraged un-Islamic ceremonies, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
  • However, Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could override Sharia law. 
  • He took measures to promote Islam, such as forbidding the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
  • He appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.
  • The ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
  • Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
    • Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
      • The Mathura temple was built by Bir Singh Bundela, who had gained Jahangir's favour. Aurangzeb converted it into a large mosque and the name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad.
      • In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
      • Mosques were built at the sites of different temples.
      • He destroyed Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and Somnath temple in Kathiawar.
    • Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions: 
      • Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax.
      • Manucci held that the object of the tax was two-fold: first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on his various military campaigns and secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
      • For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam.
      • However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
    • Discriminatory toll/tax: 
      • He enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which was a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code. 
      • Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax. 
    • Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
      • For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta.
      • He placed restrictions on the starting of new Pathshalas. 
  • Despite Aurangzeb's staunch Islamic stance, his imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
    • Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half, representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
    • Many of these officials were Marathas and Rajputs, political allies of Aurangzeb. 
    • Nevertheless, he encouraged high-ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam, contributing to the complex religious dynamics of his reign.

Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:

Weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country. 

  • Conflict with the Jats: In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura. The Jats were led by Gokula. By the year 1670, Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat region. Gokula was caught and executed.
  • Conflict with the Satnamis: In 1672, the Satnami sect organised a revolt. Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion
  • Conflict with the Sikhs: The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was opposed to forced conversion of the local population. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits against forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bahadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim. In response, Aurangzeb ordered the arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.
  • Conflicts with the Rajputs: Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until then served the empire faithfully. 

Conclusion:  

The opinion of Historians and scholars on the religious policy of Aurangzeb is divided. Historians like Jadunath Sarkar, S.R. Sharma and A.L. Srivastava regarded the policy as being of religious bigotry and persecution, whereas Shibli Nomani, Zahiruddin Faruki and Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi justify most of Aurangzeb's actions as political expedients. Scholars like Satish Chandra and M. Athar Ali, give a neutral analysis without emphasizing the ‘for’ or ‘against’ controversy.

Bharat Ratna Award: everything you need to know

Context: Karpoori Thakur, former Chief Minister of Bihar, was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award.

More information: 

  • Recognized as a socialist icon, Thakur gained prominence for his dedicated efforts to uplift the backward classes in Bihar.
  • During the Quit India Movement, he faced imprisonment alongside other freedom fighters, consistently striving to oust the British colonial rulers.
  • Notably, he played a pioneering role in implementing the recommendations of the MungeriLal Commission during his tenure as Bihar CM from 1977 to 1979, ensuring reservation benefits for the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

Awards given by Government of India: 

image 140

About Bharat Ratna: 

  • The designation ‘Bharat Ratna,’ which translates to 'Jewel of India,' signifies the highest civilian honour presented by the Republic of India.
  • Established in 1954, the Bharat Ratna is granted to extraordinary individuals who have demonstrated exceptional accomplishments.
  • Originally focused on recognizing achievements in art, science, literature, and public service, the criteria underwent an expansion in December 2011 to encompass excellence in 'any field of human endeavour.'
  • Selection process: 
    • Recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees honoured annually.
    • In 1999, an exception saw four individuals receiving the honour.
    • Although no monetary reward accompanies the honour, recipients receive a unique Peepal-leaf shaped medal and a certificate known as a ‘Sanad.’
    • In the hierarchy of the Indian Order of Precedence, Bharat Ratna recipients hold the seventh rank.
  • The usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix or suffix is exempt from Article 18(1) of the Constitution, as established by the Supreme Court's precedent in Balaji Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995.
  • The first recipients in 1954 included C. Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of the Dominion of India; Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President and first Vice President of India; and Nobel Prize Laureate and Physicist C. V. Raman.
  • Originally, the statutes did not allow for posthumous awards, but in January 1955, amendments were made to permit them.
    • The first posthumous honouree was former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri.
  • Despite typically being conferred upon India-born citizens, notable exceptions include Mother Teresa, a naturalized citizen, and non-Indians such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan (originally from British India, later a citizen of Pakistan) and Nelson Mandela, a citizen of South Africa.
  • The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, faced brief suspensions during the periods of July 1977 to January 1980 and August 1992 to December 1995, due to changes in the national government and legal challenges to their constitutional validity.
    • In 1992, controversy arose over the posthumous award to Subhas Chandra Bose, leading to a cancellation following a Supreme Court decision in 1997, a unique instance where the award was announced but not conferred.
  • Recipients whose awards have been revoked must surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
  • There is no Bharat Ratna Award winners list for 2020 and 2021. 

Several special entitlements: 

  • The medallion and its miniature counterpart.
  • A Sanad (certificate) signed by the President of India.
  • Treatment as a state guest by state governments when traveling within a state.
  • Assistance from Indian missions abroad upon request.
  • Eligibility for a diplomatic passport.
  • Lifetime complimentary executive class travel on Air India.
  • Occupying the seventh position in the Indian order of precedence.
image 141

About Padma Awards: 

  • Padma Awards were established in 1954 to recognize and honour individuals for their outstanding contributions in various fields such as Sports, Art, Social work, Civil Service, Literature and Education, Public Affairs, Science and Technology, Trade and Industry, among others.
  • The awardees are announced annually on Republic Day, celebrating their exceptional services.
  • Despite being consistently awarded each year, there were three exceptions: in 1977, 1980, and the period between 1993 and 1997.
  • Specific rules govern the conferment of Padma awards, including a waiting period of five or more years for recipients to be eligible for a higher degree of award after their last conferment.
  • Posthumous awards are rare but can be considered in exceptional cases, and there must be a notable element of public service in the achievements of the individual.

The Padma Awards are categorized into three levels by the Government of India:

  • Padma Vibhushan: Awarded for exceptional and distinguished service (Second Degree Honour).
  • Padma Bhushan: Recognizing distinguished service of a high order (Third Degree Honour).
  • Padma Shri: Conferred for distinguished service (Fourth Degree Honour).

Padma Vibhushan:

  • This is the second-highest civilian award in India, bestowed in recognition of exceptional and distinguished service.
  • Recipients receive a citation certificate and a medal featuring a lotus flower in the centre, with the words ‘Desh Seva’ embossed on the obverse.

Padma Bhushan:

  • As the third-highest civilian award, the Padma Bhushan is given to individuals who have contributed significantly to India's reputation on the global stage.
  • The award is conferred in a ceremonial event held at the Rashtrapati Bhawan, conducted by the President of India.

Padma Shri:

  • This is the fourth-highest civilian award, presented by the Government of India to individuals who have made distinguished contributions in various fields.
  • Recipients do not receive a cash prize but are honoured with a certificate and a medallion featuring a three-leafed flower on one side and the words Padma (lotus) and Shri (Mr. or Ms.) in Devanagari script on the obverse.

Note: 

  • It is noteworthy that government servants, except doctors and scientists, working in public sector undertakings (PSUs), are not eligible for these awards.

Many, not one Ramyana

Context: In Ganga River basin the pivotal Ramayana narrative is the 16th-century Ramcharitmanas of Goswami Tulsidas, written in Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the existence of numerous Ramayanas beyond the Hindi belt, crafted over the last 2,000 years, each deserving equal respect.

Introduction:

image 110
  • Multiple versions of the Indian Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana, are known to exist.
  • The oldest among them is widely acknowledged to be the Sanskrit version known as the Mula Ramayana, attributed to the sage Narada.
  • Narada passed down this knowledge to Valmiki, who then authored the Valmiki Ramayana, which is currently considered the oldest available version of the epic.
  • The core themes of the original Ramayana transcend linguistic boundaries, finding expression in diverse regional cultures and artistic forms.

Influences:

  1. Portrayal of the epic in the Lkhaon Khmer dance theatre in Cambodia.
  2. Ramanattam and Kathakali of Kerala.
  3. Mappila Songs of the Muslims in Kerala and Lakshadweep.
  4. Indian dance tradition of Yakshagana, Karnataka. 
  5. Paintings adorning the walls of Thailand's Wat Phra Kaew palace temple.
  6. In Indonesia, the Ramayana tales are reflected in traditional dance performances such as Sendratari Ramayana and Kecak.

Diverse adaptations of the Ramayana, each reflecting unique cultural perspectives:

  • Andhra Pradesh:
    • Sri Ranganatha Ramayanam by Gona Budda Reddy (1300-1310 CE). 
    • Srimadramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Sri Viswanatha Satyanarayana, awarded the first Jnanpith award in Telugu.
  • Assam: Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali (14th century).
  • Bengal:
    • Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha (15th century). 
    • Ramananda Ghosh's 18th-century translation depicted Rama as an avatar of Buddha; 
  • Odisha:
    • The 15th-century Odia Dandi Ramayana mentions Ram enjoying mangoes provided by a tribal woman, later transforming into the widely known story of Shabari's berries in the 18th-century Bhakti-rasa-prabodhini.
  • Bihar:
    • Mithila Bhasha Ramayana by Chanda Jha. 
    • Rameshwar Charit Mithila by Lal Das.
  • Gujarat: Tulsi-Krta Ramayana, a Gujarati adaptation by Premanand Swami (17th century).
  • Karnataka:
    • Kumudendu Ramayana (Jain version)
    • Ramachandra Charita Purana by Nagachandra (12th century).
  • Kerala:
    • Ramacharitam, based on Yuddha Kanda, by Cheeraman (12th century);
    • Mappila Ramayanam among the Muslims.
  • Maharashtra: Bhavartha Ramayana by Sant Eknath (16th century).
  • Uttar Pradesh (Awadh): Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas (16th century).
  • Tamil Nadu:
    • Kamba Ramayanam by poet Kamban (12th century), a popular Tamil version.
    • 7th-century Tamil songs of Alwar poet-saints portray Ram playfully trying to straighten Manthara's humped back as a child.
  • Persian: A Persian version commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1558–1590, known as the Ramayana of Akbar.
  • Urdu: An Urdu version called the Pothi Ramayana was written in 1776.

Versions in Other Indian Religions:

  • Jainism:
    • Paumachariyam, a Jain version, asserts that all characters in the Ramayana were mere mortals.
    • Characters depicted as Jains; Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites. 
    • Ravana is not killed by Rama in the Jain version.
  • Buddhist Version of Ramayana:
    • Dasharatha was king of Benares, not Ayodhya.
    • This version does not feature Sita's kidnapping or the Ram-Ravan war.
    • Dasarata Jataka, notable for regarding Rama as a bodhisattva.
    • Characters in the Ramayana are considered mere mortals in conflict over moral issues.
  • Sikh Version:
    • Mention of two sorts of Ramayana in the highest Sikh text.
    • Spiritual Ramayana in Guru Granth Sahib, where Ravana represents ego, Sita represents intellect, Rama represents the inner Self, and Laxman represents attention. 
    • Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges Dashavatara as monarchs who restored order to the earth.
    • King Rama (Ramchandra) is mentioned, but no Guru authored a full Ramayana.

Various versions outside India:

  • Japan: Known as Ramaenna or Ramaensho.
  • Cambodia: Reamker is the local adaptation.
  • Indonesia: In Bali, there is Ramakavaca; Java features Kakawin Ramayana and Yogesvara Ramayana; Sumatra presents Ramayana Swarnadwipa.
  • Thailand: The local version is called Ramakien.
  • Nepal: Siddhi Ramayana (Nepal Bhasa) and Bhanubhaktako Ramayan (Nepali language).
  • Sri Lanka: Known as Janakiharan.

Ram Temple at Ayodhya built in Nagara style of temple architecture

Ram Temple at Ayodhya

  • The original design was given by the Sompura family of Ahmedabad in 1988. The Sompura family for at least 15 generations has contributed to temple designs of over 100 temples worldwide. Example: Somnath Temple
  • In 2022, a new design was prepared by the Sompuras, as per the Hindu texts, the Vastu Shastra and the Shilpa Shastra. 
  • The Ram mandir will be 250 feet wide, 380 feet long and 161 feet high. 
  • Predominantly designed in the Gurjara-Chaulukya (Maru-Gurjara) style of Nagara style of architecture. 
  • Main structure will be built on a raised platform with three storeys. 
  • The temple will have five mandapas in the middle of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and on the entrance passage. 
  • It will consist of a total of 366 columns and these columns will have 16 idols each to include the incarnations of Shiva, the 10 Dashavataras, the 64 Chausath Yoginis, and the 12 incarnations of the goddess Saraswati. 
  • Sandstone from Baansi in Rajasthan will be used. 
  • Iron will not be used in the construction of the temple and the fusion of stone blocks with copper plates will be done. 
  • Thailand is also symbolically contributing to the inauguration of the temple, by sending soil to the Ram Janmabhoomi. Prior to this the country has also sent water from two rivers in Thailand to honour the temple. 
Maru-Gurjara Architecture or Solanki style: The style originated from that of the dynasties preceding the Solanki dynasty, mainly the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Reached zenith from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chalukya dynasty of Gujarat (Solanki dynasty). Although originated as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became popular in Jain temples. Features:Curvilinear ShikharaFree standing Kirti ToranaKunda or a temple tankHeavy carvings on ceilings of MandapaHigh plinths Balconies looking out on multiple side

Nagara style of temple architecture:

  • Emerged sometime in the 5th century CE, during the late Gupta period, in Northern India. 
  • Seen in juxtaposition with the Dravidian style of southern India, which too emerged in the same period. 
  • Nagara and Dravida may be called ‘Styles’, but they cover vast areas and time spans. 
  • Different sub-schools emerged in western, central and eastern parts of the country. 
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Features of Nagara Temple Architecture 

  • Panchayatana style of temple making: Consisting of subsidiary shrines laid out in a crucified ground plan with respect to the principal shrine. 
  • Garbha-Griha (sanctum sanctorum): Idol of the deity is placed and is most sacred part of the temple. Images of the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, are placed outside the garbhagriha. 
  • Assembly halls or mandaps, in front of the principal shrine.
  • Unlike Dravida temples, water tanks or reservoirs are not present in the temple premises.
  • Built on upraised platforms. 
  • Shikharas: These are human-made representations of the natural and cosmological order, as imagined in Hindu tradition.
    • Depending on the period and geography, there is a large variation in what a shikhara looks like, or how it is used in a temple’s design.
    • Types of Shikharas: 
      • Latina or rekha-prasad: Square at the base and the walls curve inward to a point on the top.
      • Phamsana: Broader base and were shorter in height than the Latina ones; Slope upwards on a straight line.
      • Valabhi: Rectangular base with the roof rising into vaulted chambers;  Emerged in the Gupta heartland. 
      • Bhumija: Miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows; Created a grid-like effect on each face.
  • Amalaka (horizontal fluted disc): At the vertical end of the shikhara. 
  • Kalash: In spherical shape on top. 
  • Vertical planes: 
    • Triratha temples.
    • Later, pancharatha, saptaratha and even navaratha temples came into existence.
    • Used as different panels to make narrative sculptures.
  • Covered Ambulatory passageway (Pradakshina-path): Around the sanctum sanctorum. 
  • Temple premises did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
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Regional schools of Nagara Style 

Central India/ Khajuraho school or Chandela School

  • Chandelas in the centre of India around 1000 AD created this style of temple construction known as the Khajuraho School or Chandela School.
  • It is made of sandstone.
  • Generally north or east facing.
  • These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that serves as the garbhagriha.
  • This temple is in the panchayatana style.
  • The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple.
  • Examples: Khajuraho, Kandariya Mahadeo temple, in Madhya Pradesh
image 410

                                               Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khajuraho

Western India/Solanki Style

There are two schools that developed in Gujarat & Rajasthan these are Solanki school in Gujarat and Jain Temples in Mount Abu.

Gujarat School

  • The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type with sandstone being the most common construction material employed.
  • Presence of a hundred-square-metre rectangular pond(suryakund). 
  • A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides.
  • Example: Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat

Rajasthan School

  • Use of white marble.
  • The walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving and are left plain as the temple faces the east.
  • The ornamental detail spreads over the minutely carved ceilings, doorways, pillars, and panels.
  • Example: Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu

East India Temple Architecture

There are three schools that developed in east India these are Assam, Bengal and Odisha School.

Assam School of Temple Architecture

  • It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction. The temple consists of four chambers:
  • garbhagriha and,
  • three mandapas locally called Calanta, Pancaratna and Natamandira.
  • The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.

Bengal School of Temple Architecture

  • Bengal witnessed a temple building spree from the late 15th century.
  • Temple architecture in Bengal got inspired from the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thatched huts in villages, which housed local deities.
  • Dochala (two-roofed style)
  • Chauchala (four-roofed style)
  • Temples were usually built on a square platform.
  • Interior of the temples were relatively plain, but the outer walls of these temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.
  • In the Bishnupur group of temples in Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.
  • This style also incorporated elements of the dome and multilobe arch of Islamic architecture.
  • Elements of Bengal Temple architecture were adopted outside Bengal as well. 

Odisha School of Temple Architecture

  • The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
  • The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
  • Also known as Kalinga School
  • The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra.
  • The Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a tower and a hall.
  • The tower is called deula and hall is called Jagmohan.
  • The walls of both the deula and the Jagmohan are lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures.
  • The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas. It is dual or deula which makes three distinct types of temples in Kalinga Architecture.
  • These temples usually have boundary walls.

Jagannath Puri, Odisha 

Temple Architecture in Hills

There are two schools that developed in Himalayan region of India these are Kumaon,Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir School.

Kumaon School

  • The central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers on each side.
  • The main entrance is located at the front of the central tower, while several other entrances are located at each of its sides.
  • These entrances are all decorated with intricate carvings depicting various scenes from mythology.
  • The main entrance faces east
  • The main temple complex includes four large halls or mandapas.
  • Jageshwar in Almora, Uttarakhand 

Himachal School

  • Wooden buildings
  • It looks like a hut, with an intricately carved wooden entrance, interior and ceiling.
  • Laksna Devi Mandir, Himachal Pradesh

Kashmir School of Temple Architecture

  • Wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
  • The main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture.
  • Pandrethan temple is built on a plinth built in the middle of a tank.
  • The temple is moderately ornamented.
  • Pandrethan temple or Pani Mandir, Badami bagh, Srinagar

Sattras in Assam

Context: Congress leader Rahul Gandhi sought blessings at the Sri Sri Auniati Satra, a more than 350-year-old Vaishnavite monastery in Assam’s Majuli district. Sri Sri Auniati Satra was established in 1663 in Majuli. Lord Krishna is worshipped as Govinda with the original idol being brought from the Lord Jagannath Temple at Puri.

Satra (Ekasarana Dharma) - Wikipedia

About Sattras

  • Sattras are monastic institutions created as part of the 16th-century Neo-Vaishnavite reformist movement initiated by Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva.
  • Sankardeva preached a monotheistic form of Hinduism (Ekasarana tradition) called Vaishnavism and established monasteries and hermitages known as Sattra on the islet.
  • The first Sattra was founded in Majuli.
  • Sattras are spread across the state, propagating Sankardeva’s unique “worship through art” approach with music (borgeet), dance (sattriya), and theater (bhauna).
  • There are different types of Satras, such as Auniati, Kamalabari, Dakhinpat, Garamur, Samaguri, Bengenaati, and Natun Kamalabari.
  • They consist of a large prayer hall (Naamghar) headed by an influential “Sattradhikar” facing a simple shrine, surrounded by dormitories and bathing tanks for monks.
  • They also offer guest accommodation where devotees and visitors take part in the worship of Vishnu and Krishna and also watch traditional bhaona performances.
  • Young bhakats are wonderful artisans and make masks, musical instruments, as well as hand-fans and door frames.
  • Young bhakats may or may not be celibate, depending on the kind of Sattra they are inducted into.

History of Somnath temple

Context: The Prime Minister of India is to inaugurate the Ram temple in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh on 22nd January. This brought back the memory of inauguration of Somnath temple, that was 73 years ago by the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad. 

More from the news article:

history of Somnath temple
  • British Governor General Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844) presented the temple as a symbol of Islam’s excesses on Hindus. 
  • After the British army was defeated in Afghanistan (1842) and faced heavy losses, a retaliatory strike was carried out. 
  • ‘The gates of Somnath’, during this time became a major issue. A pair of sandalwood gates from Ghazni, were brought back by the British, claiming they were the original gates of Somnath taken by the invaders. 
  • Lord Ellenborough proclaimed this as the avenging of an insult that Mahmud of Ghazni inflicted upon Hindus 800 years ago (1026). 
  • The Nawab of Junagadh, where Somnath was located, decided to accede to Pakistan in August 1947. However, he fled when the rebellion started. 
  • Sardar Patel, the then Home Minister, visited Junagadh (Saurashtra region, Gujarat) and announced the reconstruction of the Somnath temple. 
  • As per the suggestion given by Gandhiji, a trust was set up under K. M. Munshi for funding the project. (The idea was, people of the country should collectively fund the project, instead of the Government, a secular entity). 
  • In 1951, the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad was approached by K. M. Munshi for inauguration (Pran-Pratistha) of the temple. 

About Somnath Temple:

  • Location: Along the coastline in Prabhas Patan, Veraval, Saurashtra region of Gujarat.
  • Veraval was an ancient trading port. 
  • During the Indus Valley Civilisation, the site of Prabhas Patan was occupied. After abandonment in 1200 BCE, it was reoccupied in 400 BCE. 
  • As per the temple’s website, it is the holy place of the first Aadi Jyotirlinga Shree Somnath Mahadev and the sacred soil where Lord Krishna took his last journey. 
  • Since ancient times, the site has been a pilgrimage site on account of being a Triveni Sangam, i.e., the confluence of three rivers, Kapila, Hiran and Saraswati. 

Descriptions of the Temple:

  • No mentions of ‘Somnath nomenclature’ have been found in ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism.
  • However, mentions of ‘Prabhas-Pattan’ as tirtha (Pilgrimage site), where the temple is located is found. 
  • Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (a 5th century poem) mentions some of the sacred Shiva Pilgrimage sites: Banaras (Varanasi), Mahakal-Ujjain, Tryambaka, Prayaga, Pushkara, Gokarna and Somnath-Prabhasa. This clearly indicates tirthas of his time. 
  • 11th -century Persian historian Al-Biruni has also stated that, “Somnath has become so famous because it was the harbour for seafaring people and a station for those who went to and fro between Sufala in the country of Zanj (east Africa) and China.”
  • The 14th century description was given by Amir Khusrow, where he noted, Gujarati Muslim pilgrims paid their respects before departing for the Hajj Pilgrimage (Mecca, Saudi Arabia). 

Origin, Construction and Reconstruction: 

  • First temple is said to have existed 2000 years ago. 
  • 649 AD: King Maitre of Vallabhini built a second temple. 
  • Ruler of Sindh in 725, attacked and destroyed the temple. 
  • 815: Pratishtha King Nag Bhatt II constructed the temple for the third time, using Red Sandstone. 
  • 1026: Turkish ruler, Mahmud of Ghazni raided and plundered Somnath temple and destroyed it, during the reign of Solanki King Bhimdev I. This raid was confirmed by Al-Biruni, who worked in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. 
  • King Bhimdev in between 1026-1042, rebuilt the temple for the fourth time. 
  • Kumarapala of the Chalukya-Solanki dynasty of Gujarat (his capital was Anahilapataka) rebuilt the temple and studded it with jewels, as per the inscription of 1169. 
  • In 1299, during the Gujarat invasion, Allaudin Khilji’s army, led by Ulugh khan, sacked the temple after defeating Vaghela king Karna. 
  • 1308: It was rebuilt by Mahipala I (Chudasama king of Saurashtra) and the lingam in the temple was re-installed by his son Khengara. Chudasama dynasty ruled the part of present-day Saurashtra region of Gujarat, sometime between the 9th and 15th centuries. Capital: Junagadh and Vamanasthali. 
  • 1395: Attacked by Zafar khan. Zafar Khan was the last governor of Gujarat under the Delhi Sultanate and the founder of Gujarat Sultanate.
  • 1451: Sacked by Mahmud Begada, the Sultan of Gujarat.
  • As per the book: ‘Somanatha: the many voices of the 16th century’ by Romila Thapar, Mughal ruler Akbar permitted the worship of Linga in the temple and also appointed Desai/officers to administer it. 
  • 1706: Mughal ruler, Aurangzeb again demolished the temple and gradually the temple fell into disuse. 
  • 1782: Somnath temple was in dilapidated state when Maratha queen from Indore, Ahilya bai Holkar built a small temple and placed an idol. The Ahilyabai-built temple is now known as ‘Old Somnath’. 
  • After India's independence: The present Somnath temple was reconstructed in the Maru-Gurjara style. 

Maru-Gurjara Architecture or Solanki style: 

Features:

  • Curvilinear Shikhara
  • Free standing Kirti Torana
  • Kunda or a temple tank
  • Heavy carvings on ceilings of Mandapa
  • High plinths 
  • Balconies looking out on multiple side

Architecture of the temple: 

  • Pre-11th century temple: Remains of the foundation, the lower structure suggests an exquisitely carved temple. The garbhagriha (sanctum) was connected to a mukha-mandapa (entrance hall). It opened to the east. 
Architecture of Somnath temple
  • 19th-century ruined Somnath temple: British official and scholar, Alexander Burnes surveyed the site in 1830 and stated that the temple was converted into a Muslim structure (mosque) with an arch. 
  • Present temple: Temple has a ‘Kailash Maha Meru Prasad’ form. The new temple is intricately carved, with pillared mandapa and 212 relief panels. 

Jagannath Temple Corridor

Context: Chief Minister of Odisha has launched the Shree Mandir Parikrama Prakalpa, which is a massive peripheral development project around Puri’s 12th century Shree Jagannath Temple.

More about the news: 

  • Heritage Corridor: 75-metre-wide space encircling the temple, known as the heritage corridor is divided into nine different zones.
  • It has a 7-metre green buffer zone, adjacent to the Meghanada Pacheri, or the boundary of the temple.
  • A 10-metre Antar Pradakshina will allow space for ceremonial processions of the deities throughout the year. 
  • There is also a public convenience zone having restrooms, drinking water facilities, information-cum-donation kiosks, mini cloakrooms, and a dedicated emergency lane.
  • The State government organised a massive outreach programme, with Arpan Raths taken out in every village to promote, preserve and protect Jagannath culture through people’s participation.
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About Jagannath temple: 

  • An important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu. 
  • Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India). 
  • Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra are deities worshipped at the temple. 
  • The temple is sacred to all Hindus, and especially in those of the Vaishnava traditions and is one of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of the Vaishnavite tradition.
    • Many great Vaishnava saints, such as Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated with the temple.
    • Ramanuja established the Emar Matha in the south-eastern corner of the temple. 
    • Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, which is the seat of one of the four Shankaracharyas.
    • It is also of particular significance to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, was attracted to the deity, Jagannath. 
  • The worship is performed by the Bhil Sabar tribal priests, as well as priests of other communities in the temple.
  • Unlike the stone and metal icons found in most Hindu temples, the image of Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
  • The temple is one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites, the other being Rameshwaram, Badrinath and Dwarka.

Construction: 

  • The present temple was rebuilt by the King of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE, as described by the Kendupatna copper-plate inscription of his descendant, Narasimhadeva II.
  • Anantavarman was originally a Shaivite, and became a Vaishnavite sometime after he conquered the Utkala region, in which the temple is located, in 1112 CE.
  • A 1134–1135 CE inscription records his donation to the temple.
  • The temple complex was further developed during the reigns of the subsequent kings, including those of the Ganga dynasty and the Gajapati dynasty (1434-1541). 
  • The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture. The temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).

Rath Yatra: 

  • The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India.
  • It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh (June or July).
  • The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra.
  • During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.
  • The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra)

Thiruvalluvar: Tamil Poet

Context: The Governor of Tamil Nadu paid tributes to a portrait of Tamil poet saint ‘Thiruvalluvar’ in saffron robes and described him as a saint of the ‘Bharatiya Sanatan’ tradition. This has revived a controversy, opposing the attempt to ‘saffronise’ Thiruvalluvar. 

About Thiruvalluvar: 

  • Valluvar was an ancient saint, poet, and prominent philosopher in the Tamil region, and his significant contributions are particularly evident in his work, 'Thirukurral.'
  • Comprising 1330 couplets, this collection holds a special place in every Tamil household. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam.
image 88

Note: 

The Three Sangam Councils: These councils were held in the Pandyan Kingdom. 

  1. First Sangam, was held in Madurai, and was attended by legendary sages. No book or literary work of this Sangam is available. Sage Agastya is believed to have chaired the first Sangam. 
  2. Second Sangam, was convened in Kapadapuram. The only surviving literary work is Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar. 
  3. Third Sangam was held in Madurai. The literary works from this Sangam provide useful sources to reconstruct the history of Sangam period. 
  • Various communities in the Tamil region regard Valluvar as the 64th Nayanmar of the Saivite tradition.
    • The renowned Mylapore temple, constructed in the early 16th century, stands as a testament to the deep reverence for Valluvar.
    • The temple is situated within the Ekambareeswara-Kamakshi (Shiva-Parvati) temple complex in Mylapore, Chennai. 
  • Valluvar influenced and shaped the perspectives of numerous scholars and he presented views on ethical, social, political, philosophical, spiritual and economic domains.  
  • Authentic information about Valluvar's life remains scarce as neither his true name nor the original title can be found in Tirukkural. 
  • The earliest known textual reference to the legend of Valluvar is found in the Shaivite Tamil text Thiruvalluva Malai.

Religious affiliation:

  • It is a subject of debate, with conjectures placing him within either Jainism or Hinduism.
  • Some scholars argue that Valluvar's writings align more closely with Hinduism, as evidenced by the integration of his teachings in Tirukkural with Hindu texts.
  • Also, Valluvar's treatment of the concept of ahimsa (non-violence), which is an important tenet in both Jainism and Hinduism, further supports the claim.

About Tirukkural:

  • It is divided into three parts: aram (virtue), porul (wealth), and inbam (love).
  • Valluvar text predominantly addresses the three aspects directly but it does not explicitly cover vitu (moksha or release).
  • The concept of turavaram (renunciation) is explored, serving as a means to achieve spiritual liberation. Hence, vitu is indirectly discussed within the Kural text.
  • The couplets are organized into 133 sections, each containing 10 couplets.
  1. Book I (Aram): Deals with the moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy.
  2. Book II (Porul): Explores socio-economic values, polity and statecraft, and administration.
  3. Book III (Inbam): Addresses psychological values and the theme of love.
  • Valluvar presents his theory of the state through six key elements: Army (Patai), Subjects (Kuti), Treasure (Kul), Ministers (Amaiccu), Allies (Natpu), and Forts (Aran).
  • Valluvar recommends the establishment of forts and other infrastructure, along with adequate supplies and food storage, in preparation for potential sieges.
  • While sharing similarities with the teachings found in Arthasastra, Valluvar's perspectives differ in some crucial aspects.
  • Example: Valluvar's theory of the state, the army (patai) emerges as the most vital element, in contrast to Kautilya's emphasis on King.

Philosophy: 

  • Contrary to being a mystic or purely philosophical document, Tirukkural is centred on the comprehensive understanding of human relationships and is renowned for its concept of 'Pragmatic idealism.'
  • Valluvar's philosophy places the 'common man' at its core, emphasizing the need for individuals to lead virtuous lives, uphold human values, promote social harmony and actively engage in political life. 

On Religion and Spirituality: 

  1. He glorifies significant divine attributes without specifying a particular deity by name.
  2. This approach leads people to perceive the teachings in the Kural text as not being attributed to any specific God or religion.
  3. He envisioned a harmonious society where diverse communities from various sects coexist peacefully, thus advocating for a monotheistic divinity.
  4. He intentionally avoided discussing moksha or liberation and emphasized on the importance of living a virtuous and honest life on Earth.
  5. He believes that individuals who exhibit virtue in their domestic, social, political, and moral spheres will experience abundant joy in all aspects of life.

On Administration and Governance:

  1. Democracy: He did not endorse democracy but accepted Royalty with ministers bound by a code of ethics and a system of justice.
  2. At the same time, the Kural text, cautions against tyranny, appeasement, and oppression, suggesting that such behaviour leads to disasters, depletion of state wealth, and the loss of power and prosperity.

Governance:

  1. He asserts that “just as living beings thrive with good rainfall, citizens flourish when a king governs justly”.
  2. He advised rulers to avoid cruelty, as a lack of daily examination of wrongdoings and the absence of justice will lead to the downfall of the kingdom.
  3. He highlighted the ruler's duty to protect the realm from terrorism, warning that a failure to control such threats will result in the loss of peace. 
  4. Role of ministers is crucial, as they are expected to assist in the smooth administration of the kingdom, understanding the nature of undertakings and offering advice when necessary to the King.
  5. He underscored the necessity of maintaining good relationships with neighbouring countries through envoys for peaceful coexistence.

On Business:

  1. He advocated for eternal values and moral principles which will govern the conduct of business leaders.

Read also:

Sangam LiteratureSangam Society
Sangam PolityDynasties of Sangam Age

Bhogali Bihu: Magh Bihu 2024

Context: As part of Bhogali Bihu, a community fishing event was organised in the Bamuni Lake in Guwahati, Assam. 

image 57

About Bhogali Bihu: 

  • Magh Bihu, also known as Bhogali Bihu or Maghar Domahi, is a significant harvest festival celebrated in the northeastern region of India, particularly in Assam.
  • This festive occasion, occurring in the month of Magh (January–February), serves as the culmination of the harvesting season.
  • The festivities are marked by a combination of feasts and bonfires. Young individuals engage in the construction of makeshift huts known as Meji and Bhelaghar, fashioned from bamboo, leaves, and thatch.
  • Traditional Assamese games, including tekeli bhonga (pot-breaking) and buffalo fighting, add a cultural flair to the celebrations.
  • In contemporary times, Magh Bihu is observed on a single day, whereas historically, the festival extended throughout the entire month of Magh, thus giving it the name Magh Bihu. 
  • The eve before the festival, known as ‘Uruka’, involves people gathering around bonfires, preparing meals, and enjoying merrymaking.
  • In addition to the main Magh Bihu festivities, related celebrations such as Sangken can be observed in Assam and Arunachal.
  • The Kacharis, an indigenous Assamese community, partake in similar customs.
  • The Khamti people observe a Bonfire tradition related to Buddha. This unique ritual, distinct from other Tai groups, suggests that the Khamtis likely adopted the practice from locals in the 18th century, evolving it into a Buddhist rite. 
image 58
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About Bamuni hills:

  • Location: Right bank of the Brahmaputra River. 
  • These hills are a tourist attraction for sculptural ruins and stone carvings. 
  • As per the Archaeological Survey of India, under whose control this area currently is, has fixed the date of these ruins at 10th to 12th century A.D.
  • The ruins as per the popular belief might have belonged to a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu. 
  • Although it is not clear as to who had this temple constructed, it is generally believed that it was built during the rule of early Pala rulers. The findings suggest that the temple was a north Indian Nagara style.  
  • The remains of the subsidiary shrines at the four corners of the main center make it a Panchayatana temple complex. 
  • The Kolia bhomora setu (Bridge) is also situated nearby to the Bamuni hills.
image 60
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About Chandubi lake: 

  • Recently, the Chandubi festival was celebrated in Assam. 
  • The main attractions of the Chandubi festival are local folk culture, ethnic cuisine, local handloom and dresses, boating, etc. 
  • The festival is mainly to promote eco-tourism.
  • The lake is situated at the foot of the Garo hills, in Kamrup district, Assam. It is a biodiversity hotspot with a surrounding forest area and the Kulsi River flowing in close vicinity. 
  • The area was formerly filled with five mountains. However, during the massive earthquake in 1897, the five mountains had sunken into the ground and hence, the lake was formed.
  • The chief feature is the natural lagoon that has been formed in the lake. 
  • The name Chandubi is derived from two words where Chand means five and Dubi means sinking in Khasi language.
  • Chandubi is also a bird sanctuary, as it attracts a large number of migratory birds during the winter season. 

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