Context: Hexagon (a digital solutions company) has created a digital twin of the Qutb Shahi Tomb complex using drone scanners. A digital twin is a digital model of an object, system or a process that acts the same as its real-world counterpart.
Qutb Shahi Tombs
Qutb Shahi tomb complex form a mausoleum complex which forms a royal necropolis which comprises a tomb of Royal family and officials who faithfully served them and mortuary bath and mosques.
This complex consists of 30 tombs, mosques, and a mortuary bath.
Qutb Shahi tombs are in Ibrahim Bagh, close to the famous Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, India.
They contain tombs and mosques built by various kings of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
These tombs are present in a large group on a raised platform.
Architectural styles: They have an amalgamation of Persian, Muslim, and Hindu architectural styles.
They are made using grey granite with stucco ornamentation.
Each tomb is of quadrangular shape and rises around 9-15 meters above the terrace. Smaller tombs constitute single stories while larger tombs are two storied.
Each tomb is covered by beautiful minarets.
The most impressive tomb among the group is of Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah which rises to a height of 42 meters and is protected by a large dome.
The site has a series of stepwells and aqueducts which have been recently restored.
Qutb Shahi Dynasty (1518-1687 AD)
Qutb Shahi dynasty is a Persianate Shia Islamic dynasty ruling over the Golconda region in modern Telangana.
It was founded after the collapse of Bahmani kingdom by Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Shahi.
This dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and annexing Golconda into the Mughal empire.
Qutb Shahis was patrons Persianate Shia culture, Persian language. However, Telugu was also given an important place in the kingdom.
Economy of Qutb Shahi Dynasty:
They had control over the rich fertile deltas of Krishna and Godavari from where land revenue was collected.
Handicrafts and textiles such as calico cloth, cotton weaving etc.
The region was famous for its diamonds especially those produced at Kollur mine in Guntur district.
Context:The Gond Monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla, in Madhya Pradesh, has been recently added to the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites.
Introduction:
Mandla region was formerly known as the Central Provinces of India, covering parts of the present-day states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
It was historically called Gondwana, ‘the Land of the Gonds’, the largest heterogenous tribe of India.
Four major kingdoms ruled over the region, the most important being the Garha-Mandla kingdom.
In 1651, when the Bundelas finally captured Chauragarh, during Hriday Shah’s reign,
He shifted the capital from Chauragarh to Ramnagar (1657 A.D).
On the southern bank of the Narmada River in Ramnagar and the Chaugan Rayotwari, the architectural complexes built by Hridya Shah still stand today.
The royal palace, Moti Mahal, indicates the new seat of government in the late 17th century.
Mughal and Rajput influences are evident in the architectural elements of these buildings.
Stone lattice screens show the influence of Mughal architecture.
Decorative stone parapets, chattris, bangaldar roofs, multi-foil arches in the exterior facade are characteristic Rajput features.
The geographical features of the site further indicate the planning principles adopted with respect to defence mechanisms with the surrounding landscape of the dense forests on the banks of the Narmada River.
None of the monuments have excessive ornamentation since they were not intended as castles displaying artistic capacity or opulence.
Cluster of monuments include:
Moti Mahal, Ramnagar
Raibhagat ki Kothi, Ramnagar
Vishnu Mandir (Suraj mandir), Ramnagar
Begum Mahal, Chaugan Rayotwari, Mandla
Dal Badal Mahal, Chaugan Ryotwari, Mandla
About Moti Mahal
Situated near the Narmada River bank.
Declared as a state protected monument since 1984.
Moti Mahal, is built in a quadrangle shape and has a central courtyard.
Arched colonnades (an evenly spaced row of columns usually supporting the base of roof structures) separate the halls, durbar hall, and dancing hall.
The monument also has a basement with a network of tunnels and passages.
It also has an elaborate drainage system, which is connected to the Narmada.
A stone inscription, believed to be inscribed in 1667 A.D., is also found (which was previously in the Vishnu temple).
It is considered one of the most important historical sources recording the genealogy of the Gond rulers of Garha Mandla.
It places the origin of the family in the beginning of the 7th century and describes the chronological reign of 54 Gond rulers.
Raibhagat ki Kothi
It is also known as Mantri Mahal.
Also, it has been declared a state protected monument since 1984.
The residence was built by Hriday Shah for his Dewan, Rai Baghat.
Monument appears more symmetric with the central courtyard and the four domes on each corner.
Entrance of the monument has an ornate painted ceiling.
Vishnu Mandir (also known as Suraj mandir)
The temple resembles a Mughal tomb or a Bengali Pancha Ratna style temple.
The temple was built by Rani Sundari. She was the wife of Hriday Shah.
The inscription stone housed in the Moti Mahal was originally in the Vishnu temple.
The structure is built in a square plan.
A square room in the middle is covered by a dome.
As per the sources, there were idols of Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Durga, but none of them have remained.
Declared a state protected monument since 1984.
Begum Mahal
It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument.
The structure was built by King Hriday Shah for Chimni Rani, a Mughal princess.
It is a three-storey tall structure with visible Mughal features in its architecture.
Upper level of the structure has domed rooms and a central room with a vaulted roof.
Exterior of the palace features a water body and on either side of it are stairs that descend down towards the water body.
Dalbadal (Sporting Palace)
It is a centrally protected Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) monument.
It is a rectangular structure built by King Hriday Shah for his generals and soldiers.
Garha/Mandla/Katanga Kingdom (1300 AD to 1789 AD)
Introduction:
First large kingdom to be founded by the Gond tribe.
Dominated much of Central India at its peak.
About the kingdom:
First Gond king: Jadurai, who became the ruler after deposing the Kalachuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandla, where earlier he worked in court.
The kingdom was initially a small territory focussing more on consolidation.
Sukhandas (1480–1500): Included Rajputs in his army and administration.
Akbarnama (history of Akbar's reign), written by Abul Fazl, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha katanga that had 70,000 villages:
Abul Fazl mentioned that “the east part of the country adjoins Ratanpur which belongs to Jharkhand, and the west is contiguous to Raisen which belongs to the province of Malwa”.
The kingdom acquired its medieval name from the city of Gadha and the village of Katanga.
Sangram Shah (the 48th king):
Capital: Singhorgarh.
Rapidly expanded the kingdom.
Successfully captured territories like Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh and most of the Satpura hills.
Conquered 52 forts called Garhs to strengthen and consolidate his hold on territory.
The Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur was built in the honour of conquering 52 forts.
He was a great patron of arts and literature and he had great knowledge of Sanskrit. He wrote Rasratnamala.
Dalpat Shah, succeeded Sangram Shah and was married to Rani Durgavati (a Chandela Rajput Princess).
Rani Durgavati (reigned from 1550-1564):
Capital was moved to Chouragarh because it was safer than Singorgarh fort.
After her husband’s death, two ministers, Man Thakur and Adhar Kayastha, helped her assume the throne and leadership of the Gond dynasty.
She defeated Baz Bahadur, the last sultan of Malwa, who tried to invade Garha kingdom.
She constructed reservoirs to help farmers. Example: Ranital reservoir built close to Jabalpur; Cherital; and Adhartal, which was built by Adhar Kayastha.
Battle against the Mughals:
Emperor Akbar sent his forces led by Asaf Khan I to capture Garha in 1564.
Rani Durgavati fiercely resisted in the Battle of Narrai (1564), however, after facing defeat, she killed herself.
The kingdom was ruled for some years by the Mughals and later was restored to Chandra Shah (son of Sangram Shah).
Chandra Shah was recognised as a successor to Rani Durgavati by Akbar on accepting Mughal suzerainty.
Chandra Shah was succeeded by Madhukar Shah and Prem Narain.
Hriday Shah (last great king of the Kingdom), who ruled for 42 years, maintained friendly relations with the Mughals. He moved the capital from Chouragarh to Ramnagar of Mandla district.
Administration:
It became centralized.
Kingdom was divided into Garh and each Garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan.
The Gond clan was further divided into units of 84 villages called Chourasi.
Chourasi was further subdivided into Barhots, which were made up of 12 villages each.
Decline of the Kingdom:
After Hriday Shah’s death, no great ruler appeared and court intrigue became common which weakened the state.
Gond rajas of Deogadh, took advantage of the kingdom's weakness and annexed a large part of its territories.
By the time of Maharaj Shah (1732–1742), the kingdom held only 29 out of the initial 52 forts.
In 1742, Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao along with the rule of Sagar Marathas attacked Garha-Mandla and killed the ruler, Maharaj Shah.
Shivraj Singh (son of Maharaja Shah) paid an annual tribute of 4 lakhs to the Marathas.
Garha-Mandla became a dependent state of the Sagar Marathas.
In 1799 Mandla fell to the Bhonsles of Nagpur and remained under them till in 1818, when the British took over and assumed the rule also over Mandla. (after the Third Anglo Maratha war).
A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by UNESCO for its special cultural or physical significance.
The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by the international ‘World Heritage Programme’, administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
To get its heritage site considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, the country makes an inventory of important natural and cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries.
This ‘inventory’ is known as the Tentative List.
Making it to the tentative list thus is the first step for any site which seeks final nomination for becoming a World Heritage site.
(Picture: Dhamnar Caves site)
About Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar:
Location: Mandsaur district (formerly Dasapura), Madhya Pradesh.
Modern Account of the site:
Earliest reference to these monuments comes from James Tod who visited in 1821.
James Furgusson visited the site in 1845 and Alexander Cunningham visited the site between 1864-1865.
Dating of the caves is difficult due to absence of inscriptions, therefore, these monuments can be dated to the 7th century CE on the basis of few similarities with caves at other sites, such as Ajanta and Ellora.
The name ‘Dhamnar’ is not known from any historical or literary sources.
Buddhist establishment here was known as Chandananagari-mahavihara as evidenced by a clay seal discovered by Historian A.H. Khan.
Scholar K.C Jain opined that the present name Dhamnar is a derived from the Shaivite epithet ‘Dharmanatha’
Dharmanath: Name of the Linga setup in the rock-cut Vaishnava temple during the medieval period.
About Dhamnar Caves:
Series of 51 rock-cut caves, stupas, chaityas, passages and compact dwellings. These caves were cut out from a hill of coarse laterite stone.
These monolithic spaces were further carved to form grand doors with carvings, columns, and religious sculptural symbols.
Built around 1123 years ago: 5th, 6th and 7th century CE (7th century CE was the second wave of cave construction in India).
These caves contain structures belonging to: Buddhism (both Hinayana and Mahayana) and Hinduism (presence of the Dharmarajeshwara/Dharmanatha temple).
Secluded spaces for monks, also known as Viharas are found. These are fairly simple volumes with a lack of ornamentation.
Representation of Buddha by motifs and sculptures as a form of religious symbolic art.
Some caves found with no iconic ornamentation indicate that these possibly belong to the Hinayana Sect of Buddhism.
Archaeological Survey of India, restored the structures here, as the porous laterite rocks which got weathered over the centuries, destabilised and weakened the structures.
(Picture: Seated Buddha, Cave No.11)
Some special features:
Rani ka Makan/Kamaniya Mahal cave (Cave no. 10)
Bhim Bazar Chaitya (Cave no. 11):
Most extensive of all the excavations.
Stupa: Buddha is sculpted in seated posture.
Stupa with three-tier chhatravali and circumambulatory passage.
Chota Bazar/Child’s cave (Cave no. 13):
Chaitya-griha
Nirvana image of Buddha depicted on the east wall.
Depiction of Buddha, as seated upon a throne, in the teaching attitude.
Buddha is known to locals as Bhima.
Principal shrine with Pradakshinapath (circumambulation).
On the back wall of the shrine, are five images, three seated and two standing.
Three seated figures are known by locals as: Pandu with his two sons, Arjuna and Nakula.
Bari Kacheri/Big courthouse (Cave no. 6): includes stupas and chaityas; stone railing with the wooden architecture.
Hathi-ka-mekh/Elephant’s stable/Hathi-bandhi (Cave No 12): simple chaitya cave where the stupa is placed to support the roof.
(Picture: Dharmanatha Temple)
About Dharmanatha Templeat the site:
The temple is situated north of Cave No. 12 of the Buddhist cave group.
Rock-cut temple is excavated in a rectangular pit within the hill.
The courtyard can also be accessed from the top of the hill by the rock-cut stairs provided.
The sculpture on the south is that of Bhairava and on the north is of Kali. The latter carries an inscription dating to the 8th-9th century CE.
Garbha-griha, Antarala, MandapaandMukha-mandapa.
It is surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines.
Thus, the temple falls under the sapta-parivara(family of seven) category, that is generally seen in Southern India for Shiva temples.
Among the seven subsidiary shrines, the ones located in the corners are with Latina-Nagara shikhara.
The ones opposite the garbha-griha are of the Phamsana shikhara.
The temple is known as Chaturbhuj temple by the locals due to the image of a four-arm Sheshasayi-Vishnu installed inside the Garbha-girha. Vishnu is holding Shankha, Chakra and a Lotus flower.
Main temple is Pancharatha:
Consisting ofonebhadra, twoprati-ratha, and two karnaprojections.
Prati-ratha is decorated with ‘ghata-pallava’ motif.
The vertical elevation hasshikhara.
The shikhara is Latina style of the Nagara type, consisting of six bhumis (tiers) marked by bhumi-amalakas at the Karna.
Inside the garbha-grihais a Shivalinga known as Dharmanatha.
The southern shrine has a panel depicting dancing Shiva surrounded by four Matrakas. On the right of Shiva are Maheshwari and Vaishvani while on his left are Indrani and Brahmi.
An interesting feature is the omission of Buddha who is replaced by a figure of Vishnu instead.
There is an inscription and its palaeography helped in dating the temple to the latter half of the 9th century CE.
Context: The Ram Temple at Ayodhya was formally inaugurated on 22nd January 2024. This was a after large scale social movement leading to the demolition of Babri Mosque at the disputed site on 6th December 1992. Following the demolition there was a long legal battle to ascertain the claims of the various groups on the disputed site. The judgement came in the favour of Hindu groups and the site was handed over to build a temple to commemorate the Ram Temple. The judgement emphasised on the following historical sources to ascertain the presence of Ram Temple and the tradition of worship of Ram at the site.
Babri mosque was built in 1528 AD on the instructions of Mughal Emperor Babur by Mir Baqi, who was the commander of Babur’s forces. However, a section of historians also say that the Babri Mosque was constructed by Aurangzeb.
Historical Sources quoted by Ayodhya Judgement
1. Janma Sakhies of Sikhism: Various Janma Sakhies have recorded the description of visit of Guru Nanak Devji to Ayodhya, where he had darshan of birthplace of Lord Ram. The accounts presented in the Janmasakhis depicts that pilgrim visited Ayodhya even before 1528 AD (when Babur is claimed to constructed the Babri Mosque).
Janma Sakhies are legendary biographies of Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of Sikhism. These are hagiographical accounts of the life of Guru Nanak written after the death of Guru Nanak, particularly noting the miracles and travels known as Udasis pursued by Guru Nanak. Largest of the JanmaSakhis is known as Guru Nanak Prakash, written by Kavi Santokh Singh.
2. Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl: Ain-i-Akbari has section on Ramavatara or Ram-incarnation and Ayodhya. Ayodhya is noted as one of the largest cities of India and as one of the holiest cities. Around the city, earth was filtered for gold.
3. Account of William Finch: William Finch arrived in India in August 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins. He was an English Merchant in the service of East India Company. He travelled along with Captain Hawkins during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar and Jehangir. He explored various Indian cities like Delhi, Ambala, Sultanpur, Ayodhya and Lahore.
His account is preserved in a book edited by William Foster called ‘Early Travels in India (1583-1619)’ which has accounts by Ralph Fitch, John Mildenhall, William Hawkins, William Finch, Nicholas Withington, Thomas Coriyat and Edward Terry.
William Finch arrived in India in 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins.
He visited Ayodhya between 1608-11. He did not find any building of Islamic origin in Ayodhya.
He noted the mount known as Ramkot or fort of Lord Rama.
4. Account of Niccolao Manucci: Manucci was Italian traveller who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Manucci is famous for his account of his travels in Mughal India which is known as ‘Storia do Mogor’. Storia do Mogor presents a first-hand account of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Dara Shikoh, Shah Alam I and Jai Singh I. He also provides a detailed account of folk beliefs and customs of the period. Manucci has listed the chief temples destroyed by Auranbzeb. Some of them are:
(a) Maisa (Mayapur)
(b) Matura (Mathura)
(c) Caxis (Kashi)
(d) Hajudia (Ajudhya)
5. Account of Joseph Tieffenthaler: Tieffenthaler was a Jesuit Missionary who visited India in 1740 (three decades after the death of Aurangzeb). His travel account is known as ‘Description Historiqueet Geographique Del’inde’ written in Latin. Tieffenthaler was reportedly proficient in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.
Tieffenthaler visited Ayodhya which is described in the text. He gives the following account:
Refers to Ayodhya as Adjudea.
Contains a reference to the belief of Hindus that Lord Rama is the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Described as Beschan in the account). Lord Rama was born at the site, the symbol it being the ‘Bedi’ or ‘cradle’.
Presence of Sita Rasoi which is a table like place worshipped as the kitchen of Sita.
Emperor Aurangzeb demolished the fortress called Ramcot and got a Muslim Mosque with triple domes, constructed at the same place.
Contains a reference to the use of fourteen black stone pillars which had existed at the site of erstwhile fortress.
His noted that despite the demolition by Aurangzeb there still existed a cult that continues to worship at the site and of large gatherings to mark and celebrate the birthday of Lord Rama.
6. Account of Robert Montgomery Martin: Montgomery Martin was an Anglo-Irish author and civil servant. He authored his account of 10 years of stay in medical practice in Shillong and working as a journalist in Calcutta where he established the ‘Bengal Herald’ newspaper. He wrote the ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India’ in three volumes based on his stay in India during the 1840s. He was one of the founding members of East India Association which was a London based organisation (1866) for raising matters concerning India with membership from Indians and retired British officials. (Note: Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of East India Association).
He infers that the mosque was built by Mughal Emperor Babur and was the most modern in architecture.
However, Martin notes the destruction of Hindu places of worship by Aurangzeb.
He also noted the presence of pillars in the Mosque made of black stones.
7. Edward Thornton’s Gazetteer: Edward Thornton authored ‘Gazetteer of territories under the Government of East India Company and the Native States on the Continent of India’.
Context:Mehrauli city in Delhi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was recently revamped for the G-20 summit.
About Mehrauli City:
Introduction:
Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by AnangPal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.
Various historical structure in Mehrauli:
There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Sultanate (1206 to 1506) and Mughal (1506 to 1857) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints.
Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother, Maham Anga:
Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
The building has two components namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Bahadur Shah Zafar II, wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.
Jamali Kamali tomb and mosque contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple.Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) and his son, Shahid Khan:
Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
Balban of Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
It was constructed in 1506 during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
It was used to store water.
It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 CE, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE):
Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235, a year before his death.
Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.
Context:The first batch of Namda Art products for export to the United Kingdom was flagged off. Namda is a hand-embroidered rug made with sheep wool that reflects the rich culture and history of Kashmir Valley. Namda craft is under the process to get a Geographical Indication tag.
About Namda Craft
It represents the traditional craftsmanship of Kashmir, focusing on the creation of rugs primarily crafted from pure sheep wool.
Diverging from conventional rug-making methods, this craft employs the felting technique instead of the typical weaving process, eliminating any involvement of traditional weaving.
The term ‘Namda’ refers to an additional layer crafted above a standard rug, utilizing old blankets in its construction. This versatile craft is designed to suit various climates.
This artistic tradition is thought to have originated in the 11th century, attributed to the inventive Nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppes.
The art form gained popularity in India during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
As per the historical records, Akbar’s exchequer named Nubi personally crafted a felt for Akbar’s horse and adorned it with beautiful designs through embroidery.
This exquisite creation earned the name Namda in honour of its skilled manufacturer, Nubi.
Artisans specializing in Namda can be found across India, particularly in regions like Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
The craft is predominantly practiced by the Pinjara and Mansuri communities, who are Sama Muslims native to Kutch.
How is Namda made?
The intricate process involves multiple stages, including carding, border creation, layer formation, soap solution application, rolling, drying, and the meticulous Aari work.
Involves carding the wool, a process dedicated to removing impurities and refining the material.
Application of soap solution to wash the wool. Application of water to wool gives binding, enhancing the durability and longevity of the Namda.
Namda undergoes rolling/pressuring using a tool called Pinjra and drying. In
Weaver then attaches the border pattern to the wool to give the foundation.
Next comes, initiation of the primary layer, and adding of the colour and pattern of the Namda.
Aari work: This stage involves intricate embroidery that imparts a delicate form to the Namda.
Designing:
Border (Hashi): Borders play a pivotal role in defining the central layout, preventing the Namda from resembling mere fabric.
Double Khatamband: Interplay of octagons and squares.
Taldaar: Derived from the Kashmiri word ‘Tal,’ meaning 'ceiling,' this motif mirrors the craftsmanship found in ceilings.
Gul-i-akhtab: Reflecting its name, which translates to ‘flower of the sun,’ this Namda motif draws inspiration from the sunflower.
About Namda Project:
Namda Project, an industry-based training program, was introduced in 2021.
Namda craft is a rug made of sheep wool through a felting technique instead of the normal weaving process.
It is being successfully revived under a Skill India’s Pilot Project as part of the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), with nearly 2,200 candidates from across six districts of the state, receiving training in the dying art form.
Need of the project:
Unavailability of adequate raw materials;
Dearth of skilled craftsmen;
Infiltration of machine-made carpets;
Adulteration and inadequate marketing strategies declined the export by almost 100 per cent and brought the heritage craft to the brink of extinction.
Context: The Madhya Pradesh High Court directed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque complex.
AboutBhojshala
Located in: Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Established in: 1034 AD
Built by: Raja Bhoj of Parmar Dynasty (1000–1055 AD)
Key features of the temple: It was the University in which the statue of Vagdevi ( Mata Saraswati) was installed.
Bhojshala was first attacked by Alauddin Khilji in 1305 AD.
In 1514 AD, Mehmudshah Khilji II attacked Bhojshala and tried to convert it into dargah. He encroached land outside Saraswati Temple and built ‘Kamal Moulana’ Makbara.
In 1952, the Central Government gave up Bhojshala to the Archaeological Survey of India.
Architecture of the complex:
It has a large open courtyard around which there is a verandah decorated with pillars and a prayer hall is located behind it in the west.
The carved pillars and the exquisitely carved ceiling of the prayer hall were from Bhojshal.
Inscriptions: In the rocks of complex , two hymns written in Prakrit language of the Karmavatar or crocodile incarnation of Vishnu are engraved.
Two Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions, one containing the Sanskrit alphabet and the main endings of nouns and verbs and the other containing the individual declensions of the ten tenses and moods of Sanskrit grammar. These inscriptions belong to the 11th-12th century.
Two Sanskrit texts are engraved in Anustubha verse.
In one of these, Raja Bhoj's successors Udayaditya and Narvarman have been praised.
In the second, it is told that these pillars were installed by Udayaditya.
Context: Magh Purnima marks the observance of Sant Guru Ravidas Jayanti (February 24). To commemorate the 647th birth anniversary of Sant Guru Ravidas, the Prime Minister unveiled a statue in Varanasi.
About Guru Ravidas:
(Ravidas’s statue in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh)
Born: 1377 CE in Govardhanpur near (Varanasi) Uttar Pradesh.
His place of birth is now known as Shri Guru Ravidas Janam Asthan.
Revered as a guru in regions such as Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
Early life:
Parents: Mata Kalsi and Santokh Das, belonged to an untouchable caste and were engaged in leatherworking.
At the age of 12, he married Lona Devi, and together they had a son named Vijay Dass.
Ravidas redirected his focus towards spiritual pursuits along the banks of the Ganga.
Took extensive pilgrimage travels to Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Himalayas.
He became a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
Contributions to Bhakti movement:
He adhered to the Nirguna sampradaya and rejected the Saguna form of Bhakti.
Historians of religion classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories:
Saguna (with attributes): Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of God.
Ravidas’s teachings symbolized resistance against untouchability, confronting discrimination by higher-caste individuals against those from lower castes.
His egalitarian teachings are adhered by various scheduled classes, now known as Dalits, influencing social-reform movements in the 20th century.
He engaged with Sufi saints, sadhus, and ascetics, fostering a diverse spiritual understanding.
(Manuscript painting of Ravidas-Left and Kabir-Right)
In Literary works/traditions:
His devotional verses have found a significant place in Sikh scriptures:
Scholars suggest that Ravidas had interactions with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.
41 of his poems are included in the Adi Granth, signifying his status as one of the 36 contributors to this central scripture of Sikhism.
Premambodha, a Sikh hagiography written over 170 years after his death, portrays him as one of the seventeen saints in the Indian religious tradition.
Dadu Panthi tradition within Hinduism incorporates numerous poems attributed to Ravidas in the Panch Vani text.
Anantadas Parcai, considered one of the earliest surviving biographies of poets from the Bhakti movement, narrates the birth of Ravidas.
Bhaktamal, proposes that he was a disciple of the Brahmin bhakti-poet Ramananda (1400-1480 A.D), and thus, it is believed that Ravidas was the contemporary of Sant Kabir.
Although Ravidas's hagiographies were penned long after his demise, they shed light on social dynamics during the period he lived:
Illustrate a clash between heterodox communities and the orthodox Brahminical traditions as well as an inter-communal and inter-religious struggle for social unity
Present various legends, including Ravidas's interactions with Hindu Brahmins and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Sikander Lodi (1458-1517).
(Footprint of Guru Ravidas)
Guru Ravidas and Meera Bai:
In Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, adjacent to Mirabai’s temple, a chhatri (pavilion) with the engraved footprints of Ravidas is found.
This signifies the spiritual and poetic connection between Ravidas and Mirabai.
As per the legends, Ravidas was a guru to Mirabai.
Mirabai, as a respect to her Guru, wrote: ‘Guru Miliya Ravidasji’.
Philosophy:
A recurring term in his verses is ‘Sahaj,’ representing a mystical state characterized by the union of diverse truths into a singular reality.
Manuscripts originating from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (18th and 19th centuries), feature a debate between Ravidas and Kabir on the nature of the ‘Absolute’.
Kabir advocates for a monistic Oneness, while Ravidas argues from the premise that the Brahman can be both a monistic Oneness and a separate anthropomorphic incarnation.
According to the Bhaktamal text, Ravidas's teachings aligned with Vedic and ancient scriptures, embracing ‘non-dualism’.
However, conflicting beliefs within the Dalit community suggest that Ravidas rejected the Hindu Vedas and faced opposition from Brahmins and caste Hindus, as reflected in certain hymns present in the Guru Granth Sahib.
His concept of Beghumpura:
Signifies a ‘city without sorrow.’
His vision encompassed a utopian world free from discrimination and inequality.
Aiming to eradicate the evil of untouchability.
Emphasizing the significance of labor (Kirat).
Ravidas followed Ananya bhakti, which emphasises on the devotion that transcends the sense of duality between the worshipper and the object of worship.
Rejected formal devotion and advocated for personal bhakti through meditative meditation.
Disapproved of rituals, pilgrimages, and penances as the optimal paths to realize God.
Ravidassia Religion:
Originating in the 21st century, it emerged as a distinct faith separate from Sikhism, shaped by the followers of Guru Ravidas’s teachings.
It was established following an event in 2009, when Sikh militants attacked a Ravidas temple, in Vienna, Austria.
Ravidassia religion formulated a new sacred text, the ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidas ji’, exclusively based on teachings and writings of Guru Ravidas and comprises 240 hymns.
Context: The President of India paid her tributes to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi, a saint reformer belonging to the Mahima Dharma. Bhima Bhoi's works emphasized upon social equality. The President also paid homage to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi at his birthplace, Rajrakhol, Odisha.
(Fig.1 : Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha)
Emergence of reform movement
Late 18th century and the early years of the 19th century saw a wave of reform movements that swept through Hinduism.
Aim: To bring about significant changes within the religious and societal structures; to eradicate superstitious beliefs and distorted rituals.
Complex societal structure in 19th century Odisha:
Society was entangled in numerous religious superstitions and social obstacles.
Hinduism was dominated by magic, animism, and superstition.
Lack of education and knowledge hindered human development.
Colonial rule focused primarily on revenue collection.
The temple of Jagannath, which used to be inclusive, closed its doors to the low-caste population, which further intensified the influence of caste rules in the region.
Mahima Dharma, emerged in the background of this socio-religious-cultural reality.
Its significance extended to being seen as the precursor to a renaissance in Odisha, challenging prevalent practices such as idolatry, polytheism, the caste system, priestly dominance, religious superstitions, animism, and barbaric customs.
While other socio-religious movements of the late 19th century primarily influenced the educated class in urban centres, Mahima Dharma, with its simpler philosophy gained popularity among the common people in the villages of Odisha, thus, transforming into a mass movement.
About Mahima Dharma:
The movement was started by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain (Dhulia Baba/Nirahari Baba) who played a significant role in the religious landscape, particularly in the late 18th century and early 19th century Odisha.
Mahami Swami was first mentioned in 1867 in the Orissan Newspaper ‘Utkala Deepika’.
He was a contemporary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
As per the historical sources, Mahima Gosain meditated for 24 years in Kapilas hill in Dhenkanal, Odisha, wearing the bark of a Kumbhi tree.
He established the ‘Dharma’, with the emphasis on ‘Advaitabada’ (belief in the oneness of God).
Mahima Gosain’s disciples came to be known as ‘Abadhutas’, the first 64 Siddhas of Mahima Dharma, a title given when they attained perfection.
‘Mahima Gadi’ (religious seat of the dharma), is located in Joranda, Dhenkanal, where the prominent Magha Mela is held annually.
His preachings included:
Preachings fused the elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and positioned itself against established religious norms.
Adhered to the principles of truth, non-violence, and belief in immortality and rebirth.
Core philosophy revolves around the idea of Absolute Monism, emphasising the worship of the one ultimate reality.
He emphasised on asceticism and a casteless society.
He offered a unique perspective on the creation theory:
Asserted that the world was not formed by the mixing of atoms, Purusha, and Prakrit.
It was created by Alekha Prabhu, pure and without vice, the root of all creations.
The adherents of Mahima Gosain are ‘Dharmis’, and a true ‘Dharmi’ has to abstain from practices like idol worship, touching Prasad or Tulsi leaf, and consuming medicines.
Extent:
Propagation extended across districts like Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, as well as areas in Dhenkanal, Athagarh, Hindol, Boudh, Sonepur, Sambalpur, and Angul.
The movement gained wider acceptance among tribal communities and those considered lower in the Brahmanical hierarchy.
About Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi
Bhima Bhoi, born in Rairakhol/Redhakhol (Odisha) in 1850, was a saint, poet and social reformer.
He belonged to the less privileged Kondh tribe.
Despite his challenging circumstances, he acquired knowledge by listening to religious texts.
He was a devout follower of Mahima Gosain and played a significant role in challenging the prevailing caste hierarchy and advocating for social equality.
Bhima Bhoi, set up his ashram in Khaliapali.
Core elements of his teachings:
‘Ekaishwara Brahmavada’, emphasizing belief in an indescribable, formless, shapeless, and pure God residing in the void.
Promoted unity among followers from diverse backgrounds, thus breaking away from the social identities.
Centred around humanity and the liberation of the world.
Bhima Bhoi used a language (characterized by mysticism and musicality), which departed from Sanskritized Odia. He adopted a vernacular approach with influences from the Sambalpuri dialect.
His verses were composed orally and later transcribed, which highlights the oral tradition of the movement.
His famous assertion: “mo jeevana pachhe narke padithau, jagata uddhara heu"(let my life rot in naraka if necessary, but let the world be redeemed)”, shows his dedication for the upliftment of the socially deprived.
Important works are: Brahma Nirupana Gita, Stuti Chintamani, Astaka Bihari Gita, Chautisa Madhu Chakra, and Bhajanamala. Two collections, Atha Bhajan and Bangala Atha Bhajan, are written in Bengali.
Broader perspective on beliefs and practices in Mahima Dharma:
1. Idea of non-dualism:
God is singular and unparalleled, characterized by omniscience, omnipresence, and omnipotence.
The supreme soul (Parameswar) and the creator of the universe, the God is formless (Nirakar), inexpressible (Avyakta), without body (Adeha), without name (Anam), without any feeling (Nirvikara).
This god is present in every living being, from insects to humans.
The movement became a potent force for liberation by rejecting the caste system, emphasizing the worship of a single God named Alekha.
2. Supreme role of a Guru:
Role of a teacher or Guru holds a pivotal position.
Guru is seen as essential for guiding disciples on the path to deliverance, making the practice of dharma meaningful.
3. Concept of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’:
Entire universe is a single family.
Follows the motto: “Happiness, peace and welfare for all” .
One element of this concept is 'Satsanga Gosthi' or 'Common meal for all'.
Introduced by Mahima Gosain.
Emphasizes the equality of all souls, as they collectively worship the one Brahman.
Involves preparation of food by household devotees under the open sky, shared by all participants, regardless of caste or creed.
Practices:
Adherents are prohibited from engaging in adultery, consuming intoxicants, violence, or eating flesh.
Perform the act of complete surrender, known as Sarana/Darsana, three times a day.
Engage in charity, providing food for those in need.
A monastic order bears resemblance to Buddhist monks, leading lives of poverty, celibacy, piety, and constant movement.
Rejects the worship of Lord Jagannath and emphasizes ascetic practices over idol worship.
In 1881, followers of Mahima Dharma, seized and reportedly set ablaze the murtis (idols) of Lord Jagannath in Jagannath Puri, opposing any form of idol worship.
Impact of Mahima Dharma on Hindu society in the 19th century:
Boldly rejected established norms, including the veneration of gods, philosophers, religions, temples, mosques, and churches.
Introduced a radical shift towards monotheism, emphasizing the worship of a singular, indescribable deity. This entity was not to be represented through man-made idols.
Renouncing worldly possessions became a central tenet of this religion.
Philosophy of Ahimsa, or non-violence:
Rejection of animal sacrifice in worship and conveyed a commitment to purity of heart, devoid of violence and selfishness.
Actively promoted peace and opposed war, practicing ‘Shanti Ahimsa’ in daily life.
Social mobilization:
Ashrams for Sanyasis (ascetics), organized congregations where people from diverse backgrounds dined together.
Explicitly denounced caste-based discrimination and untouchability.
Influenced the consciousness of health and hygiene:
Rejected traditional beliefs in the supernatural causes of illnesses.
Prohibiting the use of remedies from sorcerers and village physicians.
Attracted a large following, especially among rural and tribal communities, offering relief to those unable to afford the elaborate rituals associated with mainstream Hinduism.
Conclusion
The dharma represents a revival of Vedantic principles and serves as a reformist movement originating from the Odisha region. It simplifies profound Indian philosophy in a manner accessible to the common person.
Context: Recently, the Geographical Indications Registry in Chennai, Tamil Nadu has given the Geographical Indication (GI) tags to a number of products from various states.
Rupa Tarakasi (Silver Filigree), Cuttack, Odisha
Filigree has been traditionally associated with fine craftsmanship and luxurious design in classical jewellery.
Archaeological evidence suggests that filigree was incorporated into jewellery as early as 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia (historical region of West Asia in present day Iran) where it is practiced even today as Telkari work.
As per the historians, Tarakasi work reached Cuttack from Persia through Indonesia some 500 years ago by sea trade. This is based on the evidence that similar workmanship is seen in both Cuttack and Indonesia.
In this work of craft, silver bricks are transformed into thin fine wires (tara) or foils, from which silver filigree is made with all designs (kasi).
The filigree artists are called ‘Roupyakaras’. For Tarakasi, silversmiths use an alloy of 90% or more pure silver.
The jewellery worn in Odissi, one of the classical dances of India originating from Odisha, are made from Tarakasi work.
Banglar Muslin, Bengal
The Banglar muslin is one of the popular traditional handloom craft of Bengal.
This finest sort of muslin is made of cotton, which are spun to create threads that maintain tensile strength at counts higher than any other cotton products.
Original muslin was produced solely from a cotton plant called, Phuti Karpas, that grew exclusively along the banks of a certain stretch of the Brahmaputra River.
Tragically, the industry was deliberately erased by past colonial rulers, especially the East India Company and replaced with their machine-made fabrics in the 19th century.
Narsapur Crochet Lac, Andhra Pradesh
Narsapur in West Godavari region is known for crochet skills.
Crochets are beautifully crafted with cotton thread and it is believed that the women of the farming community of this region started creating highly attractiveartefacts from colourful lace, about 150 years ago.
Kutch Rogan Craft and Ambaji White Marble, Gujarat
The Rogan Art, an ancient textile art, with its origins in Persia, came to Nirona Village Kutch Gujarat around 400 years ago.
Rogan art is produced by boiling castor oil or linseed oil for about two days and then adding Pigments Mineral Colour (vegetable dyes) and a binding agent (the resulting paint is thick and shiny).
Yellow, White and red and Blue, green are the most frequently used colours.
Rogan art is very well known for its ‘Tree of life’.
This craft began among the Muslim Khatris community in Gujarat.
Riyawan Lahsun (Garlic), Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh: The GI tag opens up new opportunities in international markets, complementing the state government's efforts to promote Ratlam's garlic as a district product.
Risa Textiles, Tripura
One of the garments worn by tribal women in Tripura is called Risa.
It is usually five feet in length and is wrapped around the upper body.
Some of the designs are called ‘kosom pali’, ‘khamjang’ etc.
To weave a risa, weavers require cotton yarn in different colours, especially in the colour red, which is most commonly used.
The Reang community usually weave Risa primarily in black yarns, whereas the Debbarma community uses red yarns.
Lac Bangles, Hyderabad, Telangana
Lad bazaar is the main production centre for lac bangles.
The craft originated over 500 years ago during the Mughal period.
The craft flourished over the decades and was patronized by many royal families.
The artisan skilfully embellishes the bangle with precious and semi-precious stones.
This recognition promises to enhance the livelihood of over 6000 artisan families.
Majuli Mask and Majuli Manuscript Painting, Assam
Majuli Mask of Assam:
It developed in response to Neo-Vaishnavism, initiated by Srimanta Sankardeva in the 15th century.
These masks were developed for it to be used in the Bhaona's (Traditional drama of Assam).
The art of making masks was prevalent in Satra community for centuries.
Made in different varieties and sizes as they are mainly divided into different categories: ‘Mukha bhaona’ (covers the face); ‘Lotokoi’ (extends to the chest) and, ‘Cho Mukha’ (head and body mask).
Majuli Manuscript Paintings:
The manuscripts are painted on handmade paper, which is treated with a mixture of cow dung and earth to create a smooth surface.
The paintings are usually done in black and white, although some may have small areas of colour.
The artists who create these paintings are known as Sattriya artists, and they are members of the Neo-Vaishnavite monasteries of Majuli.
Illustrate stories from Hindu epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana.
Three distinct styles of manuscript painting: Gargayan script, Kaithall, and Bamunia, flourish in this region.
GI tags are a form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) that convey an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, attributable to the fact of its origin in a specific geographical locality, region or country.
The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry awards GI Tag in India.
A GI registration is given to an area, not a trader, but once a product gets the registration, traders dealing in the product can apply to sell it with the GI logo.
Any trader’s body, association, or organisation can apply for a GI tag.
The applicants need to prove the uniqueness of the item with historical records and a complete breakdown of how the product is made.
Authorised traders are each assigned a unique GI number.
The raw materials for such products do not have to come from that region (unless it is an agricultural tag). E.g., Leaf in Banarasi paan is not grown in Varanasi; it comes from Bihar, West Bengal, or Odisha.
If any unauthorised trader tries selling the product under that name, they can be prosecuted under the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999.
India, as a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999 which came into force in 2003.
Under Articles 1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, geographical indications are covered as an element of IPRs.
Categories of GI products
There are over 500 GI tags as of January 7, 2023. There are 34 classes of products that can get GI tags, ranging from chemicals and paint to foodstuff, handicrafts, musical instruments, firearms, locomotives etc.
The products in the GI registry fall under five major categories Handicrafts dominate the list, with over half the GI tags being given to products crafted by skilled artisans.
Significance of GI tags
After a product receives this designation, no one or business may sell a similar product under that name.
A product’s GI registration gives it legal protection and safeguards against unauthorised use by others.
The GI tag aids in marketing the product’s exports and gives customers confidence in the product’s legitimacy.
Context: An excavation was undertaken, in Telangana, in the village of Mudimanikyam on the banks of river Krishna, which was part of the kingdom ruled by Badami Chalukyas.
More information:
After the end of the Kingdom (ruling present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh), Mudimanikyam continued to have a thriving community, believing in the Hindu gods of Vishnu and Shiva.
As per the new discovery, the Jogulamba temples at Alampur and the submerged Yeleswaram sites in Telangana, are evidences that show the reach of Chalukya Badami kingdom (ruling from 543 AD to 750 AD).
An inscription dating to the rulers of Badami Chalukyas was also discovered.
The discovered temples highlight the ‘Deccan cosmopolitanism’ where there was space for more than two religions to co-exist. Along with Brahmanical religion, there was space for Buddhism and Jainism to flourish.
Chalukyas of Badami:
Introduction:
Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years.
During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
Chalukyas of Badami (also called Early Chalukyas), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century.
Chalukyas of Kalyani (also called Western Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas)
Chalukyas of Vengi (also called Eastern Chalukyas).
Badami Chalukyas:
In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes were seen in the areas south of the Vindhyas, the Deccan and Tamilakam.
The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543.
Chalukyas of Badami, ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital.
Pulakeshin II, commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.
Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom.
He halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada.
Pallava Narasimhavarman, in 642, attacked and occupied Badami temporarily. Pulakeshin II, died in the battle.
The Aihole inscription/prashasti, is a Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka.
The eulogy dated 634–635 CE, was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honour of his patron king Pulakesin Satyasraya (Pulakeshin II).
The dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds. Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.
It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restored order to the empire.
Vikramaditya I took the title ‘Rajamalla’.
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the Vikramaditya II (733–744).
He is known for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam(historical region located in the northernmost part of Tamil Nadu and southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh).
He defeated Pallava Nandivarman II, and thus, avenged the earlier defeat of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas. He engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple, in Kanchipuram.
Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.
Architecture:
Their style of architecture is called ‘Chalukyan architecture’ or ‘Karnata Dravida architecture’.
The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone.
The temple building activity was mostly concentrated in a relatively small area within, Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.
(Aihole Inscription)
Temple building activity can be categorised into different phases:
1.The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century:
Cave temples developed at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).
The Vedic temples sculpted images of Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).
2.The second phase of temple building was at Aihole and Badami:
70 structures exist at Aihole and has been called one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture.
Lad Khan Temple (dated to 450 but more accurately to 620).
Meguti Jain Temple shows progress in structural design.
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture.
There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style.
Well known are the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style.
Context:Women celebrated the Attukal Pongala festival by making the ritual offering to the presiding deity of the Attukal Bhagavathy temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
More Information:
The temple, Attukal Bhagavathy temple is also known as ‘Women’s Sabarimala’, since women form the major portion of the Devi’s devotees.
‘Attukal Pongala’ includes rituals such as, lighting of the ‘Pandara Aduppu’, the main hearth of the temple. After this, ritual offering is cooked by the women.
The presiding deity, Attukal Bhagavathy, is the divine incarnation of Kannaki, the protagonist of the Tamil epic, Silappadhikaram.
The story is that after destroying Madurai to avenge the injustice done to her husband Kovalan, Kannaki reached Kerala, and took rest at Attukal.
Silappadhikaram is the earliest Tamil epic.
It is a poem of 5,730 lines describing the tragic love story of an ordinary Kannaki and her husband Kovalan. The epic is set in a flourishing seaport city of the early Chola kingdom.
Author: It is attributed to a prince-turned-Jain monk Illango Adigal (brother of Chera king Senguttuvan) and was probably composed in the 5th or 6th century CE.
Attukal Bhagavathy temple:
The Attukal Bhagavathy Temple is a Hindu religious shrine in Kerala, India.
Goddess 'Attukal devi', is the supreme mother, goddess of power and courage.
She is often referred as Kannaki, the heroine of Ilanko Adikal's 'Silappadhikaram'.
A festival that has figured in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the single largest gathering of women for a religious activity, the Attukal Pongala continues to draw millions of women with each passing year.
Attukal Temple is situated near the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple, in Thiruvananthapuram.
Attukal Pongala:
Attukal Pongala Mahotsavam is a 10 days festival which falls on February-March every year.
The festival begins with the traditional Kappu Kettu and Kudiyiruntha ceremony, in which, the idol of Devi, is embellished with Kappu (Bangles).
The 9th day of the festival, 'Pooram day' is the major attraction.
Pongala/Naivedyam (rice cooked with jaggery, ghee, coconut as well as other ingredients) is prepared in the open in small pots to please the Goddess Kannaki.
