Mains Exhaustive

Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in its submission to a Parliamentary panel discussing the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, highlighted several issues arising from the dual status of protected monuments that are also notified as Waqf properties. Referring to examples like Fatehpur Sikri in Agra and Atala Masjid in Jaunpur, ASI officials contended that this overlapping status leads to conflicts and administrative complications.

Issues concerning Waqf Properties and ASI’s conservation efforts:

Declaration of monuments as Waqf properties:

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) reported that the Waqf Board has declared 53 monuments as Waqf properties under the Waqf Act of 1995.
• These monuments were already protected under ASI’s jurisdiction, leading to overlapping claims of authority.

Jurisdictional conflicts: 

• ASI has raised concerns about jurisdictional conflicts arising from the Waqf Board’s actions. 
• The designation of these monuments as Waqf properties after they were already notified as protected has complicated the management and preservation responsibilities.

Restrictions on conservation activities: 

• ASI officials have reported challenges in conducting conservation work on these monuments due to restrictions imposed by the Waqf Board. Specific issues include:
  • Unauthorized modifications: The Waqf Board has made various alterations to the original structures, which ASI believes threaten the monuments' authenticity and integrity.
  • Examples of concern:
    • Installation of unauthorized fixtures in Mecca Masjid, Ahmednagar.
    • Construction of shops within the enclosure of the Atala Masjid, Jaunpur.
  • Interference in management: In Fatehpur Sikri, the Waqf Board has reportedly appointed its own tour guides, replacing those certified by ASI.

Opposition to ASI's claims: 

• Committee members, including opposition party representatives, have contested the ASI's claims:
  • Legislative framework: They argue that the ASI is not fully adhering to its own legislative framework. The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act includes provisions that balance private property rights with public interests in preservation.
  • Historical basis for Waqf designations: Opposition members assert that the Waqf Board’s designations are based on historical evidence of ‘Waqf by user’ and are not arbitrary.

Legislative concerns: 

• Opposition members have warned that removing the ‘Waqf by user’ clause from the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, could lead to increased legal disputes and multiple claims over Waqf properties, exacerbating the existing conflicts.

Criticism of ASI’s inaction: 

• ASI has faced criticism for its perceived inaction regarding the Waqf Board's alleged undermining of the integrity of protected monuments.
• Critics have urged ASI to provide explanations for not using its legislative powers more effectively to address these issues.

Overall, the debate highlights the challenges of balancing cultural heritage preservation with historical ownership claims, emphasizing the need for a clear and coherent framework to resolve conflicts between public institutions and private entities.

Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act: 

Purpose and enactment

• The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (AMASR Act) was enacted by the Indian Parliament in 1958.
• The Act aims to preserve and protect ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites, and remains of national importance.
• The Act regulates archaeological excavations and safeguards sculptures, carvings, and similar objects, ensuring the preservation of India's rich cultural heritage.

Role of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): 

• The ASI operates under the provisions of the AMASR Act. It is responsible for carrying out the Act's objectives, including the protection and conservation of designated monuments and archaeological sites.

Regulations on Protected areas: 

• The AMASR Act designates a 100-meter radius around each monument as a prohibited area, where no construction or alteration except certain circumstances is allowed without permission.
• The Central government can extend the prohibited area beyond 100 meters.
• An additional 200-meter area is classified as regulated, where any construction or modifications require prior approval.
• The National Monuments Authority (NMA), established under the Act, is the regulatory body responsible for overseeing activities within these zones and granting necessary permissions.

Amendments: 

• The Act was amended in 2010 to strengthen penal provisions against encroachments and illegal constructions near monuments.
• Establishment of a 100-meter prohibited area around national monuments, with a 200-meter regulated zone where construction requires NMA approval.
• Introduction of heritage by-laws for individual monuments, prepared by expert bodies to address specific needs.
• The Act provided a clear statutory definition of 'prohibited' and 'regulated' areas around monuments, establishing precise guidelines for land use in these regions.

Role of the National Monuments Authority (NMA): 

• The NMA is tasked with implementing the AMASR Act, supervising the protection and preservation of ancient monuments and archaeological sites, and regulating construction activities within the protected and regulated areas.
• The NMA has the authority to grant permissions for any construction or development within the designated zones, ensuring that heritage conservation is maintained.

Definitions 

• Ancient monument: Defined as any structure, erection, monument, or site of historical, archaeological, or artistic interest that has existed for at least 100 years.
• Archaeological sites and remains: Areas containing ruins or relics of historical or archaeological significance, also existing for not less than 100 years.

AMASR Amendment) Bill, 2017: 

Introduction: 

• The AMASR (Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains) Amendment Bill was first introduced in the Lok Sabha in 2017, by the Minister of Tourism and Culture. 
• This Bill seeks to amend the original Act, which was enacted in 1958 to protect ancient monuments and archaeological sites.

Key amendments 

• Construction in prohibited areas
  • The Bill allows for public works to be constructed in these prohibited areas. This includes infrastructure projects deemed necessary by the central government for public welfare.
• Approval process for construction
  • The Bill stipulates that any construction, reconstruction, repair, or renovation within these prohibited areas must be approved. The relevant central government department must submit an application to the competent authority.
  • The central government will then assess whether the construction qualifies as a public work and will communicate its decision to the applicant within ten days.
• Definition of Public works: 
  • The Bill introduces a specific definition for public works: ‘construction works related to infrastructure financed and carried out by any central government department or office for public purposes, necessary for public safety or security, and where no viable alternative exists beyond the prohibited area.’
• Assessment requirements: 
  • The Bill also expands the scope of impact assessments required for public works. It includes considerations of archaeological, visual, and heritage impacts in the prohibited areas.
• Rationale:
  • The central government has argued that the prohibition on new construction within protected areas is hindering public works and developmental projects.
  • They believe the amendment is necessary to facilitate infrastructure development while balancing the need to preserve historical sites.
• Current Status:
  • The Amendment Bill was passed in January 2018.
  • It was then referred to a Select Committee in the Rajya Sabha. 
  • The committee's report, submitted in 2019, recommended evaluating the area limit for prohibiting construction on a case-by-case basis rather than applying a blanket 100-metre restriction.
  • It also raised concerns about the definition of public works, noting that it excludes certain public utility projects such as Metro construction, which do not directly relate to safety and security.
  • The committee suggested the Bill be passed following consultations with central and state governments and relevant departments.
  • It also provided observations and recommendations for drafting notifications and rules related to the Bill.

About National Monuments Authority (NMA): 

• The National Monuments Authority (NMA) was established under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India, in accordance with the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010.
• Enacted in 2010, this Act aimed to enhance the protection and preservation of India's rich cultural heritage by managing the areas surrounding centrally protected monuments.
• Responsibilities: 
  • Protection and preservation: The NMA is tasked with the critical role of safeguarding monuments and archaeological sites through effective management of the prohibited and regulated zones around these sites.
  • Managing prohibited and regulated Areas: Ensuring that activities within these areas do not compromise the integrity and preservation of the monuments.
  • Granting permissions: Reviewing and approving construction-related activities within the prohibited and regulated areas to prevent potential damage to the heritage sites.
• Addressing urbanization and development: 
  • With the surge in urbanization, population growth, and development pressures, there is increasing strain on land, including those areas around centrally protected monuments.
• Balancing Development and preservation: Regulating growth and construction around these monuments to balance the needs of urban development with the essential requirements for preservation and protection of heritage sites.
• Public scrutiny:
  • The NMA is required to scrutinize heritage bye-laws and obtain public objections and suggestions before granting approvals.
• Organizational structure: 
  • The Act mandates the constitution of the NMA with a Chairperson, up to five whole-time and five part-time members, and a Member Secretary.
• The Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) serves as an ex officio member.
• Grading and Classification:
• The NMA is also responsible for grading and classifying monuments to streamline their management and preservation.

About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): 

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a prominent government agency tasked with archaeological research, conservation, and preservation of cultural and historical monuments across India.
• Historical background:
  • Cunningham, with his expertise in Brahmi, conducted extensive surveys of Buddhist monuments across India.
• Despite early challenges, he advocated for the establishment of a formal archaeological body. 
• The ASI was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, who also served as its first Director-General. This initiative marked the beginning of systematic archaeological research in India.
• Predecessors:
  • The Asiatic Society, founded by British Indologist Sir William Jones in 1784, conducted early research into India's history.
  • The society, based in Calcutta, published ‘Asiatic Researches’ and made significant contributions to the study of ancient Persian texts.
  • Notable early members, such as Charles Wilkins, translated the Bhagavad Gita into English, furthering the understanding of Indian heritage.
• Early efforts: 
  • James Prinsep’s successful decipherment of the Brahmi script in 1837 was a pivotal moment, greatly enhancing the understanding of ancient Indian inscriptions and history.
• Expansion and reform: The 1958 AMASR Act placed the ASI under the Ministry of Culture, and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972) ensured national protection for important monuments.
• Organization and structure: 
  • The ASI is headed by a Director-General, supported by an Additional Director-General, two Joint Director-Generals, and seventeen Directors.
• The organization operates under the Ministry of Culture.
• The ASI administers over 3,650 monuments and sites of national importance, including temples, mosques, forts, and other historical structures.
• Scientific preservation: 
  • Establishment of the Science Branch: Founded in 1917 by Mohammed Sanaullah Khan, the Science Branch focuses on preserving and chemically treating artifacts.
  • The branch has expanded its scope to include material analysis and conservation. 

Fatehpur Sikri:

• Located: Uttar Pradesh. 
• Founded by: Akbar in 1571 as the Mughal Empire's capital. It served as the capital until 1585 when Akbar abandoned it for a campaign in Punjab, and it was completely abandoned by 1610.
• Named after the former village of Sikri, the site has revealed ancient temples through ASI excavations. Previously controlled by the Sakarwar Rajputs until 1527. 
• Akbar constructed a religious compound and later a walled city here, calling it Fatehpur Sikri, or ‘City of Victory,’ following his Gujarat campaign in 1573.
• Recognized for its historical significance and architecture, Fatehpur Sikri was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

Atala Masjid, or Atala Mosque:

• It is a 14th-century mosque in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh.
• Built on the site of the Atala Devi temple, demolished in 1364, construction began in 1376 under Firuz Shah Tughlaq, with materials from demolished temples.
• The mosque was completed by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi in 1408.
• The mosque features a central courtyard with the Madarsa Din Dunia. 
• It has three large gateways and has a central dome (nearly 17 meters high).

Context: The Joint Committee of Parliament reviewing the Waqf (Amendment) Bill has, according to sources, received a total of eight lakh petitions from both institutions and the public.

The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024: 

• The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024, introduced in the Lok Sabha, proposes significant amendments to the Waqf Act, 1995.
• The Act regulates waqf property in India, which refers to the endowment of movable or immovable property for religious or charitable purposes under Muslim law.
• The Bill aims to enhance management, transparency, and efficiency in the administration of waqf properties.

Renaming and scope:

• The Bill proposes renaming the Act to the ‘United Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency and Development Act, 1995’.
• It will continue to regulate waqf properties but introduces new provisions for better governance and oversight.

Formation and management of Waqf: 

• Formation of Waqf
  • Original provisions: Waqf could be established through declaration, long-term use (waqf by user), or endowment when succession ends (waqf-alal-aulad).
• Amendment provisions:
  • Only individuals practicing Islam for at least five years may declare a waqf.
  • The individual must own the property being declared.
  • Removal of waqf by user.
  • Waqf-alal-aulad must not deny inheritance rights to heirs, including women.
• Government property as Waqf: 
  • The Bill states that government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
  • The Collector will determine ownership in cases of uncertainty and update revenue records if deemed government property.

Powers and authority:

• Determination of Waqf property
  • Original act: Empowered Waqf Boards to determine if a property is waqf.
  • Amendment bill: Removes this provision; no longer will Waqf Boards have the authority to make such determinations.
• Survey of Waqf properties
  • Original act: Appointed a Survey Commissioner and additional commissioners.
  • Amendment bill: Empowers Collectors to conduct surveys of waqf properties, with pending surveys to be conducted under state revenue laws.
• Central Waqf council
  • Original Act: Constituted the Central Waqf Council with only Muslim members, including women.
  • Amendment Bill: Changes the composition:
    • Two members must be non-Muslims.
    • MPs, former judges, and eminent persons need not be Muslims.
    • Muslim members must include representatives of Muslim organizations, scholars in Islamic law, and chairpersons of Waqf Boards. Two must be women.
• Waqf Boards: 
  • Original act: Provided for the election of up to two members each from electoral colleges of MPs, MLAs, MLCs, and Bar Council members.
  • Amendment bill:
    • Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group, who need not be Muslim.
    • Boards must include two non-Muslim members and at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward classes of Muslims, as well as Bohra and Agakhani communities if relevant.
    • The original act provides that at least two members must be women.  The Bill states that two Muslim members must be women.
• Original Act: Allowed separate Waqf Boards for Sunni and Shia sects if they constituted more than 15% of waqf properties or waqf income in the state. 
• Amendment Bill: Extends this provision to include separate boards for Aghakhani and Bohra sects.

Tribunals and appeals:

• Composition of tribunals:
  • Original act: Required a Tribunal chairman to be a Judge of specified ranks and included a knowledgeable person in Muslim law.
  • Amendment bill:
    • Chairman must be a current or former District Court judge.
    • Other member to be a current or former officer of the rank of joint secretary.
• Appeals: 
  • Original act: Decisions of the Tribunal were final with no appeal options.
  • Amendment bill: Tribunal decisions can be appealed in the High Court within 90 days.

Powers of the Central government: 

• Original act: Allowed state governments to audit waqf accounts at any time.
• Amendment bill: Empowers the central government to oversee audits by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) or a designated officer.

Rationale for the Amendment: 

• The amendment seeks to address concerns about the unchecked powers of Waqf Boards, which have led to extensive land claims and disputes.
• For instance, in September 2022, the Tamil Nadu Waqf Board claimed the entire Thiruchendurai village, predominantly Hindu, highlighting the need for more stringent regulations and transparency.

Objectives

• Transparency: Requires mandatory verification for all property claims by Waqf Boards to ensure transparency.
• Gender Diversity: Modifies the composition of Waqf Boards to include more women representatives.
• Revised verification procedures: Introduces new procedures for verifying Waqf properties to prevent misuse and disputes, with district magistrates overseeing these processes.
• Limited powers: Aims to curb the extensive powers of Waqf Boards to prevent misuse and ensure proper management of waqf properties.

Concerns raised about the proposed amendments:

• Reduced powers: The Bill diminishes the authority of State Waqf Boards, adversely impacting their ability to manage and oversee Waqf properties. This reduction in power undermines the effectiveness of these Boards in fulfilling their functions.
• Minority Rights: There are apprehensions that the Bill may negatively affect the interests of Muslim communities who rely on Waqf properties for religious and charitable purposes. The changes might harm the ability of these communities to manage their assets effectively.
• Increased government control: The increased involvement of district magistrates and other government officials in overseeing Waqf properties may lead to excessive bureaucratic interference. This heightened control could compromise the autonomy traditionally enjoyed by Waqf institutions.
• Potential encroachment: The Bill's provisions for government oversight in Waqf property management might be seen as an encroachment on religious autonomy. The role of district magistrates and other officials could be perceived as intruding into religious matters.
• Potential for disputes: The new verification processes, including the involvement of district magistrates, could lead to increased disputes and complications. The introduction of additional bureaucratic steps might exacerbate existing issues rather than resolving them.
• Changes to Family waqf regulations: The Bill's requirement that family waqfs (waqf-alal-aulad) be created only after fulfilling the rights of all heirs could hinder the creation of such waqfs. This contrasts with other legal frameworks that allow for similar arrangements.
• Derecognition of certain waqfs: The Bill attempts to derecognize waqfs that are categorized as ‘waqf by user’ or ‘waqf by reputation,’ potentially leading to legal and administrative challenges. This could create opportunities for unscrupulous individuals to exploit the situation.
• Abolition of the Office of Survey Commissioner of Waqf: The proposed replacement of the Survey Commissioner of Waqf with district collectors could lead to inefficiencies and complications. The collectors’ existing responsibilities may detract from their ability to manage Waqf property surveys effectively.
• Changes in Tribunal and appeals procedures : The Bill proposes changes to tribunal procedures, including an increase in the time allowed for raising objections. This could lead to delays and a rise in the number of cases, potentially complicating the resolution process.
• Composition and functioning of Waqf bodies: The Bill’s changes to the composition of the Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards, including the nomination of non-Muslims, could disrupt the existing balance and effectiveness of these bodies. The inclusion of local body members in the Waqf Boards might dilute their focus and expertise.
• Restrictions on non-Muslim donations: The Bill seeks to bar non-Muslims from donating to Waqf institutions, despite their potential support for various Muslim charitable causes. This provision conflicts with the inclusive nature of Islamic law and Indian syncretic culture.

Waqf Act 1955: 

Waqf Law:

• Waqf, literally meaning ‘detention’ or ‘confinement,’ refers to the permanent dedication of property for religious or charitable purposes in Islam.
• Once a property is designated as Waqf, its use is restricted solely to these purposes, and any other use or sale is prohibited.
• Under Sharia law, Waqf property remains dedicated to its purpose indefinitely.

History: 

• Delhi sultanate: 
  • The concept of Waqf in India dates back over 900 years to the early Delhi Sultanate. 
  • During this period, two villages were dedicated to the Jama Masjid of Multan and entrusted its administration to Shaikhul Islam.
  • The establishment of Waqf properties increased with the expansion of Islamic rule across India.
• Colonial period:
  • In the late 19th century, a legal challenge to Waqf properties arose when a dispute reached the Privy Council in London.
  • The council described Waqf as ‘a perpetuity of the worst and most pernicious kind’ and declared it invalid.
• This ruling was later overturned in India with the enactment of the Mussalman Waqf Validating Act of 1913, which preserved Waqf properties.
• Post-Independence:
  • The Waqf Act was first enacted by Parliament in 1954.
  • This Act was repealed and replaced by a new Waqf Act in 1995, which enhanced the powers of Waqf Boards.
  • In 2013, amendments were made to grant the Waqf Boards even greater authority to designate properties as Waqf.
• The Waqf Board of India is now the third-largest landholder in the country, following the Railways and the Defence Department.

Waqf Act, 1995:

• The Waqf Act, 1995, regulates the administration of Waqf properties.
• It defines Waqf as the permanent dedication of movable or immovable properties for religious, pious, or charitable purposes as recognized by Muslim law.
• These properties are endowed to benefit the needy and fund various institutions such as educational establishments, graveyards, mosques, and shelters.
• Once a property is designated as Waqf, it becomes non-transferable and remains dedicated as a charitable act toward God, essentially transferring ownership to the divine.

Management of properties:

• A Survey Commissioner is responsible for listing Waqf properties by conducting local investigations and reviewing public documents.
• Waqf properties are managed by a mutawali, who oversees their administration.
• Unlike trusts under the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, Waqfs are intended to be perpetual and dedicated to specific charitable or religious purposes.

Creation and ownership:

• To establish a Waqf, the individual (Waqif) must be of sound mind and hold valid ownership of the property
• Interestingly, the Waqif does not need to be Muslim, provided they believe in Islamic principles.

Waqf Board: 

• The Waqf Board is a legal body capable of acquiring, holding, and transferring property. It can also engage in legal proceedings.
• The board manages Waqf properties, recovers lost properties, and authorizes transactions involving immovable Waqf properties, requiring approval from at least two-thirds of its members.
• Established in 1964, the Central Waqf Council oversees and advises state-level Waqf Boards across India.

FAQs:

Context: The conservation and development of Jaipur's Walled City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019, will be funded with ₹100 crore. The initiative will focus on enhancing infrastructure while preserving the city's architectural heritage and vibrant culture.

More information from the news article:

• Known for its pink facade buildings, the Walled City's heritage status reflects its distinctive grid-based street layout with colonnades that form large public squares called chaupars.
• The city's urban planning integrates ancient Hindu, Mughal, and Western architectural influences.
• The conservation efforts are anticipated to enhance tourism, support the local economy, and improve infrastructure.
• The Walled City is renowned for its landmarks, including the 400-year-old Man Sagar Lake, City Palace, Tripolia Gate, Ajmeri Gate, Sanganeri Gate, Zorawar Singh Gate, Jantar Mantar Observatory. 
• It also features Maota Lake at the base of the historic Amber Palace, the Maharaja School of Arts & Crafts (now the Museum of Legacies) in Kishanpole Bazaar, and the Hawa Mahal, Jaipur’s most iconic landmark.
• Founded by Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachwaha Rajput ruler of Amber, the historic fortified city of Jaipur was laid out on the plains with a grid plan inspired by Vedic architecture. 
• As the capital of Rajasthan, Jaipur has preserved its local commercial, artisanal, and cooperative traditions in their original form.

Note:

• Jaipur became the second Indian city, after Ahmedabad, to receive the UNESCO World Heritage City status.
• This recognition was granted during the 43rd session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC), held in Baku, Azerbaijan in 2019.
• Ahmedabad, Gujarat: 
  • Ahmedabad holds the distinction of being the first Indian city to receive UNESCO World Heritage City status in July 2017.
  • This recognition celebrates its rich architectural, historical, and cultural significance.
  • Founded in 1411 by Sultan Ahmad Shah I, Ahmedabad served as the capital of Gujarat for six centuries, showcasing a continuous historical narrative.
  • The city is renowned for its unique blend of Islamic, Hindu, and Jain architectural styles.
  • Notable landmarks include Bhadra Fort, Jama Masjid, Sarkhej Roza, and many traditional havelis (wooden houses).
  • Ahmedabad's historic pols (gated residential areas) reflect intricate wooden architecture and community living.
  • Dubbed the ‘Manchester of the East,’ Ahmedabad is famous for its thriving textile industry, which plays a significant role in the city's economy and culture.

About Sawai Jai Singh II

• Sawai Jai Singh II (1688-1743) was the Rajput ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, who later founded the fortified city of Jaipur and established it as his capital.
• Ascending to the throne at the age of 11 in 1699, Jai Singh initially served as a vassal of the Mughal Empire.
• The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb honoured him with the title ‘Sawai,’ meaning one and a quarter-times superior to his contemporaries, before the siege of Khelna Fort in the Deccan. 
• In 1721, he was granted the title Saramad-i-Raja-i-Hindustan, followed by Maharaja Sawai, Raj Rajeshwar, Shri Rajadhiraj in 1723.
• Later in his life, Jai Singh II sought independence from Mughal dominance and asserted his sovereignty by reviving the ancient Ashvamedha sacrifice, a ritual that had been abandoned for centuries.
• He shifted his kingdom's capital from Amber to the newly established city of Jaipur. 

Situation during his accession

• Upon ascending the ancestral throne of Amber, Jai Singh II faced a dire situation, with insufficient resources to maintain even a modest force of 1,000 cavalry.
• This challenging circumstance had developed over the preceding 96 years, coinciding with the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Given Amber's proximity to Mughal power centres in Delhi and Agra, the Jaipur rulers had historically relied on diplomacy rather than military action in their interactions with the Mughals.
• Six months after his accession, Aurangzeb ordered Jai Singh to serve in the Deccan Wars.
• Jai Singh eventually reached Burhanpur, but could not advance further due to heavy rains. His rank and pay were further reduced by 500.
• Despite his military achievements at the siege of Khelna in 1702, Jai Singh's reward was limited to the restoration of his previous rank and the conferral of the title ‘Sawai.’

Relations with later Mughals: 

• Aurangzeb's death in 1707 initially exacerbated Jai Singh's difficulties, as his patrons, Bidar Bakht and his father Azam, were defeated in the Mughal succession war.
• Jai Singh responded by forming alliances with the Rajput states of Mewar (through marriage) and Marwar against the new Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah I.

Relations with the Marathas: 

• Jai Singh governed Malwa three times between 1714 and 1737.
• During his first term (1714–1717), he successfully repelled Maratha incursions.
• However, by 1728, Peshwa Baji Rao's victory over the Nizam of Hyderabad allowed the Marathas to establish a foothold in the region.
• In his second tenure (1729–1730), facing a weakened Mughal Empire, Jai Singh sought to negotiate with Shahu, the Maratha ruler, to restore Mughal authority but was soon recalled to Rajputana.
• In his final term (1732–1737), he urged Emperor Muhammad Shah to compromise with the Marathas.
• Despite his efforts, court opposition led to his removal, and Malwa eventually fell to the Marathas in 1738 following a defeat of his successor, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah.

Fortifications

• Amid the declining Mughal authority, Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded and sacked Delhi in 1739.
• Throughout this period of upheaval, Jai Singh remained within his state but was far from passive.
• Anticipating further instability, he launched an extensive program of fortification throughout Jaipur's territories.
• To this day, many of the fortifications around the former Jaipur state are attributed to the reign of Jai Singh II.

Contributions

Revival of Ancient Vedic practices and reforms: 

• Sawai Jai Singh II revived ancient Vedic ceremonies, including the Ashwamedha sacrifice in 1716 and the Vajapeya in 1734, which had not been performed for many generations.
• An adherent of the Nimbarka Sampradaya of the Vaishnava sect, Jai Singh actively promoted Sanskrit learning and initiated significant social reforms, such as the abolition of Sati. 
• He also successfully lobbied for the abolition of the Jaziya tax imposed on Hindus by Aurangzeb in 1679, which Emperor Muhammad Shah finally revoked in 1720.
• In 1728, he further convinced the emperor to eliminate the pilgrimage tax on Hindus visiting Gaya.

Astronomy and Science: 

• Motivated by a desire to advance the nation's understanding of astronomy, Jai Singh established five observatories across India in Delhi, Mathura, Benares, Ujjain, and his capital Jaipur, despite ongoing local conflicts and foreign invasions.
• These observatories, collectively known as Jantar Mantar, were equipped with advanced instruments such as the Ram Yantra, Jai Prakash, Samrat Yantra, Digamsha Yantra, and Narivalaya Yantra, which allowed for highly accurate astronomical observations.
• He compiled a set of astronomical tables, ‘Zij-i-Muhammadshahi,’ and oversaw the translation of Euclid's ‘Elements of Geometry,’ as well as works on trigonometry and logarithms into Sanskrit.
• His observatories, relying primarily on Indian astronomy, were used to accurately predict eclipses and other celestial events.

The City of Jaipur: 

• One of Jai Singh's greatest achievements was the construction of Jaipur, originally called Jai Nagara, which became known as the ‘City of Victory’ and later as the ‘Pink City’. 
• Construction began in 1725, and the city was officially established as the capital of the Kachwaha dynasty in 1733, replacing Amber.
• Jai Singh, while planning the layout of Jaipur, consulted numerous architects and founded the city based on the principles of Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastra, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya.
• The city became a commercial hub, attracting merchants from across India who sought the safety and prosperity offered by its thick protective walls and a garrison of 17,000 troops. 
• Later, during the reign of Sawai Ram Singh II, Jaipur was painted pink to welcome Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, in 1876.
• The city’s avenues have retained their pink hue, earning Jaipur the nickname ‘Pink City.’

The Kingdom of Amber

• Later known as Jaipur State, was situated in the north-eastern Dhundhar region of Rajputana and was governed by the Kachwaha Rajput clan.
• It was founded in the 12th century by Dulha Rai, who was likely the last ruler of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty of Gwalior.
• He established his rule in Dausa with the support of the Chahamanas of Shakambhari.
• The kingdom experienced a period of stagnation from the 12th to the 15th centuries, with limited historical records.
• Under Raja Bharmal, the kingdom forged a strong alliance with the Mughal Empire, marked by his daughter's marriage to Emperor Akbar.
• Bharmal's son, Raja Bhagwant Das, and grandson, Raja Man Singh I, emerged as prominent generals in Akbar's army, contributing significantly to the expansion of the Mughal Empire. 
• Later, Mirza Raja Jai Singh I served under Shah Jahan and became a distinguished general but fell out of favour with Aurangzeb in 1664 due to his suspected involvement in Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's escape from Mughal captivity.
• Sawai Jai Singh II ruled during the decline of the Mughal Empire, successfully rebelling against Mughal authority in 1708 to reclaim his confiscated territories.
• However, after his death, the kingdom faced economic difficulties due to a civil war between his sons Ishwari Singh and Madho Singh I, as well as pressures from the Marathas.
• In 1818, following the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the kingdom became a princely state under British rule by signing a treaty that established a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company.

It acceded to independent India in 1947 and was officially integrated into the nation by 1949.