Mains Exhaustive

India-US semiconductor Partnership

Context: The Indian government has been consistently giving a push to the semiconductor sector in India. In the light of the recent re-election of Donald Trump as US President, it is important to see how the existing cooperation in critical technology sectors like semiconductor shapes up. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Semiconductors, India-USA Semiconductor Partnership, India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

Mains: Role of semiconductors in economic growth (factors favouring & challenges associated) 

About Semiconductors

  • Definition: Materials with electrical properties that fall between those of conductors (e.g., metals) and insulators (e.g., rubber).
  • They are sometimes referred to as integrated circuits (ICs) or microchips made from pure elements, typically silicon or germanium, or compounds like gallium arsenide. 
  • Key Components: Diodes, transistors, microchips, photovoltaic cells, LEDs, and mounted piezo-electric crystals.
  • Applications: 
    • Electronics: Foundational components in computers, smartphones, LEDs.
    • Renewable Energy: Used in solar cells.
    • Defence and Space: Integral to missile guidance systems and satellite communication. 

India’s Semiconductor Industry:

  • Current Scenario: Valued at US$ 26.3 billion in 2022; projected to grow at a CAGR of 26.3% to US$ 271.9 billion by 2032.

Factors favouring India:

  • Skilled Workforce: India produces a record number of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) graduates annually, which offers the much-needed skilled workforce. 
  • Strong R&D: India leads globally in semiconductor chip design, research & development.
  • Cost Advantages: Lower labor costs compared to developed nations.
  • Global Supply Chain Diversification: India has become a preferred destination for back-end assembly and testing operations amidst diversification of global supply chains to reduce reliance on China. India can position itself as an alternative manufacturing hub.
  • Policy Support: India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), 100% automatic route for investments in the Electronics Systems Design & Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, Establishment of semiconductor plants. (In February 2024, the government approved the establishment of three semiconductor plants, two in Gujarat and one in Assam) 

India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

  1. Launched in 2021 with a financial outlay of ₹76,000 crore
  2. Aim: To promote the domestic semiconductor industry through incentives and strategic partnerships.
  3. Focus Areas:
    1. Integrated Circuit (IC) design and manufacturing
    2. Semiconductor packaging and assembly
    3. Testing and validation of semiconductor devices
    4. Advanced materials and process technologies
    5. Design automation and tool development
    6. Skill development and human resource capacity building
  • Implementing agency: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). 
  • Under ISM, government offers incentives to attract investment in semiconductor and display manufacturing:
    • Semiconductor Fab Scheme: Fiscal support on project costs for semiconductor fabs across all technology nodes.
    • Display Fab Scheme: Fiscal support of 50% for setting up display fabs for advanced display technologies.
    • Compound Semiconductor Scheme: Fiscal support of 50% of the capital expenditure for compound semiconductors, discrete semiconductor fabs, ATMP units, and semiconductor packaging.
    • on an equal footing basis, including support for discrete semiconductor fabs.
    • Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme: Promotes domestic semiconductor design companies by providing financial incentives of up to 50% of eligible expenditures. Includes reimbursement for approved costs of software tools, IPs, and prototyping.

India-USA Semiconductor Partnership:

1. iCET (Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies):

  • Launch: 2023 
  • Objective: Foster collaboration in critical technologies like semiconductors, AI, 5G, and quantum computing. 
  • Significance:
    • Facilitates dual-use technology transfer.
    • Streamline defense and tech cooperation via frameworks like INDUS-X.
    • Promotes R&D and encourages co-investments in semiconductor design and manufacturing.

2. CHIPS Act Collaboration:

  • International Technology Security and Innovation (ITSI) Fund:
    • Created under the US CHIPS Act (2022).
    • Supports India's efforts to enhance its semiconductor ecosystem by funding critical infrastructure and R&D. 
    • Facilitates cross-border investments and diversification of global supply chains.

3. INDUS-X Initiative:

  • Collaboration between: India's iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) and the US Defense Innovation Unit (DIU).
  • Purpose: To promote innovation in defense technologies, including semiconductors for military applications.
  • Focus: Security-focused chip designs; applications in green energy and telecommunications.

4. Shakti Fab:

  • Description: A proposed semiconductor fabrication plant in India, developed in collaboration with the US Space Force and Indian private players like Bharat Semi and 3rdiTech. 
  • Focus Areas: 
    • Production of multi-material chips for national security, green energy, and telecommunications.
    • Enhancing India's chip manufacturing capabilities for strategic applications.

The partnership is important for several reasons, including:

  1. Reducing reliance on China for semiconductors, which are an essential component of many modern products.
  2. Building a strong relationship for India and the US to stand up to China's growing influence.
  3. Making the global supply chain more stable and secure. 
semiconductor mission

What are the challenges facing India?

  • High Cost of establishment: Fabs are highly capital-intensive undertakings, costing billions of dollars for large facilities. As per a government estimate, it would cost roughly $5-$7 billion to set up a chip fabrication unit in India.  
  • Low Ease of doing business: The process of establishing an indigenous semiconductor facility requires clearances and approvals from multiple government departments. 
  • Technological Constraint: The indigenous manufacturing of semiconductors requires the use of high-end technologies. These technologies are licensed from patent holders at a very high price.
  • Lack of Fabrication Capacities: India has a decent chip design talent but it never built up chip fab capacity. The ISRO and the DRDO have their respective fab foundries but they are primarily for their own requirements and are also not as sophisticated as the latest in the world.
  • Structural constraint: FDI in electronics is less than 1% of the total FDI inflow because of the dearth of skilled labor, delays in land acquisition, and the uncertain tax regime.
  • Unstable power supply: The smooth production of semiconductors requires the availability of an uninterrupted 24*7 power supply. They require a highly reliable and high-quality supply of water, electricity, and insulation from the elements, reflecting the high degree of precision, cost and capital needed to make the sophisticated circuits.
  • Resource Inefficient Sector: Chip fabs require millions of litres of clean water, an extremely stable power supply, a lot of land and a highly skilled workforce.

Conclusion: The India-US semiconductor partnership holds the potential to transform India into a significant player in the global semiconductor ecosystem. With strategic investments, robust domestic policy support, India can achieve technological self-reliance while contributing to global supply chain resilience. 

National Mission on Natural Farming

Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the National Mission on Natural Farming as a standalone centrally sponsored scheme to create an ecosystem for sustainable farming, thereby generating benefits like improvement in the quality of soil and providing people with chemical-free food.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key provisions of National Mission on Natural Farming.

Mains: Benefits of Natural Farming, Challenges of Natural Farming.

What is Natural Farming?

  • Natural Farming (NF) is a chemical free farming which involves local livestock integrated natural farming methods, diversified crop systems, etc., allowing the optimum use of functional biodiversity.
  • Natural Farming follows local agro-ecological principles rooted in local knowledge, location specific technologies and is evolved as per the local agro-ecology.

About National Mission on Natural Farming: 

National Mission on Natural Farming
  • Vision: To implement self-sustainable and self-generating natural farming systems for freedom from purchased inputs with the aim to cut down:
    • cost of cultivation
    • enhance farmers income
    • ensure resource conservation, and 
    • safe & healthy soils, environment and food.

Objectives:

  1. To promote an alternative system of farming for freedom from external purchased inputs, cost reduction and thereby increasing income of farmers.
  2. To popularise integrated agriculture-animal husbandry models based on livestock and local resources.
  3. To collect, validate and document Natural Farming being practiced across the country and encourage participatory research with farmers on up-scaling of the mission.
  4. To undertake activities for awareness creation, capacity building, promotion and demonstration of Natural Farming.
  5. To create standards, certification procedure and branding for Natural Farming products.

Key Provisions of the Mission:

  • National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) is a centrally sponsored scheme under the Ministry of Agriculture.
  • In the next two years, NMNF will be implemented in 15,000 clusters in Gram Panchayats, which are willing, & reach 1 crore farmers and initiate Natural Farming (NF) in 7.5 lakh Ha area. 
  • Need-based 10,000 Bio-input Resource Centres (BRCs) will be set-up to provide easy availability and accessibility to ready-to-use NF inputs for farmers.
  • Around 2000 NF Model Demonstration Farms shall be established at Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), Agricultural Universities (AUs) and farmers’ fields, and shall be supported by experienced and trained Farmer Master Trainers.
  • 30,000 Krishi Sakhis/ CRPs(Community Resource Persons) will be deployed for awareness generation, mobilisation and handholding of willing farmers in the clusters.
  • Farmers will be provided with an easy simple certification system and dedicated common branding to provide access to market their natural farming produce. 
  • Real time geo-tagged & referenced monitoring of NMNF implementation shall be done through an online portal.
  • Incentive to farmers for one time on-farm manure production infrastructure: A financial assistance of Rs. 15000/- per ha @ Rs. 5000/- per ha/year for three years.  
  • Training of farmers by Champion farmer and CRP: 6 such trainings of one day duration will be organized at village level for all the farmers in a batch of
    50 farmers. A sum of Rs. 30,000/- is provided for such training @ Rs. 50 per farmer per training. 
  • Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO) formation for farmers practicing Natural Farming: 100 FPOs in the Gangetic belt (5 Km Corridor of Ganga Basin) and another 400 FPOs in the rest of the country from the 10,000 FPO scheme being implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare
  • Farmer Field School: First year of the natural farming mission will be devoted to the awareness creation through Farmer Field School.
National Mission on Natural Farming: Salient features

Need for Natural Farming: 

  • Pressure on limited resources: The majority of Indians are small and marginal framers who practice subsistence farming. Hence, to increase production from a small area of land, there is greater pressure on soil and water resources. In the long run, it would result in soil degradation and receding water tables. Hence, the farmers need natural farming to transition to sustainable farming practices.
  • Capital and input-intensive agriculture: High-cost of inputs for farming and declining farmers income requires a shift towards sustainable farming practices.
  • Limitations of Conventional Farming Practices: Conventional farming practices, bolstered historically by the Green Revolution, are now showing signs of strain. Issues such as soil degradation, reduced nutrient content in food, and increased chemical residues are alarming. Apart from that there is a looming threat of climate change. Hence, natural farming presents a viable alternative to address these issues. 

Benefits of Natural Farming: 

1. Environmental Sustainability:

  • Soil Health: Natural farming improves soil structure, organic matter content, and biodiversity. A study by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) found that natural farming methods can enhance soil organic carbon by up to 50% compared to conventional farming.
  • Water Conservation: Natural Farming has proved to improve water retention capacity. It requires minimum water consumption, thus, ultimately preserving groundwater reserves, improving the water table, and reducing financial and labour stress on farmers.

2. Climate Resilience:

  • Carbon Sequestration: Natural farming practices such as crop rotation, agroforestry, and cover cropping contribute to carbon sequestration. 
    • Over the past 50 years, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use’ (AFOLU) have nearly doubled, and projections suggest a further increase by 2050. 
    • As per FAO, the largest share of global methane and nitrous oxide emissions is contributed by Agriculture. Excessive use of fertilizers in conventional farming has significantly contributed to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate change. 
  • Climate Adaptation: Natural farming enhances biodiversity and soil health, making farms more resilient to climate extremes like droughts and floods.
    • During the Pethai and Titli cyclones of 2018, the crops cultivated through Natural Farming in Andhra Pradesh, showed greater resilience to heavy winds than the conventional crops. 

3. Biodiversity Enhancement:

  • Agro-ecological Diversity: Natural farming promotes biodiversity through crop diversification and the use of native plant species. 
  • Ecosystem Services: Natural farming practices enhance ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, and soil fertility. 

4. Economic Benefits for Farmers:

  • Cost Reduction: Natural farming reduces dependence on expensive chemical inputs or fertilisers. A report by CEEW states that Non-Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) farmers use three times more urea and DAP per acre than ZBNF farmers.
  • Increased Profitability: Studies by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) indicate that farmers practicing natural farming can achieve up to 50% higher net returns due to lower input costs and premium prices for organic produce.

5. Health and Nutrition:

  • Nutrient-Rich Produce: As Natural Farming does not use any synthetic chemicals, health risks and hazards are eliminated. The food has higher nutrition density and therefore offers better health benefits.

6. Social and Cultural Benefits:

  • Preservation of Traditional Knowledge: Natural farming practices are often rooted in traditional knowledge systems. This preservation promotes cultural heritage and community engagement.
  • Community Health: By reducing chemical usage, natural farming minimizes pollution of air, water, and soil, leading to healthier living environments for rural communities.

Challenges related to Natural Farming:

  1. Initial Decrease in Yield & Economic Viability: Transitioning from conventional to natural farming often results in an initial decrease in crop yield, which can deter farmers also, The economic viability of natural farming is uncertain due to lower initial yields.
  2. Knowledge and Skill Gap: Farmers need extensive knowledge and skills to successfully implement natural farming techniques.
    • The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) reports that the majority of Indian farmers are not adequately trained in natural farming practices, resulting in poor adoption rates.
  3. Market and Policy Support: There is a lack of established markets and supportive policies for naturally farmed produce. 
  4. Certification and Market Access: Obtaining certification for natural products can be costly, and access to markets can be limited.
  5. Pest and Disease Management: Natural farming relies on non-chemical methods for pest and disease control, which may not always be effective.
  6. Climate Dependence: Natural farming heavily relies on climatic conditions, making it less resilient to climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) notes that climate variability poses significant risks to the stability and predictability of natural farming systems.
  7. Resistance to Change & Lessons from Sri Lanka: Farmers accustomed to conventional practices are often resistant to adopting new natural farming methods.
    • A couple of years ago, Sri Lanka went through economic and political turmoil after it decided to turn completely organic, and banned the import of chemical fertilisers.
    • The government’s policy shift had severe consequences with farmers struggling to get natural fertilisers. They faced a reduction in yields of key crops including rice, putting the country’s food security at risk.

Conclusion

Natural farming represents a critical shift in India's agricultural strategy, aimed at enhancing sustainability, climate resilience, and nutrition security. The transition, although challenging, is necessary to address the declining efficacy of the Green Revolution and the pressing environmental concerns. With strategic planning, technology development, and appropriate incentives, natural farming can pave the way for a more sustainable and secure agricultural future in India.

Global Plastic Treaty

Context: More than 170 countries have converged in Busan, Republic of Korea, to negotiate a new legally binding global treaty to end plastic pollution, including marine pollution. This is the fifth (and final) round of talks since 2022, when the UN Environmental Assembly (UNEA) agreed to develop such a by the end of 2024.  The UNEP’s (United Nations Environment Programme) intergovernmental negotiation committee (INC) is leading the negotiations. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Facts about Plastic pollution, Key provisions of Global Plastic Treaty (once it is finalised) 

Mains: Impacts of Plastic pollution/ Need for a Global Plastic Treaty 

Need for a Global Plastic Treaty: 

  • A global treaty to end plastic pollution is crucial to address the growing crisis of plastic pollution, which impacts the environment, human health, and contributes to climate change.

1. Rapidly Increasing Plastic Production and Waste:

  • Production surge: Annual global production of plastic has doubled from 234 million tonnes (mt) in 2000 to 460 mt in 2019, and is expected to reach 700 mt by 2040.
    • Nearly half of this was produced in Asia, followed by North America (19%) and Europe (15%). 
    • India contributes to a fifth of global plastic pollution. It accounts for 20% of the world’s global plastic pollution with emissions of 9.3 mt
  • Challenge of Waste management: About 400 mt of plastic waste is generated annually, a figure expected to jump by 62% between 2024 and 2050. However, only about 9% of plastic waste has been recycled globally.
    • Plastic takes anywhere from 20 to 500 years to decompose. 
Rapidly Increasing Plastic Production and Waste:

2. Environmental and Health Impact:

  • Microplastics pollution: Plastic waste often leaks into the environment, especially into rivers and oceans, where it breaks down into smaller particles (microplastic or nanoplastic), harming ecosystems and food chains.
  • Health risks: Exposure to chemicals in plastics can cause endocrine disruption and a range of human diseases including cancer, diabetes, reproductive disorders, and neurodevelopmental impairment. 
  • Ecosystem damage: Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial species are severely affected by plastic pollution.
plastic pollution in human body

3. Contribution to Climate Change:

  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions: In 2020, plastic production accounted for 3.6% of global emissions, with most emissions arising from fossil-fuel-based plastic production. If trends continue, emissions from production could increase by 20% by 2050.

4. Need for global coordination and standards:

  • Transnational nature of pollution: Plastic pollution does not respect borders; coordinated international action is essential.
  • Comprehensive life-cycle approach: Negotiations aim to establish rules covering the entire plastic lifecycle, from production and usage to disposal and recycling.

Key Negotiation Points:

  • Production caps vs. Waste management:
    • Conflict: Oil and gas-rich countries resist production limits, favoring downstream measures (e.g., improved waste management).
    • Advocates for limits: Rwanda, Peru, and the EU propose ambitious reduction targets, such as Rwanda's call for a 40% reduction by 2040.
  • Harmful Chemicals:
    • Scientific basis needed: Countries like India stress domestic regulation and scientific validation before excluding specific chemicals.
  • Financial and technical support:
    • Developing nations emphasize the need for financial resources, technology transfer, and technical assistance to manage plastic waste effectively.
    • Private funding: UNEP suggests increasing private sector investment aligned with treaty goals.
  • Just transition: Ensuring livelihoods of workers in plastic-related industries are protected during the transition away from plastics.

India’s Position: India has taken the following position:

  • Against production limits: India opposes restrictions on polymer production, emphasising innovative waste management. According to India, any restrictions are beyond the mandate of the UNEA’s resolution adopted at Nairobi in 2022. 
  • Context-sensitive regulation: India advocates for nationally driven, pragmatic decisions reflecting domestic circumstances.
    • On the exclusion of harmful chemicals used for plastic production, India has said that any decision should be based on scientific studies, and the regulation of such chemicals should be regulated domestically.
    • India banned the use of single-use plastics covering 19 categories in 2022. However, the decision on the issue of including certain plastic items for phase-out in the final treaty should be pragmatic.
  • Focus on financial support: India has stressed on including financial and technical assistance, and technology transfer in the substantive provisions of any final treaty for equitable implementation.

Conclusion and the way forward:

A global plastic treaty aims to create legally binding frameworks to curb plastic pollution at its source, establish recycling standards, and ensure environmental and social equity. Harmonising international efforts is crucial for meaningful, long-term solutions to the global plastic crisis.

Peace in Myanmar 

Context: The 44th ASEAN Summit, held in Vientiane, Laos, highlighted the growing concerns in the Southeast Asia region, particularly the deepening crisis in Myanmar.

Go through the neighboring countries of Myanmar and the Indian states sharing land border with Myanmar (#PreFact)

Myanmar Map

Background of Myanmar crisis

  • In 2021, Myanmar’s military seized control in a coup, dismantling the country’s democratic government and attempting to reinstate the authoritarian rule in the country. 
  • The present crisis has unleashed unforeseen consequences such as instability and rising crime across Southeast Asian region.

Present situation:

  • Myanmar is currently embroiled in a brutal civil war between the military junta and various resistance groups, including Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs) and the People’s Defence Forces (PDFs). 
  • After the junta forcibly seized power, it encountered broad armed resistance, with opposition groups now controlling significant areas, including six key border trade routes. 
  • The junta’s reluctance to cooperate with international peace efforts has aggravated the conflict. 
  • Myanmar’s economy is nearing collapse, with dwindling foreign reserves, escalating foreign debt which amount to USD 10 – 11 bn, and deepening poverty. Amid a severe forex shortage and rising inflation, many international businesses are withdrawing, while the junta heavily relies on Chinese-backed infrastructure projects and loans. 
  • Agricultural output has plummeted due to conflict, and economic forecasts predict worsening conditions. The UN and ILO have warned of widespread poverty, job losses, and a looming humanitarian crisis, with Myanmar’s survival increasingly dependent on Chinese support.

Implications of Myanmar’s instability:

  • Trade distortion: The ongoing crisis in Myanmar disrupts regional flow of trade, particularly along key border routes with countries like Thailand, China, and India. The conflict-related shutdowns, lack of stable governance have reduced trade efficiency due to increased costs.
  • Security of neighboring countries: Myanmar’s conflict poses security challenges for neighboring nations as violence and unrest spill across borders. Thailand, in particular, faces challenges with the flow of refugees, arms trafficking etc. 
  • Humanitarian crisis: The present tussle between junta and resistance groups has led to widespread displacement of innocent people (around 18.6 million) who are forced out of their homes and are in need of urgent assistance (UN reported it). 
  • Extremism: Continuous instability and repression provides a breeding ground for extremism, as disenfranchised groups may turn to radical ideologies in response to political exclusion and violence. 

Impact on India: 

  • The strategic projects, such as the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transport Corridor (#PreFact), may face indefinite delays due to Myanmar’s conflict, making it impossible for India to continue these efforts under current conditions.
  • India’s ‘Act East’ policy, aimed at using Myanmar as a land bridge to Southeast Asia, cannot advance without stability in Myanmar. 
  • Myanmar’s instability has led to a rising influx of refugees into India’s northeastern states, stretching their limited resources and impacting local communities in Mizoram and Manipur. 
  • As resistance groups in Myanmar might seek safe havens or resources in Indian states, local sympathies could arise, particularly in border regions. 

Efforts for Peace in Myanmar:

ASEAN’s role: 

  • It’s Five-Point Consensus (#PreFact), calling for an end to violence, inclusive dialogue, and humanitarian assistance, remains largely ignored by Myanmar’s military, exposing ASEAN’s limited influence in the region. 
  • ASEAN allowed Myanmar to send a representative to the 44th summit in Laos, showcased a pragmatic approach to keep dialogue open with the junta. ASEAN’s consensus-based decision-making continues to limit response effectiveness, especially with divided stances among members ( On one hand Indonesia, Malaysia wants a stronger action and on the other countries like Thailand maintains closer relations with military government).
  • Western response: 
  • The United States and the United Kingdom have initiated a crucial step towards an intervention in Myanmar by introducing a UN Security Council resolution in 2022. It strongly condemned Myanmar’s military regime and called for an end to the violence, as well as the release of political prisoners, including the State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi. 

India’s approach towards Myanmar:

  • Discontinuation of Free Movement Regime (FRM): Due to concerns over regional stability and an influx of refugees, Government of India has decided to end the Free Movement Regime (#PreFact) with Myanmar. This move faces opposition from several Indian state governments, putting India in a delicate balancing act. 
  • Agreement for socio-economic development: India and Myanmar signed five Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) under the Quick impact Projects framework, focusing on areas like agriculture, vocational training, disaster management, and education etc.
  • Financial support: India has committed $250,000 to support the Quick Impact Projects and to uplift the communities in Myanmar.

Way forward for India to bring stability in the region:

  • End strategic inaction: India can no longer afford inaction regarding Myanmar's crisis; New Delhi must adopt a proactive approach to address the stakes involved. 
  • Launch a Peace-making platform: Establish a “Gandhi Peace Mission” within the Prime Minister’s Office, supported by the National Security Council and Ministry of External Affairs, to institutionalize India’s peace efforts. 
  • Initiate an outreach programme: Begin by sending a delegation, including a representative from Manipur, two senior Buddhist monks, and former diplomats experienced with Myanmar, to engage directly with all stakeholders (ethnic groups, democratic factions, and the military) and initiate dialogue. 
  • Leverage Religious Diplomacy: Include top Buddhist leaders like Venerable Chalinda Bhante and Dr. Lam, who have shown interest in negotiating with influential Burmese Buddhist monks, fostering peace through mass prayers and reconciliation in line with Buddhist principles.

As a key gateway to Southeast Asia, Myanmar’s challenges complicate India’s efforts to counter China’s influence, necessitating a balanced approach emphasizing strategic rationality and commitment to democratic values.

Solar, a game changer in women’s empowerment

Context: Today, apart from solar energy being the major factor in the climate patterns, it is also a transformative, democratising force in electricity generation. Distinct from traditional sources of energy which require extensive infrastructure and intermediary transmission lines, solar energy can now be harnessed directly at its point of use  in homes. It is now a home product.

Solar energy is empowering women

  • Environmental sustainability and societal structures: Decentralized solar energy enables individuals and communities to generate power locally, significantly benefiting environmental sustainability and societal structures. 
    • It economically empowers marginalized groups, especially women, who often face limited access to energy. 
    • Examples include women salt farmers in Gujarat who shifted from diesel to solar pumps, increasing income and reducing emissions.
  • Financial inclusion and job creation: Solar energy contributes to financial inclusion and community development by integrating women across the solar value chain. 
    • In 2022, solar employed around 4.9 million people globally, 40% of whom were women. India’s renewable goals aim to create an additional three million jobs by 2030, enhancing opportunities for women and supporting societal progress.
  • Health and safety: Traditional biomass for cooking exposes women to harmful indoor air pollution. Solar-powered cookers and clean energy solutions reduce health hazards.
  • High education attainment: With reliable lighting, children, especially girls often tasked with daytime chores, can study in the evenings, boosting their educational attainment.
  • Social entrepreneurship: Solar initiatives encourage women to become solar entrepreneurs and ambassadors within their communities. Organizations like Solar Sister train women to sell solar products, providing income and fostering leadership.
  • Reduced labour: Access to solar-powered water pumps, mills, and other machinery reduces time spent on manual labour, enables women to dedicate more time to education, self-improvement, and income-generating activities.

Despite its benefits, the solar industry faces challenges, including geographical imbalances (with investments concentrated in developed nations), sectoral imbalances (large-scale farms over small applications), and manufacturing concentration. 

To ensure sustainability, the solar industry must prioritize recycling and waste management for solar materials. Establishing clear producer guidelines, fostering government collaboration, and exploring mobile recycling plants can enhance environmental health in the sector.

The need for a just energy transition necessitates gender-sensitive policies that integrate energy access with sectors like agriculture and rural development. Such inclusivity helps dismantle barriers disproportionately affecting women, promoting a sustainable and equitable energy economy.

Initiatives such as the Barefoot College (India), the Grameen Shakti (Bangladesh), and Solar Sister (Africa) empower women to become solar engineers, benefiting millions and improving community health and safety. For example, We Care Solar’s suitcases reduced perinatal deaths by 72% in Uganda’s health centres.

Building BRICS

Context: Russian President Vladimir Putin signaled to the West that he is far from “isolated” despite ongoing sanctions related to the Ukraine conflict at the recently concluded BRICS meeting at Kazan.

Key takeaways from the meet:

  • BRICS members aim to establish an alternative ‘global financial architecture’; which comprises three main aspects: 
    • Reducing the dominance of Dollar: China and Russia are keen on diminishing the dollar’s leading role in global transactions, driven by their broader geopolitical objectives. 
    • Trade in local currency: India has proposed a consensus-oriented approach, promoting trade in local currencies within BRICS.
    • Financial integration: India advocates for stronger financial integration among BRICS members without directly challenging the dollar’s prominence.
  • BRICS countries emphasized on the need of developing a platform BRICS bridge which links central bank digital currencies, which will help in reducing the intermediation costs.

Reasons behind BRICS’s move:

  • Due to the weaponization of the SWIFT platform, global trade and financial flows have been impacted, as SWIFT links more than 11,000 banks.
  • Countries like Iran and Russia face exclusion from SWIFT due to geopolitical conflicts, which also impacts third-party nations like India. The geopolitical instability is encouraging more countries to seek alternative systems to mitigate risks. E.g., Saudi Arabia finalized a three-year currency swap deal with China.
  • BRICS nations are nurturing the New Development Bank and Contingency Reserve Arrangement as an alternative to Bretton Woods institutions to have a more prominent voice at the global level.

The case of BRICS’s Financial strategy:

  • The rise of digital currencies, blockchain technology, and the Unified Payments Interface, which can facilitate trade settlements, has made a  unified BRICS currency less important.
  • Moreover, trade deals can be settled in mutually agreed currencies.

Establishing a blockchain-based payment platform and an alternative to the SWIFT messaging system is entirely achievable among a coalition of countries as long as it remains decentralized and free from control by any single nation.

SC upholds Section 6A of Citizenship Act

Context: A five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court headed by Chief Justice of India (CJI) by a 4-1 majority verdict upheld Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955, which codified the political consensus of the 1985 Assam Accord. 

Assam Accord 1985

  • The tripartite Assam Accord was signed among the central and Assam governments and the leaders of the Assam Movement on 15 August 1985.
    • IN 1979, All Assam Students Union (AASU) began an agitation demanding the identification and deportation of “illegal foreigners”, predominantly from Bangladesh. 
    • The agitation lasted six years, culminating in the historic Assam Accord between the central and state governments and the leaders of the Assam Movement. 
  • It set January 1, 1966, as the base cut-off date for detecting “foreigners” and deleting them from electoral rolls.
  • It also provided a process for granting citizenship to those who arrived in the state after January 1, 1966, up to March 24, 1971. Those who arrived after this date but up to March 24, 1971, would “have their names deleted from electoral rolls” for 10 years, after which their names would be restored.
  • IN 1985, in order to give effect to the Assam Accord, Section 6A was introduced in The Citizenship Act, 1955. 
Assam accord clause 5

Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955

  • Through an amendment to the Indian Constitution in 1985, Section 6A was added to the Citizenship Act, 1955, following the Assam Accord. It deals with the issue of citizenship for residents of Assam, particularly in the context of illegal immigration from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
  • Key Provisions of Section 6A:
    • Immigrants who entered Assam before the date of January 1, 1966, are deemed to be Indian citizens.
    • Immigrants who entered Assam between the dates January 1, 1966, and March 25, 1971, are entitled to seek Indian citizenship provided they fulfil the eligibility criteria. They would, however, be disenfranchised (i.e., they would not have voting rights) for a period of 10 years from the date of detection.
    • Immigrants who entered Assam on or after March 25, 1971, are declared to be illegal immigrants and are liable to be detected, detained and deported. Section 6A outlines the establishment of tribunals to detect and verify foreigners in Assam.

Arguments challenging Section 6A

  • The legal scheme for granting citizenship for those who migrated from Pakistan is in Articles 6 and 7 of the Constitution. The petitioners argued that Section 6A, which deals with migrants from East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) amends this provision — a change that can only be made through a constitutional amendment.
  • The petitioners argued that Section 6A, which was specifically drafted for Assam, violates the principle of equality because (i) it confers citizenship only to migrants to Assam, and (ii) if curbing Bangladeshi migrants is the issue, then other border states are also excluded. They also argued that the March 24, 1971 cut-off date is arbitrary.
  • The petitioners argued that extending the cut-off date to include migrants as citizens went against the SC’s ruling in Sarbananda Sonowal vs Union of India (2005), in which the court held that “illegal immigration” falls under the definition of “external aggression”.
    • In Sonowal, the Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act, 1983 (IMDT Act) was under challenge. The court struck down the law, which also applied only to Assam, saying it was ineffective in dealing with illegal immigration in comparison to laws such as the Foreigners Act, 1946, which applied to the entire country.
  • Article 29(1) of the Constitution guarantees citizens the fundamental right to conserve the “distinct language, script or culture of its own”. The petitioners argued that Section 6A is violative of Article 29, since conferring citizenship to migrants from Bangladesh increases the Bengali population and affects the “culture of the Assamese population”.

Observations by SC

Does Parliament have the power to make law regulating citizenship?

  • The SC held that Articles 6 and 7 are only meant to determine citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution on January 26, 1950. Section 6A, on the other hand, “deals with those who are not covered by the constitutional provisions”. “Section 6A aligns with the fundamental purpose of Articles 6 and 7, which was to extend citizenship rights to those affected by the country’s partition”.
    • Articles 6 and 7 were aimed at safeguarding the rights of those citizens who found themselves residing in Pakistan after Partition.
    • Section 6A grants citizenship to persons of Indian origin migrating from erstwhile East Pakistan “due to political disturbances in a foreign territory”
  • Entry 17 of the Union List gives Parliament the power to make laws to address “Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens”.
  • Article 11 of the Constitution, under which Parliament can make “any provision with respect to the acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship”. None of the other Articles in this Part of the Constitution (including Articles 6 and 7) will “derogate” or take away from this power.
  • Thus, the Parliament can amend the law relating to citizenship is the most significant takeaway from the ruling — since this could have ramifications for other cases, including the challenge to the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act.

Does Section 6A violate the Right to Equality?

  • The SC held that the events leading up to the signing of the Assam Accord placed the state in a unique position, even when compared to other border states. The magnitude of influx to Assam and its impact on the cultural and political rights of the Assamese and Tribal populations is higher [than elsewhere].
    •  Although West Bengal has a higher immigrant population than Assam, the impact on Assam is greater because of its smaller size and population. 
    • It is, therefore, “rational” to classify Assam as separate from other border states for the purposes of 6A.
  • Since a piquant situation such as that in Assam [because of the Movement] did not exist in any of the other states, Section 6A’s objective did not extend to allowing such citizenship in these other States.

Does Section 6A facilitate “external aggression” by allowing illegal immigration?

  • The SC expressed reservations in applying Sonowal in the challenge to Section 6A. Section 6A does not allow for “unabated migration”, and instead offers a “practical solution” in the form of a “controlled and regulated form of immigration”, which does not amount to “external aggression”.

Does granting citizenship to migrants violate the rights of Assamese people to conserve their culture?

  • The majority verdict rejected the argument that change in the demography of Assam erodes the rights of indigenous Assamese. Accepting this contention “would undermine the idea of fraternity envisaged by our Constitutional drafters, and bring to life their fears by threatening the cohesion of our diverse nation”. 
  • SC held that “the mere presence of different ethnic groups in a State is insufficient to infringe the right guaranteed by Article 29(1)”.

Key Fact: 

  • THE CAA, 2019 introduced another group-specific section, Section 6B, in The Citizenship Act, which set December 31, 2014, as the cutoff date for Hindu, Christian, Sikh, Parsi, Buddhist, and Jain migrants from the Muslim-majority countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan.

Crucial role of Biobank regulations in advancing Precision medicine in India

Context: Precision medicines is setting up a new era of personalized healthcare, evolving significantly since its foundations were laid by the scientists during the completion of the Human Genome Project. 

Introduction: 

image 8
  • Genomics has become pivotal in revolutionising the diagnosis and treatment of various conditions, including cancers, chronic illnesses and diseases affecting the immune, cardiovascular and liver systems. 
  • Other emerging technologies, such as gene-editing and mRNA therapeutics, also contribute to precision medicine.
  • Examples: 
    • Using gene therapy, researchers were able to restore vision in people who had lost it due to a genetic mutation.
    • Researchers in the U.K. reversed an individual’s diabetes by transplanting reengineered stem cells.
    • COVID-19 pandemic: Researchers were able to use the mRNA platform to develop new vaccines in record time, winning the technology a Nobel Prize in 2023. 
  • Organ-on-chips is a promising precision Medical-Solutions.
    • These small microfluidic devices containing human cells can replicate the microenvironment of a tumor or an organ in a laboratory setting.
    • Researchers can now test drugs in settings more similar to the drugs’ eventual user.
image 9

Advancements in precision medicine in India: 

  • The Indian precision medicine market is estimated to be growing at a CAGR of 16% and will be worth more than $5 billion by 2030.
  • It contributes 36% of the national bioeconomy. 
  • The New ‘BioE3’ ((Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) policy also includes the development of precision therapeutics.
  • The policy aims to harness the power of biotechnology and develop new manufacturing methods that replicate or mimic processes found in natural biological systems. 
  • The BioE3 policy emphasizes innovation in research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship, establishing Biomanufacturing, Bio-AI hubs and bio-foundries to expand India's skilled biotechnology workforce. 
  • This aligns with 'Lifestyle for Environment' programs, and targets the development of regenerative bioeconomy models.
  • In 2023, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization approved NexCAR19, India’s domestically developed CAR-T cell therapy. 
  • The Siemens Healthineers, in collaboration with the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, launched new AI-driven facilities for precision medicine.
image 17

The role of Biobanks in advancing Precision medicine: 

  • A biobank is a repository of biological samples, such as blood, DNA, cells, tissues, and/or organs, alongside their genetic data.
  • These samples are collected from consenting individuals and intended for use in research.
  • For precision medicine to succeed, biobanks must be extensive and diverse, ensuring that their research benefits a wide range of individuals rather than just a limited population segment.
  • Recently, health researchers created the largest biobank of sarcoma patient-derived organoids. This biobank is used to understand sarcoma and identify potential therapies using high-throughput drug screening.
  • Organoids are miniaturized, synthetic versions of organs that can replicate tumors.
  • The growth of Biobanks in India: 
    • There are 19 registered biobanks in India, hosting many biological specimens, including cancer cell lines and tissues.
    • In 2024, the ‘Genome India‘ program finished sequencing 10,000 genomes from 99 ethnic groups to identify treatments for rare genetic diseases. 
    • The pan-India ‘Phenome India’ project has collected 10,000 samples to create better prediction models for cardio-metabolic diseases.
    • The Paediatric Rare Genetic Disorders (PRaGeD) mission could help identify new genes or variants to develop targeted therapies for genetic diseases that affect children.

Despite potential, stringent regulations around biobanks in India pose a significant challenge to fully harnessing the benefits of precision medicine.

Challenges in regulating Biobanks in India: 

1. Global standards vs. India's regulatory gaps: 

  • The U.K., the U.S., Japan, China, and many European countries have laws or comprehensive regulations addressing several biobanking issues, including informed consent, withdrawal rights, privacy, and data protection.
  • India’s regulation of biobanks is inconsistent, with gaps that could undermine public trust and limit the potential of precision medicine.
  • There is a lack of regulations to protect the rights of individuals.

2. Inadequacies in ethical guidelines and data practices:

  • The Indian Council for Medical Research’s guidelines for biomedical and health research involving human participants, as well as the Department of Biotechnology’s (DBT) practices for data storage and analysis, have many gaps.
  • Example: Participants are expected to consent to providing samples without knowing how their data will be used and for how long they will be stored. 
  • Genetic information can reveal insights about an individual and their family, potentially leading to discrimination.

3. Lack of Central regulation and penalties:

  • Without a single authority to regulate biobanks and no penalty for misconduct, there is a considerable risk of inconsistencies arising from sample mishandling and ethical violations like data sharing for non-consenting purposes.

4. Risks of unregulated access to biological samples:

  • Many pharmaceutical companies, including those abroad, will have access to samples from India,  as many research projects often require researchers and pharmaceutical companies to collaborate with biobanks during drug discovery and development.

5. Impact of regulatory gaps on Data ownership and profits:

  • Indians could be deprived of the ownership of biological samples, the data and the profits from the resulting research findings.

Seizing the opportunity for leadership in Biobanking: 

1. Enhancing public trust through strong protections: 

  • Vital data, privacy protections and regulatory oversight by an expert committee will encourage more people to share samples and participate without worry.
  • It will also allow research to happen on the right foundations. 

2. India's pharmaceutical diplomacy and global aspirations: 

  • India is a part of international groups like the Quad and BRICS, with pharmaceuticals as a critical component of its soft diplomatic initiatives.
  • It is a major supplier of generic drugs and a hub of vaccine manufacturing, and it plans to expand its leadership to include next-generation therapeutics.
  • For this, India will have to align its biobanking laws with global standards, which will encourage public participation and trust.

Fostering greater public confidence in biobanking practices will encourage participation in precision medicine research, which in turn will enhance healthcare outcomes for India’s population and solidify its role in the global biopharmaceutical landscape. 

Rani Lakshmi Bai and the Revolt of 1857

Context: Civic agencies told the Delhi High Court that the installation of a statue of freedom fighter Rani Lakshmi Bai at Shahi Idgah Park in Sadar Bazar has not in any manner endangered the rights of people who offer prayers there.

About Rani Laxmibai

post card in memory of 1857, Rani Lakshmi bai

Introduction: 

  • Lakshmibai Newalkar, the Rani of Jhansi widely known as Rani Lakshmibai was the Queen of the princely state of Jhansi in the Maratha Empire from 1843 to 1853 by marriage to Maharaja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar.
  • She was one of the leading figures in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, who became a national hero and symbol of resistance to the British rule in India for Indian nationalists.
  • She led the successful defence of Jhansi against Company allies, but in early 1858 Jhansi fell to British forces under the command of Hugh Rose.
  • She died in June 1858, during the British counterattack at Gwalior.

Roots and upbringing: 

  • Born in the town of Banares (now Varanasi) into a Marathi Karhade Brahmin family.  She was named Manikarnika Tambe. 
  • Her father was a Commander during the war of Kalyanpranth and he worked for Peshwa Baji Rao II. 

History of Jhansi (1842–1857)-Loss, and struggle against British annexation: 

  • Manikarnika was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao Newalkar, and was afterward called Lakshmibai (or Laxmibai) in honour of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi and according to the Maharashtrian tradition of women being given a new name after marriage. 
  • In September 1851, she gave birth to a boy, later named Damodar Rao, who died four months after birth. 
  • The Maharaja adopted a child called Anand Rao, the son of Gangadhar Rao's cousin, who was renamed Damodar Rao, on the day before the Maharaja died.
  • The adoption was in the presence of the British political officer who was given a letter from the Maharaja instructing that the child be treated with respect and that the government of Jhansi should be given to his widow (Laxmibai) for her lifetime.
  • After the death of the Maharaja in November 1853, because Damodar Rao (born Anand Rao) was an adopted son, the British East India Company, under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, applied the Doctrine of Lapse, rejecting Damodar Rao's claim to the throne and annexing the state to its territories.
  • In March 1854, Rani Lakshmibai was given an annual pension and ordered to leave the palace and the fort.

What was the Doctrine of Lapse?

*The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord Dalhousie when he was India's Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
*According to this, any princely state under the direct or indirect (as a vassal) control of the East India Company where the ruler did not have a legal male heir would be annexed by the company
*As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the kingdom. This challenged the Indian ruler's long-held authority to appoint an heir of their choice.

Rani Lakshmibai in the Revolt of 1857

  • May 10, 1857: The Indian Rebellion started in Meerut. When news of the rebellion reached Jhansi, Rani asked the British political officer, Captain Alexander Skene, for permission to raise a body of armed men for her protection. 
  • In June 1857, rebels of the 12th Bengal Native Infantry seized the Fort of Jhansi and persuaded the British to lay down their arms. The sepoys threatened to blow up the palace where the Rani lived.
  • The sepoys left Jhansi and obtained a large sum of money from the Rani. 
  • The Rani's forces defeated an attempt by the mutineers to assert the claim to the throne of a rival prince Sadashiv Rao (nephew of Maharaja Gangadhar Rao) who was captured and imprisoned.
  • There was then an invasion of Jhansi by the forces of Company allies Orchha and Datia with the intention to divide Jhansi between themselves.
  • The Rani appealed to the British for aid but it was now believed by the governor-general that she was responsible for the massacre against Europeans in Jhansi and no reply was received. 
  • She set up a foundry to cast cannon to be used on the walls of the fort and assembled forces including some from former feudatories of Jhansi. 

Rani’s defence of Jhansi, escape, and battles until last encounter: 

Rani’s defence of Jhansi, escape, and battles until last encounter
(Siege of Jhansi)
  • When the British forces finally arrived in March 1858, they found the Jhansi fort was well defended and the fort had heavy guns which could fire over the town and nearby countryside.
  • Hugh Rose, commanding the British forces, demanded the surrender of the city and if this was refused it would be destroyed.
  • Rani defended Jhansi against British troops when Sir Hugh Rose besieged Jhansi on 23rd March 1858.
  • The bombardment of Jhansi was met by heavy return fire and the damaged defences were repaired.
  • The defenders sent appeals for help to Tatya Tope, an important leader of the 1857 Indian Rebellion and an army of more than 20,000, headed by Tatya Tope, was sent to relieve Jhansi but they failed to do so when they fought the British. 
  • During the battle with Tatya Tope's forces, part of the British forces continued the siege. 
  • The Rani withdrew from the palace to the fort and after taking counsel decided that since resistance in the city was useless she must leave and join either Tatya Tope or Rao Sahib (Nana Sahib's nephew). 
  • As per the legend, with Damodar Rao on her back she jumped on her horse from the fort and escaped.
  • At Kalpi (in U.P.), she joined additional rebel forces, including Tatya Tope.
  • They occupied the town of Kalpi and prepared to defend it.
  • On 22 May British forces attacked Kalpi and the forces commanded by Rani herself were defeated.
  • The leaders (the Rani of Jhansi, Tatiya Tope, and Rao Sahib) fled and came to Gwalior and joined the Indian forces who now held the city (Maharaja Scindia fled to Agra from the battlefield at Morar).
  • They rebel forces occupied the city without opposition and proclaimed Nana Sahib as Peshwa of a revived Maratha dominion with Rao Sahib as his governor in Gwalior.
  • On June 17th, in Kotah-ki-Serai, Gwalior, a squadron under Captain Heneage, fought the large Indian force commanded by Rani Lakshmibai. 
  • In this engagement, Rani was fatally wounded resulting in her death. 
  • The British captured the city of Gwalior. In the British report of this battle, Hugh Rose commented that Rani Lakshmibai is ‘the most dangerous of all Indian leaders.’ 

About Jhansi Fort:

Jhansi Fort
  • Location: Uttar Pradesh
  • Built in 1613 by Raja Bir Singh Ju Deo (1606-27) of Orchha on a rocky hill called Bangra/Bangira in the town of Balwantnagar (presently known as Jhansi).
  • Stretching over a massive 15 acres, the walls of the fort, constructed with granite, are a formidable barrier. 
  • The fort is surrounded by a deep moat, which was once filled with water, to thwart enemy advances.
  • The fortification comprises ten gates (Darwazas), each with its own unique story and architectural style, including the Khandero Gate, Datia Darwaza, Unnao Gate, and Orchha Gate among others.
  • The Ganesh Mandir, dedicated to Lord Ganesha, is where Rani Laxmi Bai is believed to have married Maharaja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar.
  • The Kadak Bijli cannon, mounted on a tower, is a symbol of the military prowess of the fort. It was used in the battle of 1857 and stands as a testament to the intense warfare that took place.

Having private participation in India’s nuclear energy

Context: The Government of India, while presenting the Union Budget for FY 2024-25, inter alia, made announcements on the expansion of India’s nuclear energy sector, proposing partnerships with the private sector for research and developing Bharat Small Reactors (BSR), Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMR) as well as newer nuclear energy technologies.

India’s three Stage nuclear programme

India’s three Stage nuclear programme

1st Stage: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor 

  • The first stage includes the setting up of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and associated fuel cycle. 
  • PHWRs use natural uranium (U-238) as fuel and heavy water (deuterium oxide) as coolant and moderator. 
  • The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) presently operates 22 commercial nuclear power reactors with an installed capacity of 6,780 MWe.

2nd Stage: Fast Breeder Reactors: 

  • The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) will initially use the Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel.
    • The Uranium-238 surrounding the fuel core will undergo nuclear transmutation to produce fuel (Plutonium, Pu-239), thus earning the name ‘Breeder’. 
    • Also, by transmutation, Thorium-232 will create fissile Uranium-233 which will be used as fuel in the third stage. 
  • In 2003, the Government had approved the creation of Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (BHAVINI) to construct and operate India’s most advanced nuclear reactor-Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). Once the FBR attains criticality, India will only be the second country after Russia to have a commercial operating Fast Breeder Reactor.

Benefits of FBR

  • FBR is thus a stepping stone for the third stage of the program paving the way for the eventual full utilisation of India’s abundant thorium reserves. 
  • Electricity generated by FBR would be a source of green energy as the waste (Plutonium) from the first stage nuclear programme is reprocessed and used as fuel in FBR. Hence, it offers significant reduction in nuclear waste generated, thereby avoiding the need for large geological disposal facilities.
  • In terms of safety, the PFBR is an advanced reactor with inherent passive safety features ensuring a prompt and safe shut down of the plant in the event of an emergency. 
  • Despite the advanced technology involved, both the capital cost and the per unit electricity cost is comparable to other nuclear and conventional power plants.
  • Hence, the second stage of the Indian nuclear power program is imperative to meet the twin goals of energy security and sustainable development.

3rd Stage: Thorium-based Reactors 

  • The third stage will utilise India’s vast Thorium reserves. For it an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is proposed that will use Uranium-233. 
    • By transmutation, Thorium will create fissile Uranium-233 which will be used as fuel in the third stage.

Key Points

  • Aims to achieve 500 Gigawatts of non-fossil fuel energy by 2030, as pledged at COP26, Glasgow 2021.
  • Investment and Capacity Goals:
    • India’s country profile, as published by the World Nuclear Association in September 2024 recognises an in-principle proposed gross increment of 32 GWe in the Indian nuclear energy production capacity. 
    • The ambitious expansion requires significant capital investment and skilled resources.
  • Legislative hurdles for private participation
    • The Atomic energy act 1962, the primary governing statute at the helm of the development and the operation of the nuclear energy sector. 
    • Pertinently, Section 3(a) of the AEA, 1962 empowers only the central government “to produce, develop, use and dispose of atomic energy”.
    • The AEA gives the government sole control and responsibility over all activities in respect of nuclear energy either through an authority or company established by it.
    •  In essence, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) currently have overarching control over the nuclear energy infrastructure.
    • Supreme Court Ruling (September 2024): Sandeep T.S. vs Union of India & others.
      • Dismissed a petition challenging AEA’s restrictions on private participation, emphasizing strict regulatory safeguards due to potential misuse and accidents.
    • Regulatory Uncertainty:
      • Ongoing legal challenges to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 (CLNDA), create uncertainty for private investments.
      • CLNDA aims to ensure no-fault liability of operators for nuclear accidents, but its constitutionality is under scrutiny.

The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 (CLNDA) is a significant piece of legislation in India that addresses liability and compensation for nuclear damage. 

Objective: The Act aims to provide a framework for compensating victims of nuclear damage arising from a nuclear incident. It establishes a no-fault liability regime, meaning the operator of a nuclear facility is liable for damages regardless of fault.

Liability: The operator of the nuclear installation is primarily liable for nuclear damage. The Act caps the maximum liability of the operator at ₹1,500 crore (approximately $180 million). If the damage exceeds this amount, the Central Government will cover additional costs up to 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs).

Claims Commissioner: The Act provides for the appointment of a Claims Commissioner to adjudicate claims for compensation. It also establishes a Nuclear Damage Claims Commission to handle larger claims and ensure prompt compensation.

Right of Recourse: The operator has the right to recourse under certain conditions, such as if the nuclear incident results from an act of terrorism or if the damage is caused by a supplier’s defective equipment.

Insurance: Operators are required to maintain insurance or other financial security to cover their liability for nuclear damage.

Exclusion of Jurisdiction: Civil courts are excluded from entertaining any suit or proceeding related to claims for nuclear damage, ensuring that all claims are handled by the designated authorities.

This Act was crucial for operationalizing the 2008 Indo-U.S. civilian nuclear agreement, as it provided the necessary legal framework for foreign companies to participate in India’s nuclear energy

Financial Risks: Nuclear projects require substantial upfront investment and have long gestation periods. The high costs and financial risks deter private investors, especially given the uncertainties around project completion and return on investment.

Public Perception and Acceptance: Public opposition to nuclear power due to safety concerns and environmental impact can affect the willingness of private companies to invest. Building public trust is crucial but challenging.

Technological Challenges: Developing and maintaining nuclear technology requires specialized knowledge and infrastructure. The private sector may lack the necessary expertise and resources to manage these complex technologies.

Waste Management: Handling and disposing of nuclear waste is a critical issue. The long-term storage and management of radioactive waste pose significant challenges and require stringent regulatory compliance.

Market Competition: Nuclear power competes with other forms of energy, such as renewables, which are often cheaper and face fewer regulatory hurdles. This makes it harder for nuclear power to attract private investment

  • Current status of Private Sector Involvement:
    • Historically limited to engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) roles, with companies like Megha Engineering & Infrastructures participating.
  • Measures to increase private investment
  • NITI Aayog Report:
    • Discusses promoting private sector involvement in Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and emphasizes the need for:
      • A supportive regulatory framework.
      • A clear civil nuclear liability framework.
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):
    • Proposed structure where government retains 51% ownership of nuclear plants, allowing private investment while ensuring government accountability.
    • Entities with majority government ownership would be subject to transparency requirements under the Right to Information Act.
  • Liability Concerns:
    • High liability standards are necessary due to the risks associated with nuclear technology, as evidenced by past disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima.
    • Compensation for nuclear incidents is governed by the CLNDA, but its constitutionality is being challenged, raising concerns over the adequacy of liability protections.
  • Legislative Needs:
    • Comprehensive legislation is essential to address the sensitive nature of nuclear technology and foster a conducive business environment.
  • Ongoing litigation and legislative restrictions hinder private sector involvement, necessitating urgent reforms.
  • Legislative and policy adjustments will be crucial for achieving India's energy generation goals through renewable sources.
  • The path for private participation in India’s nuclear energy sector requires careful navigation of existing laws and challenges, with significant implications for investment and regulatory frameworks.

Bombay HC strikes down Centre’s Fact Check Unit

Context: The Bombay High Court struck down as unconstitutional a key provision of the amended Information Technology (IT) Rules, 2021 which empowered the government to identify “fake news” on social media platforms through a “Fact Check Unit” (FCU). There is an option of an appeal before the Supreme Court, given that similar issues are pending before the Delhi and Madras HCs too.

The law in question:

FCU an arbiter in Its own cause
  • In 2023, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MEiTY) promulgated the IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2023 (2023 Rules), which amended the Information Technology Rules, 2021.
    • The amendment allows the government to constitute a Fact Checking Unit (FCU) under IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code), Amendment 2023.
    • The amendment to Rule 3(1)(b)(v) of the IT Rules, 2021 expanded the general term “fake news” to include “government business”. Under the Rules, if the FCU comes across or is informed about any posts that are “fake”, “false”, or contain “misleading” facts pertaining to the business of the government, it would flag it to the social media intermediaries concerned.
  • The online intermediaries would then have to take down such content if they wanted to retain their “safe harbour” protection under the IT Rules, 2000, that is, legal immunity with regard to third-party content published by them.
  • Concerns: The Rules raised concerns over free speech and the extent to which the government can regulate it. The FCUs allowed the government to be the “only arbiter” of truth in respect of business concerning itself.

Need for creation of Fact Check Unit (FCU):

  • The Fact Check Unit has a stated objective of acting as a deterrent to creators and disseminators of fake news and misinformation.  
  • It also provides people with an easy avenue to report suspicious and questionable information pertaining to the Government of India.
  • The FCU is mandated to counter misinformation on Government policies, initiatives, and schemes either Suo motu or under a reference via complaints. 
  • The FCU will actively monitor, detect, and counter disinformation campaigns, ensuring that false information about the Government is promptly exposed and corrected.

Powers of FCU: 

  • The body will have the authority to label content related to the government on online platforms like Facebook and Twitter as “fake” or “misleading”.
  • Content flagged by the unit will have to be taken down if they wish to retain their ‘safe harbour,’ which is legal immunity they enjoy against third-party content.
  •  Social media sites will have to take down such posts, and internet service providers will have to block URLs of such content.
legal teeth for fact check unit

Issues with the IT Amendment 2023: 

Stand-up comic Kunal Kamra, the Editors’ Guild of India, the News Broadcasters & Digital Association, and the Association of Indian Magazines challenged the constitutional validity of the Rules, terming them arbitrary, unconstitutional, and in violation of fundamental rights.

  • Violation of IT Act 2000: The fact check unit, notified by the Executive, could effectively issue a takedown order to social media platforms and even other intermediaries across the internet stack, potentially bypassing the process statutorily prescribed under Section 69A of the IT Act, 2000. In addition to circumventing the parliamentary procedures required to expand the scope of the parent legislation, i.e., the IT Act.
  • Violation of Fundamental Rights: The amended Rule 3(1)(b)(v) was violative of Articles 14 (equality before law), 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech and expression) and 19(1)(g) (right to practise a profession or trade) of the Constitution. The Rule curtailed the fundamental rights of citizens beyond the reasonable restrictions prescribed under Article 19(2), which was “impermissible through the mode of delegated legislation”.
  • Vague definitions: Under the Rules, if the FCU comes across or is informed about any posts that are “fake”, “false”, or contain “misleading” facts pertaining to the business of the government, it would flag it to the social media intermediaries concerned. The expressions “fake, false or misleading” in the Rule are “vague and overbroad”. 
  • Against the principle of Natural Justice: The FCU has a unilateral view of what is or is not the ‘truth’, and makes the government the sole arbiter. Assigning any unit of the government such arbitrary, overbroad powers to determine the authenticity of online content bypasses the principles of natural justice, thus making it an unconstitutional exercise. The Centre’s claim that decisions given by the FCU can be challenged before a constitutional court “cannot be treated as adequate safeguard”, and therefore, the Rule cannot be saved by reading it down or making a concession of limiting its operation.
  • Fails the proportionality test: The Rule resulted in a “chilling effect” on the intermediary due to the “threat of losing safe harbour”, and also on the freedom of speech. These notified amendments in 2023 were also in gross violation of the Hon’ble Supreme Court ruling in Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India (2013) which laid down strict procedures for blocking content. 

Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India, 2015: 

The Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India case is a landmark judgement by the Supreme Court of India that dealt with the constitutionality of certain provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000. 

The key points of the ruling are:

  • Section 66A of the IT Act: The Court declared Section 66A, which criminalised the transmission of "offensive" or "menacing" content, to be unconstitutional on the grounds that it infringed upon the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression.
  • Overbreadth and Vagueness: The Court found that Section 66A was overly broad and vague, as it did not provide clear and definite guidelines for what constitutes "offensive" or "menacing" content. This ambiguity could lead to arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.
  • Chill Effect: The Court also noted that Section 66A had a chilling effect on freedom of expression, as people were afraid to express their opinions online for fear of being prosecuted.

Conclusion: Right of citizens to participate in the representative and participatory democracy of the county is meaningless unless they have access to authentic information and are not misled by misinformation. In the Shreya Singhal Case, the Supreme Court has emphasised the need to strike a balance between the right to free speech and the need to regulate online content. While the government has a legitimate interest in preventing the spread of harmful content, such regulations must be reasonable and proportionate to the legitimate aim sought to be achieved. 

The ‘Pact of the Future’: Step towards UN Security Council reform

Context: India described the inclusion of a detailed paragraph on Security Council reform in a U.N. summit document as a “good beginning.” New Delhi expressed its anticipation for the initiation of text-based negotiations within a fixed timeframe to address reforms of the 15-member body.

Key takeaways from the news article:

Historic moment:

  • September 22, 2024: World leaders unanimously adopted the ‘Pact of the Future’, marking a significant milestone in the long-awaited reform of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
  • The pact promises to enhance the council’s representativeness, inclusivity, transparency, efficiency, effectiveness, democracy, and accountability.

Importance of the pact's language:

  • It includes a detailed paragraph on UNSC reform for the first time in a U.N. summit document. While the pact may not encompass every detail desired, it is a ‘good beginning.’
  • There is optimism for the initiation of text-based negotiations within a defined timeframe, viewing the current agreement as a foundational step toward meaningful reform.
  • The 'Pact of the Future' also underscores the commitment to address historical injustices faced by Africa, recognizing it as a special case.
  • Leaders agreed to improve representation for underrepresented regions, including the Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
  • The pact emphasizes the necessity of enlarging the Security Council to better reflect the contemporary realities of its membership.
  • The pact advocates for intensified efforts to secure an agreement on the categories of Security Council membership.
  • It encourages the submission and revision of proposals by states for structured dialogues aimed at developing a consolidated model. This emphasis on a collaborative approach aims to balance the council’s representativeness with its effectiveness.

India's stance on UNSC Reform: 

  • India has been a prominent advocate for UNSC reform, arguing that the current structure is not suited for the challenges of the 21st century.
  • India rightfully claims a permanent seat on the Security Council, as India has served as a non-permanent member in 2021-22.
  • The country's position reflects its commitment to a more equitable international order, particularly in light of the Security Council’s polarization on pressing global issues like the Ukraine conflict and the Israel-Hamas situation.
  • In his address at the 'Summit of the Future', Prime Minister Modi stressed that institutional reforms are crucial for global peace and development. The reform is essential for maintaining the relevance of international institutions.

Need for Institutional reforms:

  • U.N. Secretary-General Antonio Guterres echoed this sentiment, calling for profound reforms to enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of global institutions, rooted in the principles of the UN Charter.
    • He emphasised that the challenges of the 21st century necessitate contemporary solutions that are inclusive and collaborative.
    • He noted the disparity between the original 51 member states at the UN's inception nearly 80 years ago and the current 193 members, highlighting the outdated nature of existing peace and security frameworks.
    • He warned that the Security Council, characterized as ‘outdated,’ risks losing credibility unless its composition and methods are reformed.
call for reforms UN Charter's

The evolving dynamics of international relations necessitate significant reforms to address its inherent limitations. Some of the reasons why reforms are needed in UNSC are: 

1. Outdated representation: 

  • The current structure of the UNSC fails to adequately represent the global landscape.
  • Lack of representation from Africa and Latin America: With 54 countries, Africa remains vastly underrepresented in the UNSC, as does Latin America and the Caribbean. Despite their growing influence on the world stage, these regions have no permanent representation.
  • Major economies in Latin America and the significant population and resources of Africa highlight the disconnect between the UNSC’s membership and the realities of global power dynamics.

2. Concerns over Sovereignty and Unilateral actions: 

  • Sanctions imposed by the UNSC can lead to severe economic repercussions for nations, often disregarding the interests of those nations.
  • Key decisions, particularly regarding conflicts in regions like Africa, are made without adequate representation from those directly affected.
  • Sanctions on Iran have led to a crippling economic crisis, highlighting how the UNSC's actions can have far-reaching effects on a nation’s sovereignty and well-being.

3. Lack of recognition for major contributors: 

  • Countries that play pivotal roles in global peacekeeping and financing are overlooked in the UNSC.
  • India, Japan, and Germany: These nations are significant contributors to UN peacekeeping missions and UN finances but lack permanent seats in the UNSC.
  • India is among the top contributors to peacekeeping operations, while Japan and Germany are major financial backers of the UN. Their exclusion from the UNSC reflects an imbalance that undermines their contributions.

4. Ineffectiveness of Veto power: 

  • The veto power held by the P5 (the five permanent members) has often led to deadlocks in critical situations.
  • Deadlocks: The veto can obstruct consensus and render the UNSC ineffective in times of crisis.
  • The use of Veto power by the P5 nations to protect their interests illustrate how the P-5 can skew resolutions in their favour, disregarding broader international concerns.
  • The P5's inability to agree on resolutions regarding the Syrian Civil War has resulted in prolonged inaction, exacerbating human suffering and instability.

5. Discouragement of multilateralism: 

  • The exclusivity and perceived ineffectiveness of the UNSC have eroded trust in multilateralism.
  • The UNSC's failures discourage countries from engaging in collective efforts to tackle global challenges, undermining international cooperation.

6. Changing geopolitics: 

  • The geopolitical landscape has shifted significantly since the establishment of the UNSC.
  • Post-World War II composition: The current UNSC composition reflects a bi-polar world that no longer exists, failing to represent the multi-polar reality of today where developing nations have substantial influence.
  • This misalignment hampers effective decision-making and inclusivity.

The UN chief cautioned the 15-member United Nations Security Council about its outdated nature, highlighting that its waning authority could ultimately lead to a complete loss of credibility unless significant reforms are enacted in both its composition and operational methods. The UN chief issued a powerful call to action, stating, “We cannot forge a future for our grandchildren with a system designed for our grandparents.”

Key highlights from the Summit of the Future, 2024: 

World leaders convened at the Summit of the Future (New York) adopted the Pact for the Future, which includes a Global Digital Compact and a Declaration on Future Generations. 

1. Commitment to Sustainable development: 

  • Member States recommitted to accelerating the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the 2023 SDG Summit Political Declaration.
  • Their aim is to eradicate poverty and hunger while ensuring no one is left behind.
  • The Pact emphasizes the necessity of planning for sustainable development beyond 2030 and addresses the SDG financing gap through enhanced public and private investments.

2. Climate action and Environmental sustainability: 

  • The Pact reiterates the commitment to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and transition from fossil fuels to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.
  • It also calls for urgent actions to promote sustainable practices, including a legally-binding agreement on plastic pollution and initiatives to reverse biodiversity loss.

3. Peace and security initiatives: 

  • Leaders emphasized the importance of sustaining peace through national prevention strategies, strengthening international cooperation, and ensuring military spending does not undermine sustainable development.
  • The Pact commits to protecting civilians in conflict zones and enhancing accountability for serious violations of international law.

4. Disarmament and arms control: 

  • One of the Pact's notable achievements is the reaffirmation of commitment to nuclear disarmament, alongside measures to prevent the weaponization of emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence.

5. Addressing global inequalities in Science and Technology: 

  • The Pact promotes reducing disparities in science, technology, and innovation (STI) and emphasizes women's and girls' participation in these fields.
  • It advocates for increased funding for SDG-related research and innovation.

6. Enhancing Multilateral cooperation: 

  • The adoption of the Pact showcases countries' commitment to an international system centred around the United Nations.
  • It aims to enhance multilateralism to better reflect contemporary global dynamics, fostering collaboration among governments, civil society, and private sectors.

7. Youth and gender equality: 

  • The Pact prioritizes youth engagement in global decision-making and commits to revitalizing the Commission on the Status of Women, ensuring the empowerment of women and girls.

8. Financial architecture reform: 

  • The Pact outlines comprehensive reforms to the international financial architecture, aiming for more equitable representation of developing countries and improved financial safety nets to support economic resilience.

9. Global Digital compact and future generations declaration: 

  • Annexed to the Pact, the Global Digital Compact establishes a framework for digital cooperation that emphasizes human rights and accountability in the digital space.
  • The Declaration on Future Generations focuses on safeguarding the interests of future populations through long-term governance principles.

10. Outer Space: 

  • On governing outer space, the Pact includes an agreement to strengthen the existing international frameworks including to ensure that all countries can benefit from its safe and sustainable exploration and use, and working with non-State actors where relevant.  
  • The Pact includes follow-up mechanisms, including a high-level review of the Global Digital Compact in 2027 and a comprehensive review of the Pact for the Future in 2028.