GS Paper 1

Qutub Minar and its monuments

Context: The initial stage of restoration efforts for the Alai Darwaza (at Qutub Minar complex) will be undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Alai Darwaza

Originally, Qutb-ud-din Aibak commissioned the construction of a mosque, later partly expanded by Shamsuddin Altamash (Iltutmish).
Alauddin Khilji had grand plans for the Qutub complex, aiming to enlarge the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and erect four gateways leading to it.
However, his vision was left incomplete as he passed away after the completion of the first gateway, known as the Alai Darwaza, in 1311 AD. This 13th-century structure continues to stand as a remarkable architectural achievement.
According to the Archaeological Survey of India's website, the Alai Darwaza holds historical significance as the first building to incorporate Islamic construction and ornamentation principles.
Notably, it represents a pivotal moment in Indian architecture, being the inaugural instance of red sandstone and white marble used in conjunction.
Additionally, it is considered one of the earliest examples of a true dome constructed according to arcuate (curved or arched) architectural principles.
Its incorporation of local motifs, such as lotus buds adorning its entrances, further adds to its cultural significance.
The plinth on each side is intricately adorned with floral and geometric designs in both white marble and red sandstone, creating a stunning polychromatic effect.
Despite being a single-story structure, its exterior creates the illusion of a double-story building.
The domed gateway is adorned with inscriptions in Naskh script, latticed stone screens, and showcases the exceptional craftsmanship of the Turkish artisans responsible for its construction.
The Qutub Minar Complex:
The Qutb Minar complex comprises a collection of historical monuments and buildings dating back to the Delhi Sultanate era, located in Mehrauli, Delhi, India.
In addition to the prominent Qutb Minar and the Quwwat-ul Islam Mosque, the complex encompasses other notable structures, including the Alai Darwaza gate, the Alai Minar, and the Iron pillar.
Within the complex, one can also find the tombs of Iltutmish, Alauddin Khalji, and Imam Zamin.

Qutub Minar

The Qutb Minar takes inspiration from the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and serves as a significant example of early Afghan architecture, eventually influencing the development of Indo-Islamic Architecture.
It holds the distinction of being the tallest minaret worldwide constructed from bricks. Its design encompasses five distinctive storeys, each featuring a projecting balcony.
Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the surrounding monuments.
Initially constructed as a Victory Tower to commemorate Muhammad Ghori's triumph over the Rajput king, Prithviraj Chauhan, in 1192 AD, the Qutb Minar was initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later became the first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty.
The minaret's construction marked the onset of Muslim rule in India. Fashioned from red sandstone and marble, Aibak could only complete the first storey.
The subsequent three floors were added by his son-in-law and successor, Iltutmish.
In 1368 AD, the Minar was struck by lightning, which caused the removal of its top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq, a later Sultan of Delhi (1351 to 1388), replaced the missing section with the current two floors. He adorned it with white marble and sandstone, contributing to its distinctive appearance, as seen in the lower three storeys.
The Minar reflects a progression in time with inscriptions displayed in bold and cursive Thuluth script of calligraphy, distinguished by thicker strokes at the top compared to the earlier Kufic script during the initial construction.
Historical records reveal further repairs conducted by Sultan Sikander Lodi in 1503, following another lightning strike.
In 2004, seismic monitors were installed on the Minar, and subsequent seismic activity, such as the 2005 Delhi earthquake, indicated no substantial damage. This resilience has been attributed to the use of lime mortar and rubble masonry, which absorb tremors.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

The construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque commenced in 1193 CE under the patronage of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, marking his victory over the Rajputs.
This mosque holds the distinction of being the first mosque built in Delhi following the Islamic conquest of India.
Aibak, aiming to establish the prominence of Islam in the newly conquered territory, chose the heart of the captured Rajput citadel of Qila Rai Pithora as the site for this mosque.
The architectural style and design of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque bear similarities to the Adhai-din-ka Jhonpra or Ajmer Mosque in Ajmer, Rajasthan, also constructed by Aibak during the same period.
The side arches are smaller in size, and the screen is adorned with religious texts and floral patterns.
The mosque's construction followed a Corbel style rather than a scientific one, evident in the variations in the arch patterns.
The entrances to the courtyard incorporate ornate mandap domes from temples, with their pillars extensively used throughout the structure, including the sanctuary beyond the tall arched screens.
Iltutmish, Qutbuddin's successor, expanded the original prayer hall screen by adding three more arches.
As the Mamluk empire stabilized during Iltutmish's reign, he could replace most of the conscripted Hindu masons with Muslim artisans, resulting in stylistically more Islamic arches.

Iron pillar in the Qutb Complex

The iron pillar stands as one of the most remarkable metallurgical wonders globally.
Originally, it was erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–414 AD) in front of a Vishnu Temple complex at Udayagiri around 402 AD.
Subsequently, during the 10th century CE, it was relocated from Udayagiri to its current location by Anangpal.
Anangpal's intention was to incorporate this pillar into a Vishnu Temple that was constructed at its present site.
The pillar boasts an inscription in Sanskrit, written in the Brahmi script dating back to the 4th century AD. This inscription reveals that the pillar was originally set up as a Vishnudhvaja, on a hill known as Vishnupada.

Alai Minar

Alauddin Khalji initiated the construction of the Alai Minar following his expansion of the Quwwat ul-Islam Mosque, which had been built before 1300 AD.
He envisioned this tower to be twice as tall as the Qutb Minar, proportionate to the enlarged mosque.
However, the construction of the Alai Minar came to an abrupt halt shortly after Alauddin's demise in 1316 and was never resumed by his successors from the Khalji Dynasty.
Today, only the first storey of the Alai Minar remains, a massive rubble masonry core that was evidently intended to be clad with dressed stone at a later stage.

Growth Hub Program of Niti Aayog

Context: NITI Aayog has conceived an initiative focused on developing city regions are growth hubs.

About Growth Hub Program of NITI Aayog

To leverage urbanisation for economic growth, NITI Aayog has conceived developing city-regions as growth hubs.
The program endeavors to forge a robust economic growth strategy for city-regions across India and prepare a roadmap for achieving the same.
Under the initiative, NITI Aayog will work in close collaboration with the State governments.
During the initial stage, four city regions will be taken up on a pilot basis to develop a template for devising an economic strategy. Later, 16 more cities will be taken up.
The economic strategy template will act as the model strategy for other city-regions across the country for achieving desired economic targets.
Economy growth strategy for cities: Under the program, a roadmap for developing economic growth strategy will be developed for each city region.
For developing this following activities will be taken up:
- Comprehensive baseline assessment of city region's economy
- SWOT analysis for understanding the strengths and challenges of the region
- Identification of growth drivers, setting economic goals
- Designing policy enablers
- Proposing governance structure for projectization of proposed strategies
Initial focus cities: Mumbai, Surat, Vishakhapatnam have been identified.

Significance of developing economic potential of urban areas

Urban areas hold immense potential to drive economic advancement to achieve the target of making India a developed country with a GDP $35-$45 trillion economy target by 2047.
GDP of several major city, regions worldwide appears to match the GDP of entire countries. This intriguing trend reflects urban centers' growing economic prominence and vitality, highlighting their pivotal role in shaping the country's economic development.
Indian cities also hold the potential to propel unparalleled economic growth which needs to be realised. While the government is exploring multiple pathways at all levels to achieve this target, strategizing \for transforming city regions into mega economic growth hubs is crucial.

Cyclone frequency may rise over Indian coast from the warming of Pacific

Context: A combination of global warming and a cyclical event called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation that repeats every 20-30 years, could make cyclones that originate near the Equator more frequent in the coming years.

What the study says?

In recent times, equatorial cyclones originating near the Equator have exhibited an unexpected trend of moderation. The most significant recent occurrence of such a cyclone was the 2017 Cyclone Okchi, which brought widespread destruction to regions including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka.
A convergence of factors, namely global warming and the cyclic phenomenon termed the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), which operates on a 20-30-year cycle, suggests a potential elevation in the frequency of these cyclones in the years ahead.
Between 1981 and 2010, equatorial-origin cyclones occurred at a strikingly lower rate of 43% compared to the period spanning 1951 to 1980. This decline aligns with the PDO's 'warmer' or positive phase.
- A warming of the Central Equatorial Pacific, known as El Nino, often corresponds to decreased rainfall over India.
- Conversely, cooler-than-normal temperatures, referred to as La Nina, are associated with heightened rainfall.
- The interplay of these phenomena, collectively known as the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), recurs in the Pacific every two to seven years.
- In contrast, the PDO follows a non-annual cycle and, over considerably longer timescales, results in warmer conditions in the Western Pacific Ocean and relatively cooler conditions in the Eastern Pacific.
- Identifying a 'positive' or 'warmer phase' of PDO necessitates years of observing ocean temperatures and their interaction with the atmosphere.
- Notably, in 2019, the PDO transitioned into a cooler, negative phase. If this state persists, it could potentially lead to an increase in the number of equatorial-origin tropical cyclones during the post-monsoon months.

Currently, an emerging El Nino event is evident in the Pacific, with its effects already manifesting in central and southern India, where rainfall deficits of 7% and 17% have been observed.
While a positive PDO combined with ENSO typically yields unfavourable outcomes, a negative PDO coupled with the same phenomenon results in increased rainfall for India.

Important Terms:

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO): A recurring climatic cycle manifesting every 20-30 years in the Pacific Ocean. It results in fluctuations in sea surface temperatures. When in a positive phase, it is associated with warmer waters in the western Pacific and cooler waters in the eastern Pacific. This phenomenon significantly influences global climate dynamics and weather patterns.
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO): A recurrent climate phenomenon observed in the Pacific Ocean, characterized by two primary states—El Nino (warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures) and La Nina (cooler-than-normal temperatures). ENSO holds considerable sway over worldwide weather patterns, with implications for temperature and precipitation distributions.
Equatorial Cyclones: Cyclones originating in proximity to the Equator. Fuelled by warm waters and abundant moisture, these cyclones typically form at a distance from the Equator due to the Coriolis effect. Although infrequent, they can be exceptionally intense and cause significant damage.

What is Tropical Cyclone?

A tropical cyclone is a weather phenomenon characterized by a region of low atmospheric pressure that originates over warm tropical waters and subsequently advances towards coastal regions, unleashing powerful winds, intense rainfall, and storm surges.
The rotational direction of the winds within a tropical cyclone follows a distinctive pattern: counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This rotation is a consequence of the Coriolis effect, which influences the motion of air masses in relation to the Earth's rotation.

Critical conditions contribute to the formation of tropical cyclones:

Sea Temperature: The presence of an expansive sea surface with a temperature exceeding 27°C serves as a conducive environment for the genesis of tropical cyclones. Warm ocean waters provide the necessary energy for these systems to gather strength.
Geographical Location: Tropical cyclones tend to develop within specific geographical boundaries, specifically between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These areas offer optimal temperature conditions for their formation.
Coriolis Force: A crucial requirement for tropical cyclone formation is the presence of the Coriolis force, a result of the Earth's rotation. Consequently, these cyclones do not form near the equator but rather at latitudes where the Coriolis effect is sufficient to induce rotation.
Vertical Wind Speed: The presence of relatively stable vertical wind speeds, with minimal fluctuations, aids in the organization of a tropical cyclone's structure. This consistency facilitates the development and maintenance of the cyclonic circulation.
Upper Divergence: Successful tropical cyclone development necessitates a well-established upper-level divergence within the atmosphere. This divergence ensures the continual removal of rising air currents from within the cyclone, maintaining low pressure at its centre.
High Humidity: Adequate humidity levels, typically ranging between 50 to 60 percent, are essential in the mid-troposphere. This humidity is fundamental for the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds, a significant component of tropical cyclones.

Influence of Climate Change on Tropical Cyclone Formation

Temperature Shifts: The temperature of both the ocean and the atmosphere plays a crucial role in the creation of tropical cyclones. As the climate warms, these storms gather strength by harnessing the energy released when evaporated ocean water condenses into rainfall within the cyclone.
Warmer Ocean Impact: The escalation in temperature leads to a warmer ocean, elevating evaporation rates. This, in turn, augments the moisture content in the atmosphere, intensifying the availability of water vapor.
Enhanced Rainfall: The rising temperature enables the atmosphere to retain more moisture, thereby increasing rainfall. The amplified rainfall not only releases more heat but also contributes to bolstering wind intensity.
Heightened Rainfall Rates: Recent investigations reveal a 7% surge in hurricane rainfall rates per degree of warming, underscoring the pronounced impact of rising temperatures on precipitation.
Storm Intensification: The warming climate is poised to elevate wind velocities, leading to a higher frequency of powerful Category 4 and 5 storms, with their potential for devastating impact.
Sea Level Rise Influence: Climatic warming elevates sea levels, augmenting the height of ocean water. This elevated water level permits storm surges to penetrate further inland.
Impact of Storm Slowing: The velocity of a storm significantly influences the cumulative rainfall in a given area. Slower-moving storms grant additional time for rainfall accumulation, heightening the potential for flooding.
Complex Storm Speed Changes: While studies indicate a reduction in storm speed, the underlying mechanisms behind this trend remain elusive.
Confluence of Storms: Within an increasingly warmer world, the merging of two significant tropical storms over global oceans could lead to the formation of extremely powerful mega cyclones.

Only the Central Government is entitled to conduct Census

Context: The Centre government has opposed the Bihar government's decision to conduct a caste-based survey in the state, stating that it is a 'Union subject'.

Major Highlights:

The Ministry of Home Affairs filed an affidavit before the Supreme Court, which stated, "According to the Centre, the census is a Union list subject (in the seventh schedule), and that it is the Centre only which can conduct it under the Section 3 of the Census Act 1948 Act."
The affidavit also states, "The central government is committed to taking all affirmative actions for the upliftment of the SC/ST/OBC in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of India and the applicable law."
Background: The decision of a caste-based census was taken by the Bihar cabinet in 2022. The Supreme Court of India dismissed a plea challenging the Bihar caste survey in January 2023. The Bihar government’s Caste survey is now underway. In 2015, the Karnataka government conducted a caste survey which was not released.

Caste-based census in India:

Caste census means inclusion of caste-wise tabulation of India's population in the Census exercise. India has counted and published caste data — from 1951 to 2011 — of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes only.
A caste-based census gathers data on economic status and other caste-related information of every Indian family, both in rural and urban areas to help the authorities define deprivation indicators and map inequalities at a broader level.
This data helps better policy-making by identifying both disadvantaged and privileged sections of society. Many political parties feel that the present reservation being based on the last caste census conducted in 1931 does not reflect the correct numbers.

The first and last caste census:

In India, there have been caste-based censuses conducted in the past. The first caste-based census took place in 1881 during the colonial period.
The 1931 census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data. The population of OBCs was 52% as last recorded in the 1931 caste census.
The UPA government conducted Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) in 2011. It was the first caste-based census since 1931. The data was, however, not published.

Is Caste Census constitutionally mandated?

Article 340 of the Constitution authorises the appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions of SEBCs and the difficulties under which they labour.
The commission is assigned to make recommendations for the Union or any State necessary for the removal of such difficulties and to improve the conditions of the Socially and Economically Backward Classes. E.g., Justice G Rohini Commission in 2017

Rationale behind the caste census:

For a significant period of time post-independence, there has been a certain level of “caste-blindness” to policy-making and this has been accompanied by the wishful thinking that if we do not address caste and make it even more glaring it will wither away.
Caste has been deeply entrenched social structure in India for centuries. Census exercise in Independent India has never enumerated castes, except SC & ST, as a matter of policy. However, recently there has been growing demand for Caste enumeration in the census.
The idea behind the caste-based census is to recognise what we mean to abolish (in order to abolish caste, caste-based discrimination, caste-based distribution of wealth and socio-cultural inequalities generated by caste it is essential to understand its expansiveness).

Need for Caste-based census:

Demographic changes: Existing reservation limits of 27% to OBC, and overall 50% legally mandated cap on reservation is based on pre-independent census data, which needs to be revised/reviewed keeping in mind present-day demographic changes.
Identifying Vulnerable Communities: Caste-based census can help identify the most disadvantaged and marginalised communities/caste groups to reveal disparities in literacy rates, income levels, access to healthcare etc. for targeted interventions. E.g., OBC Sub-categorisation can identify/prioritise the most deprived communities within OBC list.
Accurate data for Policy Formulation: Can provide accurate/up-to-date data on socio-economic conditions of different caste groups for formulating evidence-based policies and reducing inclusion and exclusion errors. E.g., Evaluate legitimacy of reservation demands.
Assessment of Affirmative Action: Enables government to measure effectiveness of previous policies/initiatives targeted towards specific castes and make necessary adjustments for better outcomes.
Constitutional Imperative: Article 340 calls for creation of a commission to evaluate the conditions of socially and educationally disadvantaged.

Significant challenges and concerns associated with conducting caste-based census:

Complexity: Data collection is complex due to huge population, multiple caste identities and presence of individuals unwilling to disclose their caste identity.
Cost and Resources: Conducting comprehensive caste-based census requires significant financial and human resources. And often, due to challenges involved, the costs may outweigh the benefits involved.
Social Tensions: As Caste is a sensitive issue in India, conducting caste-based census may lead to heightened social tensions and conflicts.
Privacy and Misuse of Data: Caste-related information can be sensitive and raise privacy concerns. It can be misused for electoral purposes, vote-bank politics etc. rather than genuinely addressing social inequalities.
Perpetuate caste identity: Caste census can reinforce caste identity, intensify caste-based divisions and may perpetuate discrimination.
Political Resistance: Idea of caste-based census may face opposition from various groups/political entities, potentially delaying its implementation.

Way Forward

Category-based, if not caste-based, enumeration of the census will not only help the government in collecting data that mirrors social inequalities but also make decisions for course correction. India needs to make bold decisions through data and statistics in the way the United States does to tackle race issues, by collecting data around race, class, language, inter-race marriages etc.
Caste may be the dominant but not the only/sole criterion of backwardness in the country. Need for improving HDI, education, health outcomes for the population irrespective of caste, and effective implementation of affirmative action policies for the upliftment of the marginalised sections.

Social Safety Net

Context: Around 53% of all the salaried workforce does not have any social security benefits in India, Says the Periodic Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2021-22.

Social safety nets are non-contributory transfer programs generally targeted to the poor or those vulnerable to shocks, e.g.

Cash transfers are either targeted or not, either conditional or not.
Food or other in-kind distribution.
Public workfare jobs.
General price subsidies, e.g., for food or fuel.
Fee waivers for essential services such as health or education.

Importance of Safety nets

Safety nets enable households to make better investments in their future.
Safety nets help households manage risk e.g., health risk.
Safety nets help communities create assets.
Safety nets help governments make beneficial reforms that improve growth prospects.

Status of Safety Nets in India

According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2021-22, around 53% of all the salaried workforce does not have any social security benefits in India.
In India only 1.9% of the poorest 20% quintile of India’s workforce has access to any benefits.
Gig workers, or approximately 1.3% of India’s active labour force, rarely have access to any social security benefit.
Mercer Global Pension Index (2021 MCGPI) ranked India at 40 out of 43 countries.

Steps taken by Government

The government has put in place economic safety nets comprising the world’s largest free food program, direct cash transfers and relief measures for small businesses:

Barbell Strategy: The government opted for a “Barbell Strategy” that combined a bouquet of safety-nets to cushion the impact on vulnerable sections of society, with a flexible policy response based on a Bayesian updating of information.
Creation of Fund: The National Social Security Fund was set up for unorganised sector workers, with an initial allocation of just ₹1,000 crore to support schemes for weavers, rickshaw pullers and bidi workers etc.
Push for Digitisation: Government has giving push to reduce human interference to reduce the corruption and get the benefits of social security scheme to citizen e.g., e-Shram platform has enabled the enrolment of approximately 300 million workers while expanding coverage of accident insurance (of ₹2 lakh cover) and disability (of ₹1 lakh cover).
Cash transfer: Under Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) a transfer of Rs 6,000 per year in three instalments has been provided.
Food security:
- Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana was launched to provide additional free-of-cost food grains to National Food Security Act (NFSA) beneficiaries 5 kg per person per month, over and above the regular monthly NFSA foodgrains.
- One Nation One Ration Card: to ensure PDS benefit for people in transit, especially migrant workers.
- Ujjawala Scheme: under the scheme the target was to release 8 Crore LPG Connections to the deprived households by March 2020.
Employment Security
- Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan (PM-GKRA) was launched for immediate employment & livelihood opportunities to returnee migrant workers.
- Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS): It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to at least one member of every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
- Aatmanirbhar Bharat Rojgar Yojana (ABRY) was launched to reduce the financial burden of the employers and encourages them to hire more workers, implemented by EPFO.
Housing
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana - Gramin and Urban: To achieve the objective of providing “Housing to All” by the year 2022.
Credit
- PM SVANidhi Scheme to provide working capital loan to urban street vendors to resume their businesses.

Challenges

Low Budgetary Allocation: The budgetary allocation by the government has always been limited E.g., In national social security fund, the amount was a pittance when compared to a requirement of over ₹22,841 crore as estimated by the Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability.
Increasing Burden: It is estimated that the cost of providing social protection to the poorest 20% of the workforce would be in trillions, a cost of approximately 0.69% of GDP in FY20.
Accessibility: Approximately 91% of India’s workforce works in the informal sector which lacks access to social security.
Coverage: While the Code on Social Security (2020) merged existing social security legislation, it dealt fundamentally with formal enterprises and did not cover informal ones.
Compliance Burden: Presence of a complex process to register for social scheme and low awareness is leading to less coverage e.g., e-Shram puts the burden of registration on informal workers, who are required to furnish a self-declaration and share their Aadhaar card.
Complex and Confusing Processes: The existing social security framework has become complex, with overlapping areas of authority between the State and Centre, and confusing definitions being used such as between a platform worker, an unorganised worker and someone who is self-employed.
Migrant Worker: Migrant workers often face discrimination and suspicion from authorities in their working area, which hinder the effective utilisation of the schemes by them.

Global Practices

Brazil’s General Social Security Scheme

It is a contribution-based scheme, substituting income loss for a worker and his family, whether in partial or full.
This covers any situation due to an accident at work, a disability that prevents the worker from working, death, an illness/medical treatment etc.
Even income loss that occurs due to a worker being imprisoned is covered by the low-income insured.
Unemployment insurance is paid from worker support funds, and health care is covered through the Unified Health System.
The Constitution itself has established that if there is a lack of funds, the National Treasury will step in.
Social security benefits can be availed of with a simple phone call or a visit to a bank, with no requirement to submit endless documents.

Way forward

For Worker:
- For formal workers the government should expand employer and employee contribution under the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) system.
- For informal workers with meaningful income, whether self-employed or in an informal enterprise, partial contributions can be elicited.
- Government should persuade informal enterprises to formalise and expand their total contribution to the fund.
Unemployed Individual: For those who are unemployed or have stopped looking for work, or do not earn enough, the government should step in to make provision for employment and provide for the social security initiatives.
Easy and Wholistic Coverage: Greater support is required for financing social security for most of the India’s labour force.
- There should be a push for a pan-India labour force card and an expansion of existing successful schemes such as the Building and Other Construction Workers Schemes to other categories of workers.
- Such expansion requires a loosening of existing restrictions on benefit portability, having a 90-day mandatory cooling period, as well as a more straightforward registration process.
Domestic Worker: Special provisions should be made for domestic workers owing to their uncertain employment. The government should promote the idea of organised domestic worker association.
Strengthening Existing Schemes: Government should also strengthen the existing schemes, for example the Employees’ Provident Fund (EPF), the Employees’ State Insurance Scheme (ESI), and the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), with budgetary support and expansion of coverage.
Raising Awareness: Government should give a more significant push to raise awareness about social security to ensure that more workers are aware of the available benefits.
- Organisations such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association which run Shakti Kendras (worker facilitation centres), may be funded to run campaigns to provide greater information on social security rights, along with services and schemes that the government offers.

With occupations becoming more on-demand and hire/fire rules growing, India's workforce is becoming increasingly job insecure. To ensure that the rewards of growth trickle down while providing a sense of social stability, policymakers must abandon supply-side tweaks in favour of measures that promote equitable growth.

Resisting Landslides

Context: Severe monsoon floods in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have claimed over 60 lives, with heavy rains triggering landslides and causing widespread devastation.

Landslide is rapid movement of rock, soil and vegetation down the slope under the influence of gravity. These materials may move downwards by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading or flowing. Such movements may occur gradually, but sudden sliding can also occur without warning. They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions. The extent and Intensity of landslide depends upon number of factors- Steepness of the slope, amount of vegetation cover, tectonic activity, bedding plane of the rocks etc.

Types of Landslides

Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.
Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock
Debris flow: Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter combine with water to form slurry that then flows down slope. Usually associated with steep gullies
Mudflow: Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that contains at least 50% sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles
Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such as creep, debris flow, mudflow etc.

Causes of Landslides

Geological causes: Weak, sensitive and weathered material, presence of joints and fissures, variation in physical properties such as permeability.
Morphological causes: Tectonic or volcanic uplift, erosion due to wind and water, higher deposition of load on the slope or its crest, removal of vegetation.
Physical causes: Intense rainfall, earthquake/volcanic eruption, rapid snow melt/freeze
Anthropogenic causes: Excavation of the slope or its toe, deposition of load on the slope, drawdown of reservoir, deforestation, mining, irrigation and artificial vibration.

Landslide Prone areas in India

As per Geological Survey of India, about 0.42 million sq.km covering nearly 12.6% of land area of India is prone to landslide. Major landslide prone areas in India:

Western Ghats and Konkan Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra)
Eastern Ghats (Araku region in Andhra Pradesh)
North-East Himalayas (Darjeeling and Sikkim)
Northwest Himalayas (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K).

Himalayan mountain ranges and hilly tracts of North-Eastern region are highly susceptible to slope instability due to the immature and rugged topography, fragile rock conditions, high seismicity resulting from proximity to the plate margins, and high rainfall. Extensive anthropogenic interference, as part of developmental activities, is another significant factor.

Similarly, the Western Ghats, though located in a relatively stable domain, experiences landslides due to number of factors- steep hill slopes, high intensity rainfall and anthropogenic activities. The Nilgiris hills located at the convergence zone of the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats experiences a number of landslides due to high intensity and protracted rainfall.

Impact of Landslides

Short run: Loss and damage to property, loss of lives, Destruction to agricultural crops, Damages to Vegetation, Obstruction of vehicular movement leading to Traffic jam, temporary loss of livelihood for the poor people etc.

Long-run:

Increase in the sediment load of the river which can lead to floods.
Reduce the effective life of hydroelectric and multipurpose projects by adding an enormous amount of silt load to the reservoirs.
Loss of cultivable land and infrastructure.
Environmental impact in terms of erosion and soil loss
Demographic impact in terms of relocation of population towards other areas.
Frequent disruption of transportation networks leads to geographical isolation and hence perpetuates under-development.
Challenges of responding to landslide disasters:

a) Majority of landslide prone habitations are in remote locations in hinterlands of Himalayas, North-Eastern and on Western and Eastern Ghats. Thus, it becomes a difficult for district administration and NDRF and SDRF teams to reach locations in short span.

b) Most landslides occur during rainy season when weather conditions coupled with poor visibility makes it difficult for relief operations to continue using helicopters.

NDMA Guidelines for Landslide Disaster Management

Landslide hazard, vulnerability & risk assessment: Delineating areas susceptible to landslide hazards and to assess the resources at risk.
Early warning systems for landslides: Continuous monitoring of movements, development of stresses and the transmission of this data at regular time intervals.
Investigations for Landslide risk assessment: multi-disciplinary investigations of landslide risk assessment leading to formulation of Standards to mitigate impact of landslides.

Landslide Risk Mitigation and Remediation

Restricting development in landslide-prone areas through land use planning.
Laying down standards to be followed for excavation and construction.
Protecting existing developments through restraining walls and rock anchors.
Slope Stabilization measures: Generally, include works involving modification of the natural landslide conditions such as topography, geology, ground water, and other conditions that indirectly control portions of the entire landslide movement. These include drainage improvement works, soil/debris removal works etc.
Landslide insurance and compensation for losses

Regulation & Enforcement: State governments/SDMAs will adopt the model techno-legal framework for ensuring compliance with land use zoning and landslide safety issues in all development activities and plans.
Awareness and Preparedness: Comprehensive awareness campaigns targeting different groups of people living in landslide prone areas should be conducted systematically.
Capacity Development (Including Education, Training and Documentation):

Introduction of curriculum related to Disaster Management, including Landslides in the Schools
Training of the Administrators to plan, respond and mitigate the impact of Landslides
Technical institutes located in vulnerable areas should develop adequate technical expertise on the various subjects related to landslide management.

Immediate Response: Put in place Standard Operating Procedure (SoP) which should ensure coordinated and sustained action from various agencies in the aftermath of landslides
R&D: Government should encourage, promote, and support R&D activities to address current challenges, offer solutions, and develop new investigation techniques, with the application of the latest developments in remote sensing, communications, and instrumentation technologies.

North Sea

Context: U.K. Prime Minister recently backed plans for new fossil fuel drilling off Britain’s coast.

About North Sea

North Sea, shallow, northeastern arm of the Atlantic Ocean, located between the British Isles and the mainland of northwestern Europe.
The sea is bordered by the island of Great Britain to the southwest and west, the Orkney and Shetland islands to the northwest, Norway to the northeast, Denmark to the east, Germany and the Netherlands to the southeast, and Belgium and France to the south.
It is connected to the Atlantic by the Strait of Dover and the English Channel and opens directly onto the ocean between the Orkney and Shetland islands and between the Shetland Islands and Norway.
The Skagerrak, an eastward extension of the North Sea between Norway and Denmark, connects the North and Baltic seas via the Kattegat and the Danish straits.
The North Sea waters are affected by the warm North Atlantic Current, which moves northward along the western side of the British Isles and enters the Norwegian Sea.
The North Sea has long been important as one of Europe’s most productive fisheries.
It also serves as a prominent shipping zone among European countries and between Europe and the Middle East.
The extensive reserves of petroleum and natural gas have been discovered beneath the seafloor.

Irrigation in focus as India moves towards driest-ever August

Context: News reports and weather experts say that India might be facing its driest August in 100 years. As of Sunday, India had received 7% less rainfall cumulatively this monsoon compared to the long period average (LPA). This situation is expected to get worse. A recent report in Reuters quotes an India Meteorological Department official saying that. India is expected to receive an average of less than 180 mm of rainfall this August, which is the lowest since records began in 1901.

What is Irrigation?

The process of supplying water to crops by artificial means such as canals, wells, tube-wells, tanks, etc. from the sources of water such as rivers, tanks, ponds, or underground water is called irrigation.

Types of irrigation techniques

Surface irrigation: Surface irrigation utilizes gravity flow to move water across land, wetting and infiltrating soil. It encompasses furrow, border strip, and basin irrigation, also known as flood irrigation.
Localized irrigation: Localized irrigation involves the distribution of water through a network of pipes, utilizing low pressure, and delivering water in a predetermined pattern to each individual plant or in close proximity to it.
Drip irrigation: The technique of delivering water drop by drop at or near the root zone of plants is known as drip irrigation or trickle irrigation. When managed properly, this method can be highly efficient in terms of water usage since it minimizes evaporation and runoff.
Sprinkler irrigation: In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns.
Sub-irrigation: Sub-surface irrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plant root zone.

S.NO.	Traditional Irrigation / Water Conservation methods	Region
1.	Jhalara	Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
2.	Talab/Bandhi	Bundelkhand
3.	Bawari	Rajasthan
4.	Tanka	Thar Desert (Rajasthan)
5.	Ahar Pynes	Bihar
6.	Johads	Karnataka, Odisha
7.	Panam Keni	Wayanad (Kerala)
8.	Khadin	Jaisalmer (Rajasthan)
9.	Kund	Rajasthan, Gujarat
10.	Baoli	Rajasthan
11.	Bhandara Phad	Maharashtra
12.	Zing	Ladakh
13.	Kuhls	Himachal Pradesh

Why INDIA Needs Irrigation?

Uneven Rainfall Distribution: While some areas receive heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, others experience long dry periods. Irrigation helps to provide water to crops during dry spells, ensuring consistent and reliable water supply for agricultural activities.
Agricultural Productivity: Agriculture is a major contributor to India's economy, employing a significant portion of the population. Irrigation helps increase agricultural productivity by providing water when needed, which is crucial for crop growth, yield improvement, and food security.
Drought Mitigation: Irrigation systems help mitigate the impacts of drought by providing water even in dry years.
Crop Diversification: Irrigation enables farmers to grow a wider variety of crops, including those that are not well-suited to rain-fed conditions.
Stabilizing Farm Income: Irrigation helps stabilize farm income by reducing the vulnerability of farmers to the uncertainties of weather patterns. When rainfall is inadequate or erratic, farmers with irrigation systems can still produce crops and generate income.
Industrial and Economic Growth: Apart from agriculture, water from irrigation sources can be used for various industrial purposes, such as power generation, manufacturing, and other sectors. A stable water supply supports economic growth beyond just the agricultural sector.
Environmental Conservation: Efficient irrigation practices can help conserve water resources by reducing water wastage and promoting more responsible water use. Modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems minimize water runoff and evaporation.
Climate Change Resilience: As climate change brings about shifts in rainfall patterns and increased unpredictability, having a robust irrigation infrastructure becomes even more critical to adapt to changing conditions and ensure food security.

Sources of irrigation

Tank irrigation: A tank consists of water storage which has been developed by constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and for other purposes. The tank irrigation is practiced mainly in peninsular India due to the following reasons:
- The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
- There is little percolation of rainwater due to hard rock structure and ground water is not available in large quantity.
- Most of the rivers of this region are seasonal and dry up in the summer season. Therefore, they cannot supply water to canals throughout the year.
- There are several streams which become torrential during rainy season. The only way to make best use of this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks.
- The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favors tank irrigation.

Merits of Tank irrigation	Demerits of Tank irrigation
Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost of their construction.Tanks are generally constructed on rocky bed and have long life span.	Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most.Silting of tank bed is a serious problem and it required desilting of the tank at regular intervals.Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a strenuous and costly exercise.

Wells and Tube wells: A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. It is popular in areas where sufficient ground water is available. It accounts for about 16.6% of the net irrigated area in the country. A tube well is a deeper well from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.

Merits of Well and Tube well irrigation

Demerits of Well and Tube well irrigation

It is the simplest and cheapest source of irrigation.It is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises.A well can be dug at any convenient place.

Only limited area can be irrigated.The well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it.In the event of a drought, the ground water level falls and water is not available in the well.Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighboring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture.Well and tube well irrigation is not possible in areas of brackish groundwater.

Canals: Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low-level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Canals in India are of two types, viz. (i) Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs. (ii) Perennial canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. The percentage of canal irrigation in the country is about 23%.

Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)

The programme was launched in 1996-97 to provide assistance to major/medium irrigation projects in the country, with the objective to accelerate implementation of such projects which were beyond resource capability of states or were in advanced stage of completion.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

It was launched in 2015-16 which aimed at enhancing physical access of water on farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation, improve on farm water use efficiency, introduce sustainable water conservation practices, etc.

Objectives:

Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level.
Enhance the physical access of water on the farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation.
Enhance the adoption of precision – irrigation and other water saving technologies.
Enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices.
Ensure the integrated development of rainfed areas using the watershed approach towards soil and water conservation.
Promote extension activities relating to water harvesting, water management and crop alignment for farmers.
Attract greater private investments in precision irrigation.

IRRIGATION IN INDIA:

According to NITI Aayog, in 2022-23, of the 141 million hectares of gross sown area in the country, nearly 73 million hectares, or 52%, had irrigation access, up from 41% in 2016.
8 out of 73 million hectares have the micro irrigation facility
40% of the total irrigated area are watered through canal networks, the remaining through groundwater.
The total potential for micro-irrigation in the country is estimated to be 60 million hectares.
Conventional surface irrigation provides only 60% efficiency but drip irrigation has nearly 90% efficiency.
The country can create irrigation potential in about 60% of its arable land and 40% of the cultivable area will remain dependent on rains because it is not possible to create irrigation networks in certain regions due to hydrological and geographical reasons.

Related concepts & definition:

Net Area Sown: This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once.
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.
Area Sown more than once: This represents the areas on which crops are cultivated more than once during the agricultural year. This is obtained by deducting Net Area Sown from Gross Cropped Area.
Irrigated Area: The area is assumed to be irrigated for cultivation through such sources as canals (Govt. & Private), tanks, tube-wells, other wells and other sources. It is divided into two categories:
- Net Irrigated Area: It is the area irrigated through any source once in a year for a particular crop.
- Total/Gross Irrigated Area: It is the total area under crops, irrigated once and/or more than once in a year. It is counted as many times as the number of times the areas are cropped and irrigated in a year.
- Cropping Intensity: It is the ratio of Net Area Sown to the Total Cropped Area.

Amazon Summit of ACTO Countries

Context: Amazon Summit under the aegis of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation (ACTO) came to an in the Belem City of Brazil. The Summit produced an outcome document known as Belem Declaration. This is only the fourth summit-level meeting under ACTO.

Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation (ACTO)

Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation (ACTO) is an intergovernmental organisation formed by 8 Amazonian countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela (8 countries).
The above Eight nations decided to create ACTO to strengthen and implement under the Amazon Cooperation Treaty in 1995 to strengthen and implement the Amazon Cooperation Treaty objectives.
Permanent Secretariat of ACTO was established in Brasilia in 2002 and permanently installed in 2003. Permanent Secretariat of ACTO is to facilitate the exchange, knowledge, cooperation and joint projection among ACTO Member Countries to fulfil the mandate of Amazon Cooperation Treaty.
Amazon Cooperation Treaty was signed in 1978 to promote the harmonious development of Amazonian territories in a way that joint actions of Amazonian countries produce equitable and mutually beneficial results in achieving the sustainable development of Amazon region.

Objectives of Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation

Facilitate exchange and cooperation among Member countries, promoting strategic sustainable development and livelihoods with emphasis on vulnerable populations, indigenous people and other tribal communities.
Ensure that the interests and sovereignty of Member Countries are respected and promoted.
Facilitate actions to preserve, protect, conserve and sustainably use forests, biodiversity and water resources of the Amazon.
Promote the management of Amazonian resources in harmony with nature and the environment.
Promote and disseminate the culture of Amazon and foster respect and protection of ancestral and current wisdom.
Promote coordination of plans for Member Countries for the development of Amazonian populations.

About Amazon River and its Basin

Amazon region makes up more than half of the world's tropical rainforest and is the world's largest tropical forest. The region stretches over an area twice the size of India. Two-thirds of it lies in Brazil and the remaining is shared by other 7 countries and one territory (French Suriname). The region also has a significant presence of savanna-like biogeography.
Amazon River: Largest & longest river on Earth. It originates at 5597 metres in the Peruvian Andes on the slopes of the Quehuisha volcano.
Important tributaries of Amazon: Putumayo, Japurá and Negro River (north slope), Juruá, Purús, Madeira, Tapajós and Xingú.
Rich in biodiversity: Amazon's tropical forest biome accounts for 50% of Earth's existing biodiversity and is the most extensive and biodiversity-rich jungle on the planet.
Climatic significance of Amazon: Amazon has a great influence on heat & water vapour transportation to higher latitude regions.
- Regulates regional climate
- Regulates carbon absorption contributing to mitigating climate change.
- Regulates evapotranspiration process
Cultural significance: Amazon basin is home to about 40 million inhabitants and is home to 400 indigenous peoples who speak more than 300 languages.

Challenges to Amazon Ecosystem

Deforestation and land use changes in Amazon Region.
Oil exploration in Amazon region and other mineral exploration.
Countries of the Amazon region aim for economic development.
Scientists believe when 20-25% of Amazon's rainforest is destroyed, rainfall will dramatically decline
Exploitation of rights of indigenous people in the Amazonian region.
Expansion of agricultural cultivation in Amazon region.
Organised crime and drug trafficking in Amazon region

Yelagiri Hut Shelters

Context: More than two centuries ago, over 200 Malaiyali tribes built traditional clay huts on the flat peak of the picturesque Yelagiri hill in northern Tamil Nadu establishing an all-encompassing system for shelter, storage, farming, and cattle.

About Yelagiri Hut Shelters:

Tribespeople settled in upper Nillavur, Yelagiri, and became foragers turned farmers who began cultivating its tabletop peak for food. They used local red loam clay to build 16x22 feet one-room homes, replacing huts.
The hut was meant for people to live in but eventually turned into a storage space for the seeds we collected before the sowing period began. Once the land was harvested, that space was occupied by grains till we sold or consumed them.
A unique feature of the munn veedu (mud house) or andara kotai (storage facility) is that it stands on a stilt-like structure also made of teak wood. This holds the house two feet above the ground to keep rodents at bay and to prevent the house from flooding during torrential rains.
These shelters are made of dry bamboo leaves the thatched roof is waxed with cow dung to prevent it from leaking during the monsoon season.
After the crops were harvested, the area was filled with grains until they were either sold or consumed. This outer layer sometimes gives the impression of the house being smaller than it actually is from the external view. Nonetheless, the interior has ample room to accommodate eight individuals, along with a paran (attic) utilised for storing utensils and various domestic belongings.
They employed science to build these houses that remained unaffected come rain, sun, or storm. At the same time, the stilts provided extra storage space under the house that could be used for grains or even poultry.
Today, all that remains in the hut is a three-foot-long munn paanai (clay pot) and the remnants of a straw attic that once held an entire year’s worth of grains and seeds.

About Malaiyali Tribe

The Malaiyali tribe – malai meaning “hill” and Yali meaning “people” is strewn across the Eastern Ghats in North Tamil Nadu.
They are usually hill farmers and they cultivate different types of millet.
They are believed to have ancestral connections to the Vellala caste of cultivators. According to historical accounts, around ten generations ago, there was a migration from the sacred city of Kanchi to the hills of their present-day region. This period coincided with the dominance of Muslim rulers in Southern India.

Ukraine says its drones damaged a Russian warship, showing Kyiv’s growing naval capability

Context: Ukraine said its sea drones struck a major Russian port Friday and damaged a warship in an attack that underlined Kyiv’s growing capabilities as the Black Sea becomes an increasingly important battleground in the war.

Where is Black Sea Located?

It is a large inland sea situated at the south-eastern extremity of Europe.
It is bordered by Ukraine to the north, Russia to the northeast, Georgia to the east, Turkey to the south, and Bulgaria and Romania to the west.
It is connected to the distant waters of the Atlantic Ocean by the Bosporus (which emerges from the sea’s southwestern corner), the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Crimean Peninsula thrusts into the Black Sea from the north, and just to its east the narrow Kerch Strait links the sea to the smaller Sea of Azov.
Several large rivers flow into the Black Sea, such as the Danube, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Southern Bug, the Russian Don and the Kuban rivers, Western Georgia's Rioni river, and the Turkish Kızılırmak and Sakarya rivers.
The Black Sea is connected to the North Sea via the Danube and the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal.

How Black Sea was formed?

Large-scale movements of the Earth's crust uplifted the mountain ranges that divided the ancient Tethys Ocean into several water basins, such as the Paratethys Ocean. The megalake of the late Miocene was probably the largest lake in Earth's history and extended from the region east of the Alps across Central Europe to Central Asia. Its remnants include the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea.
During the last great ice age, which ended about 25,000 years ago, the Black Sea was a large freshwater lake. The Bosphorus, the connection to the Mediterranean Sea - and to saline water - was presumably formed about 6,500 to 7,500 years ago.

The Black Sea has experienced the worst environmental degradation of all of the world's oceans. The situation has become so severe that it has affected the health, well-being, and standard of living of the people in the immediate area

Can small modular nuclear reactors help India achieve net-zero?

Context: The world still depends on fossil fuels for 82% of its energy supply. The recent uptick in coal consumption in Europe, despite the increase in solar and wind power, suggests that reliable, 24/7 low-carbon electricity resources are critical to ensure the deep decarbonisation of power generation, along with grid stability and energy security.

What are Small Modular Reactors (SMR)?

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. SMRs, which can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity, are:
- Small – physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
- Modular – making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
- Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.

What are the benefits of SMR?

Due to smaller size, they can be sited on locations not suitable for larger nuclear power plants.
They have relatively lower carbon footprint as they have lower fuel requirements.
They are easy to manufacture, ship, transport and installed.
They offer savings in cost and construction time.
They can be deployed incrementally to match increasing energy demand. SMRs are designed to operate for 40-60 years with capacity factors exceeding 90%
They can be installed into an existing grid or remotely off-grid.
They are relatively safer as they operate on lower power and pressures and hence lower potential for the uncontrolled release of radioactive materials into the environment.
They require no human intervention or external power or force to shut down systems.

Hence, an efficient regulatory regime comparable to that in the civil aviation sector – which has more stringent safety requirements – is important if SMRs are to play a meaningful role in decarbonising the power sector. This can be achieved if all countries that accept nuclear energy direct their respective regulators to cooperate amongst themselves and with the International Atomic Energy Agency to harmonise their regulatory requirements and expedite statutory approvals for SMRs based on standard, universal designs.

What steps should be taken in India?

The Atomic Energy Act will need to be amended to allow the private sector to set up SMRs.
To ensure safety, security, and safeguards, control of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste must continue to lie with the Government of India.
The government will also have to enact a law to create an independent, empowered regulatory board with the expertise and capacity to oversee every stage of the nuclear power generation cycle, including design approval, site selection, construction, operations, certification of operators, and waste reprocessing.
The security around SMRs must remain under government control, while the Nuclear Power Corporation can operate privately-owned SMRs during the hand-holding process.
Indian government can negotiate with foreign suppliers to reprocess nuclear waste from all SMRs in a state-controlled facility under IAEA safeguards. The reprocessed material may also be suitable for use in other NPPs in India that use imported uranium. India can set up facility to reprocess spent fuel from SMRs.
Finally, the Department of Atomic Energy must improve the public perception of nuclear power in India by better disseminating comprehensive environmental and public health data of the civilian reactors, which are operating under international safeguards, in India.