GS Paper 1

What is summer solstice and what causes it?

Context: The longest day of the year, for anyone living north of the Equator, is June 21. The day is referred to as the summer solstice, and it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer, or more specifically right over 23.5 degrees north latitude.

Understanding solstice, equinoxes and seasons?

Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees.
Earth makes a complete revolution around the sun once every 365 days, following an orbit that is elliptical in shape. This means that the distance between the Earth and Sun varies throughout the year.
During the first week in January, the Earth is about 1.6 million miles closer to the sun. This is referred to as the perihelion. The aphelion, or the point at which the Earth is about 1.6 million miles farther away from the sun, occurs during the first week in July.
Since Earth rotates on its axis, the Northern Hemisphere gets more direct sunlight between March and September over the course of a day, which also means people living in the Northern Hemisphere experience summer during this time. The rest of the year, the Southern Hemisphere gets more sunlight.
During the solstice, the Earth’s axis — around which the planet spins, completing one turn each day — is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun and the South Pole is away from it.
It should be noted that summer solstice for northern and southern hemisphere will be on different dates different.

Seasons are not caused due to this variation in distance rather they are caused due to tilted axis of Earth.

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There are two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, resulting in an equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. These events are referred to as equinoxes and occur near March 21st (Vernal Equinox) and near September 22nd (Autumnal Equinox). At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes.

June 20^th – 22^nd – summer solstice in northern hemisphere and winter solstice in southern hemisphere.

December 21^st - 22^nd – Winter solstice for Northern hemisphere and Summer solstice for Southern hemisphere.

March 20^th – 21^st – Vernal equinox

September 22^nd – 23^rd – Autumnal equinox

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The amount of light received by a specific area in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer solstice depends on the latitudinal location of the place. The further north one moves from the equator, the more light one receives during the summer solstice. At the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set during the solstice.
Summer solstice, however, does not necessarily mean the earliest sunrise or latest sunset. That depends on the latitudinal location of the country.

Climate breakdown: the Arctic Ocean could be ice-free by the 2030s

Context: The Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by the 2030s, even if we do a good job of reducing emissions between now and then. That’s the worrying conclusion of a new study in Nature Communications.

Over the past 30 years, the Arctic has warmed at roughly twice the rate as the entire globe, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. Most scientists agree that this rapid warming is a signal of human-caused climate change.

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This map shows trends in mean surface air temperature over the period 1960 to 2019. Notice that the Arctic is red, indicating that the trend over this 60-year period is for an increase in air temperature of nearly 4° C (7.2° F) across much of the Arctic, which is larger than for other parts of the globe.

Multiyear ice:

The ice which remains at the end of summer is called multiyear sea ice and is considerably thicker than its seasonal counterpart. It acts as barrier to the transfer of both moisture and heat between the ocean and atmosphere. Over the past 40 years this multiyear sea ice has shrunk from around 7 million sq. km to 4 million.

Blue ocean event:

“Blue ocean event” is defined as when the sea ice area drops below 1 million sq. km. This threshold is used mainly because older, thicker ice along parts of Canada and northern Greenland is expected to remain long after the rest of the Arctic Ocean is ice-free. We can’t put an exact date on the last blue ocean event, but one in the near future would likely mean open water at the North Pole for the first time in thousands of years.

Reasons behind Arctic Amplification:

Change in Albedo:

When bright and reflective ice (with more albedo) melts, it gives way to a darker ocean (lowering albedo); this amplifies the warming trend because the ocean surface absorbs more heat from the Sun than the surface of snow and ice.

Changing Ocean currents:

Currents are changing because more melting ice is injecting the Arctic Ocean with freshwater. The missing ice also exposes the surface waters to more wind. This mixes up colder freshwater at the surface and warmer saltwater below, raising surface temperatures and further melting ice.

Changing Weather

Ocean currents drive the powerful polar jet stream, which moves hot and cold air masses around the Northern Hemisphere. This is a product of the temperature differences between the Arctic and the tropics.
But as the Arctic warms, the jet stream now undulates wildly north and south. This has been injecting the Arctic with warm air.
The abundance of thunderstorms in tropics creates a near-constant flow of heat away from the tropics towards the Arctic.

Change in nature of Ice Cover

Quality of ice cover in the Arctic region is changing. New ice is replacing old ice.
Old ice is more resilient than new ice, which melts faster. New ice contains more salty water and is more subject to melting, whereas old ice has a higher share of water coming from snow precipitations and is a source of freshwater.

Impacts of Arctic Melting:

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Coastal erosion: Over the Arctic Ocean, sea ice absorbs the impacts of waves and limits shoreline wave erosion. As sea ice retreats farther away from surrounding landmasses, late-summer and autumn storms stir up strong waves that crash onto shore.
Increase in sea level: Increased wave action caused due to sea ice melt can bend the ice shelves increasing the possibility of glacial retreat. Glaciers that have lost their ice fronts tend to flow faster, and because this process introduces a body of ice into the ocean that was not there previously, it raises sea level which further can lead to coastal flooding.
Global warming: Sea ice loss leads to increased permafrost thaw, which drives the release of carbon dioxide and methane—an even more potent greenhouse gas. The retreat of sea ice exposes greater expanses of darker ocean water, which absorbs more solar radiation than white sea ice, perpetuating the global warming effect.
Alteration of ocean current: Massive amounts of very cold glacial-melt water entering warmer ocean waters reduces the thermal contrast between cold and warm waters. It further alters the density differences also thereby leading to slowing down of ocean currents.
Changes in weather systems: accelerating sea ice melt could be linked to the intensification of Central Pacific trade winds, the emergence of El Niño events, and a weakening of the North Pacific Aleutian Low Circulation — a semi-permanent low pressure system that drives post-tropical cyclones and generates strong storms.
Loss of biodiversity: Arctic melting is disrupting the behavior of marine mammals and ice-obligate species including polar bears, walruses, and bearded and ringed seals. Restructured food webs, changes in prey populations, the arrival of new marine mammal species (including new predators and competitors), and pathogens from more temperate seas will challenge Arctic species.
Higher human interference: The loss of Arctic Sea ice could open up new regions to shipping, tourism, and oil extraction. More people living, working, and extracting resources in the Arctic will likely require more infrastructure, and may raise the risk of emergencies needing cleanup or rescue.

Jagannath Yatra at Puri

Context: Jagannath Ratha Yatra has begun in Puri in the current month of Ashadh.

About the Jagannath Yatra

The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India. It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh, which typically falls in June or July.

The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra. During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple. The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra)

The origins of the Ratha Yatra can be traced back to ancient texts such as the Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, and Kapila Samhita, which describe the grandeur of the festival. It is believed that participating in the Ratha Yatra and pulling the chariots grants immense blessings and spiritual purification.

The construction of the chariots is a significant part of the festival. Every year, the three chariots, named Nandighosa, Taladhwaja, and Darpadalana, are built anew using specific types of wood, such as phassi and dhausa. The skilled carpenters responsible for constructing the chariots have hereditary rights and privileges for this sacred task. The logs are collected near Puri after being set afloat as rafts in the river Mahanadi and are then transported by road to the city.

The chariots, adorned with vibrant decorations and intricate designs, stand tall on the Bada Danda, the Grand Avenue, near the eastern entrance of the Jagannath Temple. Each chariot has a charioteer, known as Sarathi, and is pulled by devotees with great enthusiasm and devotion. Alongside the chariots, nine Parsva devatas, painted wooden images representing various deities, add to the grandeur of the procession.

As the chariots begin their journey towards the Gundicha Temple, the air is filled with excitement and religious fervor. Devotees from all walks of life come together to pull the massive ropes, chanting the names of the deities and seeking their blessings. The procession moves along the bada danda, a two-mile stretch leading to the Gundicha Temple.

During the procession, the chariot of Lord Jagannath, Nandighosa, makes a significant stop near the crematorium of Bhakta Salabega, a Muslim devotee. This pause symbolizes the harmony between different faiths and pays tribute to the devotion of Salabega. It serves as a reminder of the all-encompassing nature of the divine.

On the return journey from the Gundicha Temple, the deities make a special halt near the Mausi Maa Temple, also known as Aunt's abode. They receive an offering of Poda Pitha, a type of pancake believed to be Lord Jagannath's favorite delicacy. This act of offering food to the deities signifies the bond between the devotees and the divine, fostering a sense of love and devotion.

The Ratha Yatra is not just a one-day event but a culmination of various rituals and festivities that span a period of 42 days known as Chandan Yatra or Sandalwood Festival. During this time, preparations for the chariot construction commence. The festival is divided into two halves - Bahar Chandan and Bhitar Chandan. Bahar Chandan involves colorful processions of representative images.

Pokkali System

Traditionally, the coastal wetlands in many parts of India have been used for sequential paddy-fish cultivation under different forms of institutional structures. In Kerala it is called Pokkali. In the recent years there’s a decline in Pokkali cultivation.

Pokkali rice is a saline-tolerant, indigenous rice variety grown in the Alappuzha, Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala.
This lesser-known rice variety is developed in low-lying coastal areas and employs one of the oldest organic farming techniques.
Pokkali is a system in which the farming alternates between rice and prawn; the fields are used alternately for rice farming and prawn and shrimp cultivation.
Pokkali is cultivated with no fertilisers, be it chemical or organic, as it is grown in waterlogged areas.
This organically-grown rice is famous for its medicinal qualities and peculiar taste and has high protein and fibre content.
Due to its geographical specificity, Pokkali was conferred a geographical indication (GI) tag in the year 2008.

Challenges faced:

A shortage of skilled labour, the lack of technology that suits a soggy soil, low crop prices and the disturbance to and encroachment of the marine and estuarine ecosystems are the main factors for the decline of this sustainable farming practice.

Note:

In West Bengal, this agriculture-fisheries integration is known as bheries, in Karnataka it is called gajani, in Goa and Maharashtra it is called khazaan and in Kerala it’s pokkali.
Kuttanad below-sea level farming system has been recognised by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS). It is unique as it practices rice cultivation below sea level.

Kuttanad is a region covering the Alappuzha, Kottayam and Pathanamthitta Districts, in the state of Kerala

Rani Durgavati

Context: The martyrdom of Rana Durgavati was celebrated in Madhya Pradesh as part of an initiative to honour the contributions made by individuals from marginalized social and caste groups who may not have received widespread recognition.

Rani Durgawati's Early Life:

Rani Durgavati, ruled over the Gondwana kingdom from 1550 until 1564.
Born in the fortress of Kalinjar, located in the present-day Banda district of Uttar Pradesh.
Her father, Raja Salbahan of Ratha and Mahoba, was a descendant of the famous Chandelas.
She was married to Dalpat Shah, the son of King Sangram Shah of the Garha Kingdom, sealing an alliance between the Chandela Rajputs and the Rajgonds of the Garha-Mandala dynasties.
After the untimely death of her husband in 1550, Rani Durgavati took the reins of the Gondwana kingdom.

Rani Durgavati’s rule:

With the support of her trusted advisors, Diwan Adhar Kayastha and Man Thakur, she skillfully managed the administration, promoting peace, trade, and goodwill throughout her realm.
To strengthen her kingdom's defenses, Rani Durgavati decided to move her capital from the Singorgarh Fort to the strategically important Chauragarh Fort, nestled in the Satpura hill range. This relocation further fortified her position and prepared her kingdom for potential conflicts.
Rani Durgavati also undertook various developmental projects, including the construction of reservoirs like Ranital, Cherital, and Adhartal, for the benefit of her subjects.
She was a patron of learning and allowed Acharya Bitthalnath to establish a seat of the Pushtimarg Cult at Garha.
Under Rani Durgavati's rule, the boundaries of her kingdom were consolidated, and she led her army to quell rebellions. The majority of the population consisted of Gond tribesmen living in villages.
The kingdom's strength lay in its well-equipped army, comprising cavalry, war elephants, and a large infantry. During the period between 1555 and 1560, Durgavati repulsed the attacks of Baz Bahadur.

War with the Mughals (Battle of Damoh/Narrai):

In 1562, the Mughal Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Akbar, conquered Malwa, bringing the Mughal dominion closer to the borders of Rani Durgavati's realm.
As tensions escalated, Mughal general, Abdul Majid Asaf Khan, who had recently vanquished the ruler of Rewa, set his sights on Rani Durgavati's prosperous kingdom.
When news of the impending attack reached Rani Durgavati, she made a courageous decision to defend her kingdom, despite being outnumbered and outgunned by the Mughal forces.
Although her advisor, Diwan Beohar Adhar Simha (Adhar Kayastha), warned her about the strength of the enemy, she believed that it was better to die honorably than to live a life of disgrace.
Rani Durgavati positioned her forces in Narrai, a valley situated between a hilly range on one side and the Gaur and Narmada rivers on the other. In a valiant display of bravery, Rani Durgavati's son, Vir Narayan, joined the battle and pushed the Mughal army back thrice.
However, he was wounded and forced to retreat to safety. As the battle raged on, Rani Durgavati sustained severe injuries. Faced with the inevitability of defeat, Rani Durgavati took her own life on June 24, 1564.
Her act of self-sacrifice and unwavering determination in the face of overwhelming odds earned her the status of a martyr, and her martyrdom day is commemorated as ‘Balidan Diwas’ to this day.

Garha-Mandala Kingdom

The Garha Mandala or Garha Katanga, held the distinction of being the first major kingdom established by the Gond tribe and exerted significant control over Central India during its zenith.
It was founded by Jadurai, a Gond leader who ascended to the throne after overthrowing the Kalchuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandala, where he had previously served in the court.
Initially, the Garha-Mandala kingdom was a relatively small territory, and its early rulers focused on consolidating their authority.
Kharji (1440-1460) expanded the kingdom's army, and his grandson Sukhandas (1480-1500) incorporated Rajputs into both the military and administration.

Reign of Sangram Shah:

The kingdom experienced rapid expansion under the reign of Sangram Shah, who conquered territories such as the Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh, and most of the Satpura hills.
Sangram Shah captured 52 forts, leading to the construction of the Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur as a testament to his conquests.
He was also renowned as a patron of arts and literature and possessed extensive knowledge of Sanskrit, with one of his notable works being the Rasratnamala.
During his reign, the capital of the Garha kingdom was Singhorgarh.

Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

The Chandelas ruled in Central India during the 9th to 13th centuries.
Initially subordinate to the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chandelas emerged under Nannuka's leadership, ruling a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho.
Vakpati, Nannuka's successor, achieved victories against various adversaries, while his sons Jayashakti and Vijayashakti further consolidated Chandela’s power.
The Chandela territory was named ‘Jejakabhukti’ after Jayashakti, as per a Mahoba inscription.

Art and Architecture of Chandelas:

The Chandelas left a lasting legacy through their cultural accomplishments, including the construction of temples, water bodies, palaces, and forts.
The most renowned examples of their artistic and architectural prowess are the Hindu and Jain temples at Khajuraho.
Other important strongholds of the Chandelas were Jayapura-Durga (now Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (now Kalinjar), and Mahotsava-Nagara (now Mahoba).
Under the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga, and Vidyadhara, the Lakshmana Temple (c. 930-950 CE), the Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE), and the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were built, respectively.
These temples, following the Nagara architectural style, are considered prime examples of the highly developed style present in Khajuraho.
The Chandelas engaged in battles with neighboring dynasties, such as the Paramars and Kalachuris, and faced invasions from northern Muslim dynasties like the Ghaznavids and Ghurids.
The Chandela rule declined by the early 13th century due to invasions by the Chahamanas and Ghurids.

Imperative for India to formulate national resourcing strategy for critical minerals

What are critical minerals?

A critical mineral is a metallic or non-metallic element that has two characteristics: It is essential for the functioning of our modern technologies, economies or national security and. There is a risk that its supply chains could be disrupted.
But these supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing value chain. Many times the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or due to politically unstable regions.
Based on their individual needs and strategic considerations, different countries create their own lists.
However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt.

Utility:

These minerals are now used everywhere from making mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.

Aerospace, communications and defence industries also rely on several such minerals as they are used in manufacturing fighter jets, drones, radio sets and other critical equipment.

Global distribution:

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According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals.
China, according to a report on the role of critical minerals by the International Energy Agency, is “responsible for some 70% and 60% of global production of cobalt and rare earth elements, respectively, in 2019.
The level of concentration is even higher for processing operations, where China has a strong presence across the board. China’s share of refining is around 35% for nickel, 50-70% for lithium and cobalt, and nearly 90% for rare earth elements.”
It also controls cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo, from where 70% of this mineral is sourced.

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Indian steps in this regard:

India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited, a joint venture of three public sector companies, to “ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to the Indian domestic market”
Indo- Australia partnership

What are rare Earth Elements?

Rare Earth Elements or Rare Earth Metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table — the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties.
The 17 Rare Earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y).
Despite their classification, most of these elements are not really “rare”. One of the Rare Earths, promethium, is radioactive.Although originally thought to be rare, many of the minerals are actually common in the Earth’s crust. However, due to the difficulties in extracting the metal from the ore, rare is a fitting term. These elements rarely exist in pure form; they are usually found within other minerals, making them costly to mine.
These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others.
Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer.
Rare Earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones. Cerium, the most abundant Rare Earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme.

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Examining the available data, it is found that China consumes around 104,000 metric tons (MT) of rare earth, which is 67 per cent of the total consumption worldwide.
China is followed by Japan, the US, and the EU with 16 per cent, 13 per cent and four per cent respectively.
Data further suggest China controls about 90 percent of global production of rare earth metal while it possesses only 36 percent of the global reserve of this rare metal

India has the 5^th largest reservoir and recognised the importance of rare earth back in 1950 and started extracting rare minerals through the establishment of the Indian Rare Earth Limited. India could not, however, make progress in this sector due to several reasons.

Why did India fail?

Lack of separate guiding policy to expand the production of rare earth.
The Indian rare earth industry keeps on operating on the downstream production process only.
Associated risks
High level of technology is required.
failure to promote entrepreneurship in this sector
Foreign investors have always kept a distance from this sector. This is mainly because the sector was reserved for the public sector.
Stiff competition from China-> Easy to import at much lower prices.

In 2016, a study, supported by the Indian government’s Department of Science and Technology (DST), provides a framework for India to assess the impact of critical minerals including rare earth in the manufacturing sector, considering both economic importance and associated supply risks. The study argues the development of this mineral will also give a fillip to India’s ambitious Make in India plan by enhancing the volume of rare earth production.

Neolithic-era celt found in Tamil Nadu

Context: In Poothinatham village, Tamil Nadu, the Department of Archaeology made a noteworthy discovery from the Neolithic period. This find is an ancient celt, crafted from Doloraid stone, which had a dual purpose as both a plough and an axe. This discovery holds great significance in shedding light on the practices and tools used during that time.

What is a Neolithic celt?

A celt, composed of stone, is an age-old instrument utilized for cutting and shaping. This adaptable tool served as an axe, chisel, or adze,
Application: Widespread uses throughout the Neolithic era in different fields such as woodworking, agriculture, and building.
A specific variation of the celt, referred to as a shoe-last celt, was a polished stone tool extensively employed during the early European Neolithic period. Its primary purpose revolved around the felling of trees and engaging in woodworking tasks.

Early Neolithic Cultures and the Beginning of Agriculture

The advent of agriculture and animal domestication during the Neolithic period marked a significant phase in Indian history.
The crucial era witnessed the emergence of Neolithic culture in various regions such as the Fertile Crescent in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges Valley in India, and China.
Surplus food production:
- Between 10,000 BCE and 5000 BCE, agriculture sprouted in these areas, leading to numerous cultural advancements.
- The domestication of animals and plants introduced a plentiful supply of grains and animal food.
- The fertile soil deposited by rivers contributed to agricultural growth, resulting in surplus grain production.
- The surplus food production played a pivotal role in the rise of early civilizations, as large villages were established, pottery developed, and permanent residences were constructed.
- Consequently, the cultural advancements of this era are commonly referred to as the Neolithic revolution.

The Neolithic Culture of North-Western India

The earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication in India can be traced back to the Neolithic culture in northwestern India.
Important Sites: Mehrgarh and Sarai Kala, which are presently located in Pakistan.
Mehrgarh:
- It has provided evidence of early Neolithic practices dating back to around 7000 BCE.
- During this time, the cultivation of wheat and barley was practiced, and sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated. Mehrgar culture predates the Indus Civilization.
- Phase I: The first cultural period of the Neolithic age at Mehrgarh spans from approximately 7000 to 5500 BCE. The people of this period did not employ pottery, but they cultivated six-row barley, wheat, and dates. These were semi-nomadic pastoral groups who constructed houses using mud and practiced the burial of the deceased.
- Phase II and III: The second period at Mehrgarh covers the time from about 5500 to 4800 BCE followed by the third period from 4800 to 3500 BCE. Pottery evidence is present during these periods, and terracotta figurines and glazed faience beads have been discovered. Long-distance trade was practiced, as indicated by the presence of Lapis Lazuli, a stone that is exclusively found in Badakshan. The abandonment of the town occurred after the rise of the mature phase of the Indus Civilization.

Significance of Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh stands out as an important site due to its provision of the earliest and most extensive evidence of cattle, sheep, goat, wheat, and barley domestication, a comprehensive combination of evidence unmatched elsewhere in the world.
Dentistry:
- In addition to agricultural and domestication practices, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh demonstrated knowledge of medicinal herbs and their use for health maintenance, an essential survival skill since prehistoric times.
- During the Neolithic period, people began consuming ground grain and cooked food, which gave rise to dental and other health issues.
- Notably, the earliest evidence of drilling a human tooth (belonging to a living person) has been discovered at Mehrgarh, offering a glimpse into early dental practices, which can be considered a precursor to dentistry.

Neolithic Culture of South India

The Neolithic cultures of South India primarily existed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, as well as the north-western part of Tamil Nadu. These sites exhibit a distinct feature of having ash mounds at their centers, surrounded by settlements.
Locations: Often situated near granite hills with access to water sources. They can be found in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri.
Some of the prominent Neolithic sites in South India include Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, and Hallur in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
Certain early Neolithic sites also exhibit the presence of ash mounds, such as Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh. These sites showcase layers of soft ash and decomposed cow dung.

Social Organisation

Due to limited evidence, understanding the social organization of Neolithic people poses challenges. However, they transitioned to living in settled or semi-sedentary communities.
It is possible that they organized themselves into tribes or similar social units.
The presence of small houses suggests the presence of nuclear families within these settlements.
The development of ceramics and beads indicates advancements in material cultural production.
Burials within houses were practiced, and in some cases, animal burials have also been discovered, suggesting the adoption of rituals and reverence for the deceased.
It is possible that they worshipped natural forces.
The evidence for art objects is limited, but the existence of terracotta images depicting cattle implies the presence of a fertility cult or similar beliefs.

Neolithic artifact from North-east India

Pottery of the Neolithic period

The early phases of the Neolithic era are referred to as A-ceramic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic due to the absence of pottery vessels.
Containers were crafted using unfired clay, leather, wood, stone, straw, and other materials. Traces of these unfired vases are challenging to find.
The earliest instances of hand-made pottery, which are considered visually appealing, can be traced back to the Early Neolithic period. These pottery pieces were typically burnished or monochromatic, featuring painted, incised, or impressed decorations.
The most elaborate examples of painted ornamentation are observed in the Middle Neolithic period.
Archaeologists speculate that the emergence of agriculture also gave rise to the need for durable and sturdy objects for water transport in irrigation systems, although the development of farming and pottery did not always occur simultaneously.
Moreover, the accumulation of grain surpluses such as sorghum, rice, and wheat would have been essential for the sustenance of larger civilizations, with pottery playing a crucial role in storing these surplus crops.

Warmer Arabian Sea behind more severe and frequent cyclones

Context: Behind extremely severe cyclone Biparjoy’s evolution is a gradual but undesirable change in the nature of the Arabian Sea: it was always relatively cooler compared to the Bay of Bengal in the north Indian Ocean.

Why traditionally West Indian Ocean experienced less number of tropical cyclones?

The ratio between Arabian Sea (A.S) and Bay of Bengal (B.O.B) has been 1:4 in terms of yearly cyclones because of the following factors:

Average temperature of B.O.B is higher than A.S. B.O.B is a warm pool region. On the other hand A.S has higher salinity and lower temperature which is disadvantageous for cyclone formation.
B.O.B has abundant water availability due to continuous influx of water from large rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra etc. This freshwater influx makes it further impossible to mix with the cooler water below
Shape of the land around B.O.B weakens the wind speed thus allowing the winds to spin faster.
B.O.B also experiences the offshoots of tropical cyclones from Pacific-ocean.

On the other hand, Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds hand Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds help dissipate the heat and lack of constant fresh water helps the warm water to mix with the cool water underneath, reducing the surface temperature.

Changing nature of Arabian Sea:

Sea surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea have increased by 1.2 to 1.4 degrees C in recent decades compared to four decades ago.
According to a 2021 paper published in Nature, there is a significant increasing trend in the intensity, frequency, and duration of cyclonic storms (CS) and very severe cyclonic storms (VSCS) observed over the Arabian Sea during the study period, 1982 to 2019.
There is a 52% increase in the frequency of CS during the recent epoch (2001–2019) in the Arabian Sea, while there is a decrease of 8% in the Bay of Bengal, the paper highlighted.
Further, there has been an 80% increase in the total duration of cyclones in the Arabian Sea over two decades to 2021. The duration of very severe cyclones increased by 260% in the same period, the paper added.
The change in the Arabian Sea’s character has also led to more severe cyclones forming and sustaining over it which also means India’s west coast is now more vulnerable.

Climate change affecting frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones:

According to Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) India, in the last 50 years, has recorded a 12-fold surge in the number of associated cyclonic events such as extreme rainfall, floods, sea-level rise, and thunderstorms.

Increased sea surface temperature: Over the past 50 years, the global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated due to man-made climate change leading to higher convection and rapid intensification of cyclones.
Rising sea level: on account of Antarctic melting has increased the moisture availability for cyclones.
Micro-climatic changes on land: Local heating of coastal land is pulled by adjacent ocean further heating it up.
Changing weather events: El-Nino and rising marine heat waves lead to prolonged warm periods over oceans by reducing the ocean upwelling.
Higher Atmospheric moisture: due to anthropogenic global warming increase cyclonic precipitation rates thereby increasing the frequency.
Changes in wind systems: Occasionally intense winds drive the low-pressure regions to other areas rising the frequency in those areas. Ex. Gulab cyclone shifted to Arabian sea from B.O.B.

Khilji dynasty architecture

Context: During the renovation work at Siri Fort, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), a tomb-like structure dating back to the 13th century was unearthed.

The Magnificent Siri Fort

Siri Fort, located in New Delhi, stands as a testament to the city's rich history and architectural prowess. It was built around 1303, during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, the second ruler of the Khilji Dynasty.

Defence against Mongol onslaught:

Alauddin Khilji, known for his dominion extension into Southern India, established Siri as the second city of Delhi.
The fort was strategically designed to mimic massive Turkish forts, serving as a seat of power during Alauddin's territorial expansion campaigns.
Its construction aimed to counter the frequent Mongol invasions of West Asia and protect Delhi from their onslaught.

Architectural Marvel and Strategic Design:

The fort is situated northeast of the iconic Qutub Minar and was meticulously planned and built with an oval-shaped layout.
The fort was a symbol of civic pride, housing the grand Hazar Sutan palace with its marble floors and exquisite stone decorations.
Unique additions like flame-shaped battlements, and bastions showcased the innovative architectural style of the Khilji’s.
Hauz Khas village was an extension of the fort, which was designed to meet the water needs of the army. The fort is currently in ruins and the only structure that remains is its boundary walls.

The Legacy of Siri:

Beyond Siri Fort, Alauddin Khilji’s vision extended to the fortifications of Jahanpanah, connecting Siri to the larger defence network. Siri was also known as ‘Darul Khilafat’ or the ‘Seat of the Caliphate’.
The fort's strength and grandeur attracted the attention of Timur, the Mongol ruler who invaded Delhi in 1398.
In his memoirs, Timur described Siri as a city surrounded by lofty buildings and formidable stone and brick fortifications.

Contributions and Destruction:

The craftsmen of the Seljuq dynasty played a significant role in shaping the architectural monuments of Delhi during this era.
Unfortunately, the decline of Siri Fort began with the removal of its stones and artifacts by local rulers for their buildings.
Sher Shah Suri, used materials from Siri to construct his city.

Khilji Dynasty Architecture

During the Khilji dynasty, which was the second Muslim dynasty ruling the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320, the Indo-Islamic architectural form was still in its formative stage but witnessed some progress in the late 13th century.

One of the key figures during this period was Ala-ud-din Khilji, who ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296. He emerged as a prominent patron of Islamic architecture and spearheaded crucial developments in the field.
His notable architectural endeavors included the expansion of the Qutb-mosque. The proportions of the minaret were doubled compared to those established a century earlier.
Another remarkable architectural achievement of this period is the Alai Darwaza, which was completed in 1305. It stands out for its inventive arches, walling techniques, dome support systems, and surface decorations. The Alai Darwaza incorporates indigenous features seamlessly into its design, skillfully merging Indian and Islamic architectural elements.
Jamaat Khana Masjid was built at the tomb of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, a renowned saint of the period, and was erected towards the end of Khilji rule.
Several other buildings were also constructed in the Qutb area, including a college and the tomb of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

About Alauddin Khilji

The Khilji dynasty held sway over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly thirty years. The dynasty was established by Jalalud din Firoz Khilji, and Alauddin Khilji eventually seized power and assumed the role of Sultan by eliminating his predecessor.

He conducted raids in the Deccan Peninsula, particularly in Deogiri, the capital of the state of Maharashtra, plundering their treasures.
In the initial years of his reign, Alauddin successfully repelled a major Mongol invasion at the Battle of Jaran-Manjur in 1298. This victory not only consolidated his power but also enhanced his reputation, ensuring stability during his rule.
To secure a trade route to Gujarat, Ayn-al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramar kingdom of Malwa. Despite facing strong resistance from the Rajput army, Multani emerged victorious and became the governor of the province.
Subsequently, in 1299, Nusrat Khan was dispatched to conquer Gujarat itself, defeating its Solanki king. Nusrat Khan looted the chief cities of Gujarat and desecrated temples, including the famous Somnath temple, which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century.
In 1308, Alauddin's trusted lieutenant, Malik Kafur, captured Warangal and overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River.
Alauddin Khalji's expansionist ambitions extended into South India. With the assistance of commanders like Malik Kafur, he launched campaigns to subdue various kingdoms, accumulating substantial war booty, known as Anwatan, from their conquests.
Alauddin's commanders collected spoils of war from the defeated kingdoms and paid a fifth of the loot (khums) to Sultan's treasury, strengthening the Khalji rule.
Despite his lack of formal education, Alauddin Khalji displayed a remarkable appreciation for art and education. His court attracted renowned figures such as Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi, who contributed to the cultural vibrancy of his reign.

Central Electricity Authority Fast-tracks Approval Mechanism for Pumped Storage Projects

Context: The government has taken various steps recently in order to ensure that Pumped Storage Projects (PSPs) get commissioned on a fast track, thereby accelerating the growth of India’s renewable energy capacity.

To cite a recent example, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has accorded concurrence to Upper Sileru Pumped Storage Project (PSP) of 1350 MW being developed at Sileru, Alluri Sitharama Raju district of Andhra Pradesh by APGENCO (A Government of Andhra Pradesh Undertaking) in record time of 70 days against the stipulated timeline of 90 days.

What is Pumped Storage Hydropower?

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage.
It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate power as water moves down from one to the other (discharge), passing through a turbine.
The system also requires power as it pumps water back into the upper reservoir (recharge).
PSH acts similarly to a giant battery, because it can store power and then release it when needed.
- During periods of excess electricity supply or low demand, typically when renewable energy sources like wind or solar are producing more electricity than needed, the excess electricity is used to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir, thereby storing the energy. This pumping process usually takes place during off-peak hours when electricity is cheaper.
- When there is a demand for electricity or during periods of high demand, the stored water in the upper reservoir is released back to the lower reservoir.
- As the water flows downhill, it passes through the turbine, which generates electricity. The electricity generated can be dispatched to the grid to meet the demand.

Importance of Pumped Storage System for India’s Energy Future

Hydro Pumped Storage Projects are necessary to achieve Government of India’s commitment of 500 GW installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by the year 2030 and Net Zero carbon emissions by the year 2070.
PSPs will help integrate intermittent Renewable Energy with the Grid. It will enable supply of dispatchable RE power and help in meeting the peaking requirement of the Grid.
In recognition of its role, 39 Hydro PSPs of 47 GW are being pursued to be commissioned by the year 2029-30.
Pumped Storage System utilises surplus grid power available from thermal power stations or other sources to pump up water from lower to upper reservoir and reproduces power during peak demand when there is scarcity of power.

Ranajit Guha, the unconventional historian

Context: Ranajit Guha, a distinguished historian who left an indelible mark on the field of Indian history, sadly passed away in April 2023. He was renowned for his significant contributions and was particularly influential within the Subaltern Studies group.

About Ranajit Guha

Famous works: A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, (Today, it is recognized as a classic in modern Indian history); History at the Limit of World-History; An Indian Historiography of India: A Nineteenth Century Agenda & Its Implications; Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India; Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India.
During the 1980s, he initiated a transformative approach to studying South Asia and the Indian subcontinent. He observed that the prevailing mainstream historical studies were inadequate for comprehending the complexities of the region's past.
This led to a shift away from the predominantly elitist approach to studying the history of the region. The new methodology, known as Subaltern Studies, emerged as an influential post-colonial and post-Marxist school of history.
Guha defined the term ‘subaltern’ as the demographic distinction between the overall Indian population and those identified as the elite.
As part of the project, he examined the landmark legislation of 1793 known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal. He posed a previously unasked question: How did the application of the 18th-century French economic doctrine of Physiocracy, aimed at creating entrepreneurial farmers in Bengal, result in the creation of the neo-feudal zamindari system?

Subaltern Studies

The term ‘subaltern’ draws inspiration from the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Initially, the term referred to peasants excluded from the industrial capitalist system.
The Subaltern historians departed from Gramsci's interpretation, arguing that the history of subaltern groups was autonomous from that of the dominant classes while acknowledging their subordinated status.
The Subaltern Studies examines non-elites and subalterns as agents of political and social change. They demonstrate a particular interest in studying the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, rather than solely focusing on highly visible actions such as demonstrations and uprisings.
In Indian context: Explores the dynamics of dominance and subordination within colonial systems, notably in India. Dissatisfied with the prevailing conventions of Indian history writing, a group of writers joined the collective and made significant contributions to its volumes.

Unveiling the Phases of Subaltern Studies

The Subaltern Studies project, renowned for its innovative approach to historical analysis, can be divided into two distinct phases.

Phase I of the Subaltern Studies:

Represented a radical departure from conventional Indian historiography, characterized by the confrontation between the elite and the subaltern.
The project aimed to break free from the economic determinism found in various Marxist theories and challenge the elitism of bourgeois-nationalist and colonial interpretations.
The project highlighted the distinctions between the politics of the people and elite politics, as elite mobilizations were vertical in nature and people's mobilizations took a horizontal form.
The elite mobilization tended to be legalistic and peaceful, whereas subaltern mobilization often exhibited a more spontaneous and confrontational nature.
Phase II, embracing discourse analysis in Subaltern Studies:

The second phase saw a significant change in its approach, influenced by postmodernist and post-colonialist ideologies that reshaped its trajectory.
The impact of postcolonial perspectives became evident, particularly in the works of Partha Chatterjee.
Chatterjee's influential book, ‘Nationalist Thought and Colonial World’ (1986), applied a postcolonial framework, which portrayed colonial power-knowledge as dominant and irresistible.
Over time, many other writers associated with Subaltern Studies moved away from Marxist ideology, leading to intellectual divergences within the group.

Critiques of the Subaltern Studies Project

Despite influential contributions to historiography, it has faced extensive criticism from various quarters. Critiques have emerged from Marxist, Nationalist as well as Cambridge School historians.

Scholars like, Javeed Alam argued that the autonomy of subaltern politics is based on the perpetuity of rebellious action, irrespective of whether the consequences are positive or negative.
This perspective neglects the historical trajectory of militancy and overlooks the implications of such theoretical constructs.

In the review essay by Sangeeta Singh, a critical picture is presented of Guha's understanding of the spontaneity of peasant rebellion. It was seen as a reflexive action, which is problematic, as it equated spontaneity with action based on traditional consciousness.
Guha's assertion about the centrality of religion in rebels' consciousness was viewed as supporting the British official view that downplayed the disruptive role of colonialism in rural and tribal structures.
Ranjit Das Gupta, argued that the project tended to focus on moments of conflict and protest while downplaying the dialectics of collaboration among subaltern groups.
David Ludden, pointed out its rigid theoretical division between ‘elite’ and ‘subaltern’ and its confinement of subaltern politics to the lower strata, thereby alienating subalternity from political histories of popular movements.

Despite the controversies, the project has undeniably made significant contributions to historical scholarship, reshaping our understanding of marginalized voices and challenging dominant narratives.