GS Paper 1

Dense fog over North-West India as fresh western disturbance rolls in over Afghanistan

Context - Night temperatures are below normal over East India but have looked up over the rest of the country to the West (North-West India) as a causative western disturbance pulled in farther away beyond the border and locked in over North-East Afghanistan.

What are western disturbances?

  • These are the extra-tropical cyclones.
  • They originate in the Mediterranean region and travel eastward to northern Bangladesh, south-eastern Nepal and Northern India.
  • The sub- tropical westerly jet streams helps western disturbances to enter the Indian sub- continent and affect its weather. 
  • The winds while moving also takes up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea
  • These moisture laden western disturbances eventually come up against the Himalayas and get blocked, as a consequence, the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared.
  • On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April. 
  • It is a non-monsoonal precipitation pattern that induces low pressure systems in the lower layers of the atmosphere. 
  • This, ultimately, causes rainfall in the plains and snowfall in the mountains.
  • These disturbances result into snow fall in western Himalaya and rainfall in the Great Plains and provide moisture to Rabi season crops.
image

Recent changes in the behaviour of western disturbances

  • For at least three years now, western disturbances have displayed unusual behaviour in India.
  • The precipitation has reduced and winters have remained largely dry across India.
image 1

Causes

  • Arctic warming makes the Polar Jetstream wavier and increases the chance of merging with Sub tropical westerly Jetstream in winters. This causes the Jetstream to shift Northwards and reduce precipitation.
  • North Atlantic oscillation which is a random fluctuation of air pressure over the North Atlantic Ocean due to a High pressure region above the Azores island and low pressure region over Iceland. It is currently in a negative phase and it reduces the frequency and intensity of the Western Disturbances.
  • La-Nina phases in the previous years reduced the temperature of hot tropical air that is crucial for the temperature gradient for the formation of the Western Disturbances. 
image 2

Impacts of this change:

  • Alteration in temperature and precipitation patterns across India. 
  • The lack of snowfall in the mountains affects the yield of Rabi crops in some regions.
  • Rivers also get less water and hence affect the availability of the freshwater resources.
  • Farm income is greatly impacted due to the disastrous impacts on Apple production.
  • Air quality: The associated winds and precipitation can help in dispersing pollutants, leading to temporary improvements in air quality, especially in urban areas. Fluctuations in western disturbance can thus effect the air quality. 
  • Disaster frequency increases as reduction in W.D intensity can lead to droughts and increase in intensity creates floods. 

Delhi High Court reaffirmed the ban on Incestuous ‘Sapinda’ Marriages

Context: A challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA), was rejected by the Delhi High Court (Neetu Grover vs Union of India Ors.).The Section 5(v) of the HMA prohibits marriage between two Hindus if they are ‘Sapindas’ of each other, unless the custom or usage governing each of them permits of a marriage between the two.

Grounds on which the Section 5(v) of HMA was challenged:

  • In 2007, a marriage was declared void because it was found to be violative of the Section and hence, was proved to be a Sapinda or Incestuous Marriage.
  • Also, the woman did not belong to a community where such marriages could be considered a custom. 
  • This was challenged before the Delhi High Court, and the appeal was dismissed in October 2023. 
  • Appeal was again made before the High Court, which challenged the constitutional validity of the prohibition of Sapinda marriages. 
  • Arguments were made that Sapinda marriages are prevalent even if there is no proof of custom. 
  • Section 5(v) prohibiting such marriages unless there is an established custom, violated Article 14, the right to equality. 
  • Also, the argument was made that the marriage did receive the consent of both families and therefore, is legitimate. 

Delhi High Court’s stand: 

  • The Court held that ‘an established custom’, is necessary to justify a Sapinda marriage.
  • The High Court also held that the ‘choice of a partner in a marriage can be subject to regulation’ as unregulated choices in marriage may lead to the legitimacy of incestuous relationships. 

What are Incestuous ‘Sapinda’ Marriages?

  • These are between individuals who are related to each other within a  certain degree of closeness. 
  • Under Section 3 of the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, ‘Sapinda Marriages’ are defined. 
    • As per this section, “two persons are Sapindas of each other if one is a lineal ascendant of the other within the limits of Sapinda relationship, or if they have a common lineal ascendant who is within the limits of Sapinda relationship with reference to each of them.”
    • A Hindu individual, on the mother’s side, cannot marry anyone who is within three generations of them in the ‘line of ascent’. This means, on mother’s side, an individual cannot marry their sibling (first generation), their parents (second generation), their grandparents (third generation), or an individual who shares this ancestry within three generations.
    • And on the father’s side, the prohibition applies to anyone within five generations of the individual. This means, on the father's side, this prohibition would extend up to their grandparents’ grandparents, and anyone who shares this ancestry within five generations.
    • A marriage will be declared void, if it is found to be violative of Section 5(v) for being a Sapinda or Incestuous Marriage and if there is no established custom that allows such a practice. Such marriage will be considered invalid from the very beginning and treated as it never took place.

Exceptions to the prohibition against Sapinda Marriage: 

  • There is only one exception, which can be found within the same provision, i.e., Section 3(a) of the HMA. This section provides definition for the word ‘Custom’.
    • A custom has to be ‘continuously and uniformly observed for a long time’, and should have gained enough legitimacy among Hindus in a local area, tribe, group, or family, such that it has obtained ‘the force of law’. 
    • However, a custom shall not be protected from prohibition even after these conditions are fulfilled. 
    • The custom must be ‘certain and not unreasonable or opposed to the public policy’ and ‘in case of a rule applicable only to a family’, it should not have been ‘discontinued by the family’. 

Legality of Marriages similar to ‘Sapinda marriages’ in other countries: 

  • The laws on relationships that are considered incestuous are less stringent in several European countries, than in India. 
  • Penal Code of 1810, France: It was enacted by Napoleon Bonaparte and was also enforced in Belgium. 
    • The crime of incest was abolished under the Penal Code of 1810, so long as the marriage was between consenting adults.
    • A new Penal Code was introduced in Belgium in 1867 to replace the French code, but incest remains legal.
  • Incest is also not criminalised under Portuguese law. 
  • Incest is considered a crime under Italian law, only if it causes a ‘public scandal’.
  • In all the 50 states in the United States, incestuous marriages are banned. Although, incestuous relationships are allowed between consenting adults in New Jersey and Rhode Island. 

Conclusion:

The Delhi High Court highlighted the intricate balance between individual choice in a marriage and the boundaries set by law and also the societal norms. This balance becomes important, in the context  of marriages within extended family networks. 

Bharat Ratna Award: everything you need to know

Context: Karpoori Thakur, former Chief Minister of Bihar, was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award.

More information: 

  • Recognized as a socialist icon, Thakur gained prominence for his dedicated efforts to uplift the backward classes in Bihar.
  • During the Quit India Movement, he faced imprisonment alongside other freedom fighters, consistently striving to oust the British colonial rulers.
  • Notably, he played a pioneering role in implementing the recommendations of the MungeriLal Commission during his tenure as Bihar CM from 1977 to 1979, ensuring reservation benefits for the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

Awards given by Government of India: 

image 140

About Bharat Ratna: 

  • The designation ‘Bharat Ratna,’ which translates to 'Jewel of India,' signifies the highest civilian honour presented by the Republic of India.
  • Established in 1954, the Bharat Ratna is granted to extraordinary individuals who have demonstrated exceptional accomplishments.
  • Originally focused on recognizing achievements in art, science, literature, and public service, the criteria underwent an expansion in December 2011 to encompass excellence in 'any field of human endeavour.'
  • Selection process: 
    • Recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees honoured annually.
    • In 1999, an exception saw four individuals receiving the honour.
    • Although no monetary reward accompanies the honour, recipients receive a unique Peepal-leaf shaped medal and a certificate known as a ‘Sanad.’
    • In the hierarchy of the Indian Order of Precedence, Bharat Ratna recipients hold the seventh rank.
  • The usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix or suffix is exempt from Article 18(1) of the Constitution, as established by the Supreme Court's precedent in Balaji Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995.
  • The first recipients in 1954 included C. Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of the Dominion of India; Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President and first Vice President of India; and Nobel Prize Laureate and Physicist C. V. Raman.
  • Originally, the statutes did not allow for posthumous awards, but in January 1955, amendments were made to permit them.
    • The first posthumous honouree was former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri.
  • Despite typically being conferred upon India-born citizens, notable exceptions include Mother Teresa, a naturalized citizen, and non-Indians such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan (originally from British India, later a citizen of Pakistan) and Nelson Mandela, a citizen of South Africa.
  • The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, faced brief suspensions during the periods of July 1977 to January 1980 and August 1992 to December 1995, due to changes in the national government and legal challenges to their constitutional validity.
    • In 1992, controversy arose over the posthumous award to Subhas Chandra Bose, leading to a cancellation following a Supreme Court decision in 1997, a unique instance where the award was announced but not conferred.
  • Recipients whose awards have been revoked must surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
  • There is no Bharat Ratna Award winners list for 2020 and 2021. 

Several special entitlements: 

  • The medallion and its miniature counterpart.
  • A Sanad (certificate) signed by the President of India.
  • Treatment as a state guest by state governments when traveling within a state.
  • Assistance from Indian missions abroad upon request.
  • Eligibility for a diplomatic passport.
  • Lifetime complimentary executive class travel on Air India.
  • Occupying the seventh position in the Indian order of precedence.
image 141

About Padma Awards: 

  • Padma Awards were established in 1954 to recognize and honour individuals for their outstanding contributions in various fields such as Sports, Art, Social work, Civil Service, Literature and Education, Public Affairs, Science and Technology, Trade and Industry, among others.
  • The awardees are announced annually on Republic Day, celebrating their exceptional services.
  • Despite being consistently awarded each year, there were three exceptions: in 1977, 1980, and the period between 1993 and 1997.
  • Specific rules govern the conferment of Padma awards, including a waiting period of five or more years for recipients to be eligible for a higher degree of award after their last conferment.
  • Posthumous awards are rare but can be considered in exceptional cases, and there must be a notable element of public service in the achievements of the individual.

The Padma Awards are categorized into three levels by the Government of India:

  • Padma Vibhushan: Awarded for exceptional and distinguished service (Second Degree Honour).
  • Padma Bhushan: Recognizing distinguished service of a high order (Third Degree Honour).
  • Padma Shri: Conferred for distinguished service (Fourth Degree Honour).

Padma Vibhushan:

  • This is the second-highest civilian award in India, bestowed in recognition of exceptional and distinguished service.
  • Recipients receive a citation certificate and a medal featuring a lotus flower in the centre, with the words ‘Desh Seva’ embossed on the obverse.

Padma Bhushan:

  • As the third-highest civilian award, the Padma Bhushan is given to individuals who have contributed significantly to India's reputation on the global stage.
  • The award is conferred in a ceremonial event held at the Rashtrapati Bhawan, conducted by the President of India.

Padma Shri:

  • This is the fourth-highest civilian award, presented by the Government of India to individuals who have made distinguished contributions in various fields.
  • Recipients do not receive a cash prize but are honoured with a certificate and a medallion featuring a three-leafed flower on one side and the words Padma (lotus) and Shri (Mr. or Ms.) in Devanagari script on the obverse.

Note: 

  • It is noteworthy that government servants, except doctors and scientists, working in public sector undertakings (PSUs), are not eligible for these awards.

Adam’s Bridge or Ram Setu

Context: The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi visited Arichal Munai, the starting point of the Ram Setu.

About Ram Setu

image 111
  • Adam's Bridge also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu, is a chain of natural limestone shoals between Pamban Island (Rameswaram Island) of Tamil Nadu, and Mannar Island of Sri Lanka.
  • The feature is 48 km long and separates the Gulf of Mannar from the Palk.
  •  Some regions of the bridge are dry, and the sea in the area rarely exceeds 1 meter in depth, making it quite difficult for boats to pass over it.

Etymology

  • The ancient Sanskrit epic Ramayana (8th century BCE–3rd century CE) mentions a bridge constructed by the god Rama to reach the island Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from Ravana. 
  • In popular belief, Lanka is equated to present-day Sri Lanka and the bridge is described as "Rama's Setu".

Geological Evolution

  • The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of the uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge. 
  • It mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks.
  • The Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Applications Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs.
  • One study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift.

Transport Corridor

  • Due to shallow waters, Adam's Bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait.
  • In 2005, the government of India approved a multi-million-dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project. 
    • This project aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanush Kodi.
    •  The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off the voyage around the island of Sri Lanka. 
    • This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge.
  • Various organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds.
  • Some organizations oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project.

Many, not one Ramyana

Context: In Ganga River basin the pivotal Ramayana narrative is the 16th-century Ramcharitmanas of Goswami Tulsidas, written in Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the existence of numerous Ramayanas beyond the Hindi belt, crafted over the last 2,000 years, each deserving equal respect.

Introduction:

image 110
  • Multiple versions of the Indian Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana, are known to exist.
  • The oldest among them is widely acknowledged to be the Sanskrit version known as the Mula Ramayana, attributed to the sage Narada.
  • Narada passed down this knowledge to Valmiki, who then authored the Valmiki Ramayana, which is currently considered the oldest available version of the epic.
  • The core themes of the original Ramayana transcend linguistic boundaries, finding expression in diverse regional cultures and artistic forms.

Influences:

  1. Portrayal of the epic in the Lkhaon Khmer dance theatre in Cambodia.
  2. Ramanattam and Kathakali of Kerala.
  3. Mappila Songs of the Muslims in Kerala and Lakshadweep.
  4. Indian dance tradition of Yakshagana, Karnataka. 
  5. Paintings adorning the walls of Thailand's Wat Phra Kaew palace temple.
  6. In Indonesia, the Ramayana tales are reflected in traditional dance performances such as Sendratari Ramayana and Kecak.

Diverse adaptations of the Ramayana, each reflecting unique cultural perspectives:

  • Andhra Pradesh:
    • Sri Ranganatha Ramayanam by Gona Budda Reddy (1300-1310 CE). 
    • Srimadramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Sri Viswanatha Satyanarayana, awarded the first Jnanpith award in Telugu.
  • Assam: Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali (14th century).
  • Bengal:
    • Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha (15th century). 
    • Ramananda Ghosh's 18th-century translation depicted Rama as an avatar of Buddha; 
  • Odisha:
    • The 15th-century Odia Dandi Ramayana mentions Ram enjoying mangoes provided by a tribal woman, later transforming into the widely known story of Shabari's berries in the 18th-century Bhakti-rasa-prabodhini.
  • Bihar:
    • Mithila Bhasha Ramayana by Chanda Jha. 
    • Rameshwar Charit Mithila by Lal Das.
  • Gujarat: Tulsi-Krta Ramayana, a Gujarati adaptation by Premanand Swami (17th century).
  • Karnataka:
    • Kumudendu Ramayana (Jain version)
    • Ramachandra Charita Purana by Nagachandra (12th century).
  • Kerala:
    • Ramacharitam, based on Yuddha Kanda, by Cheeraman (12th century);
    • Mappila Ramayanam among the Muslims.
  • Maharashtra: Bhavartha Ramayana by Sant Eknath (16th century).
  • Uttar Pradesh (Awadh): Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas (16th century).
  • Tamil Nadu:
    • Kamba Ramayanam by poet Kamban (12th century), a popular Tamil version.
    • 7th-century Tamil songs of Alwar poet-saints portray Ram playfully trying to straighten Manthara's humped back as a child.
  • Persian: A Persian version commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1558–1590, known as the Ramayana of Akbar.
  • Urdu: An Urdu version called the Pothi Ramayana was written in 1776.

Versions in Other Indian Religions:

  • Jainism:
    • Paumachariyam, a Jain version, asserts that all characters in the Ramayana were mere mortals.
    • Characters depicted as Jains; Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites. 
    • Ravana is not killed by Rama in the Jain version.
  • Buddhist Version of Ramayana:
    • Dasharatha was king of Benares, not Ayodhya.
    • This version does not feature Sita's kidnapping or the Ram-Ravan war.
    • Dasarata Jataka, notable for regarding Rama as a bodhisattva.
    • Characters in the Ramayana are considered mere mortals in conflict over moral issues.
  • Sikh Version:
    • Mention of two sorts of Ramayana in the highest Sikh text.
    • Spiritual Ramayana in Guru Granth Sahib, where Ravana represents ego, Sita represents intellect, Rama represents the inner Self, and Laxman represents attention. 
    • Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges Dashavatara as monarchs who restored order to the earth.
    • King Rama (Ramchandra) is mentioned, but no Guru authored a full Ramayana.

Various versions outside India:

  • Japan: Known as Ramaenna or Ramaensho.
  • Cambodia: Reamker is the local adaptation.
  • Indonesia: In Bali, there is Ramakavaca; Java features Kakawin Ramayana and Yogesvara Ramayana; Sumatra presents Ramayana Swarnadwipa.
  • Thailand: The local version is called Ramakien.
  • Nepal: Siddhi Ramayana (Nepal Bhasa) and Bhanubhaktako Ramayan (Nepali language).
  • Sri Lanka: Known as Janakiharan.

Drying up of Panama Canal

Panama Canal

  • Panama Canal is a man made waterway in Panama connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
  • It is 82 km long and has been constructed by digging up the Isthmus of Panama connecting North America and South America continents. 
  • The Panama Canal is not dug at sea level but above sea level to save on the drilling cost. Panama Canal is made up of a system of locks that raises the ship to the level of Gatun Lake (26 meters above sea level). In addition, the water that feeds our Canal is fresh, because it comes mainly from this lake, and this determines the draft along its channel. 
  • The Canal locks at each end lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial freshwater lake 26 m above sea level created by damming up the Chagres River and Lake Alajuela to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, and then lower the ships at the other end. An average of 200,000,000 litres of fresh water are used in a single passing of a ship. 
  • Note: Suez Canal has been dug at Sea level. Thus, the Suez Canal never faces the risk of drying up as it is fed by ocean water that moves in the Suez Canal at sea level.
  • Panama Canal is a key conduit for international maritime trade. It has been a major thoroughfare for international trade for over 100 years, connecting nearly 2,000 ports in 170 countries. 
  • Drought in Panama: Since the start of 2023, traffic through the canal has slowed down due to a prolonged drought that has diminished the amount of available water used to fill the canal locks, which require 101,000 cubic metres of water to fill. The water is drawn from the nearby lakes.
image 105

Ram Temple at Ayodhya built in Nagara style of temple architecture

Ram Temple at Ayodhya

  • The original design was given by the Sompura family of Ahmedabad in 1988. The Sompura family for at least 15 generations has contributed to temple designs of over 100 temples worldwide. Example: Somnath Temple
  • In 2022, a new design was prepared by the Sompuras, as per the Hindu texts, the Vastu Shastra and the Shilpa Shastra. 
  • The Ram mandir will be 250 feet wide, 380 feet long and 161 feet high. 
  • Predominantly designed in the Gurjara-Chaulukya (Maru-Gurjara) style of Nagara style of architecture. 
  • Main structure will be built on a raised platform with three storeys. 
  • The temple will have five mandapas in the middle of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and on the entrance passage. 
  • It will consist of a total of 366 columns and these columns will have 16 idols each to include the incarnations of Shiva, the 10 Dashavataras, the 64 Chausath Yoginis, and the 12 incarnations of the goddess Saraswati. 
  • Sandstone from Baansi in Rajasthan will be used. 
  • Iron will not be used in the construction of the temple and the fusion of stone blocks with copper plates will be done. 
  • Thailand is also symbolically contributing to the inauguration of the temple, by sending soil to the Ram Janmabhoomi. Prior to this the country has also sent water from two rivers in Thailand to honour the temple. 
Maru-Gurjara Architecture or Solanki style: The style originated from that of the dynasties preceding the Solanki dynasty, mainly the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Reached zenith from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chalukya dynasty of Gujarat (Solanki dynasty). Although originated as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became popular in Jain temples. Features:Curvilinear ShikharaFree standing Kirti ToranaKunda or a temple tankHeavy carvings on ceilings of MandapaHigh plinths Balconies looking out on multiple side

Nagara style of temple architecture:

  • Emerged sometime in the 5th century CE, during the late Gupta period, in Northern India. 
  • Seen in juxtaposition with the Dravidian style of southern India, which too emerged in the same period. 
  • Nagara and Dravida may be called ‘Styles’, but they cover vast areas and time spans. 
  • Different sub-schools emerged in western, central and eastern parts of the country. 
S8pAlTARlRh2YjlrU37OuTssx4 dHRfPbWVqvDcCz 08FNH pNdN10LLnKyy7KDJOPllXuyLvEM6jq uupCot1URfM7gBL7PoAw8n265h7Wz8NSPO

Features of Nagara Temple Architecture 

  • Panchayatana style of temple making: Consisting of subsidiary shrines laid out in a crucified ground plan with respect to the principal shrine. 
  • Garbha-Griha (sanctum sanctorum): Idol of the deity is placed and is most sacred part of the temple. Images of the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, are placed outside the garbhagriha. 
  • Assembly halls or mandaps, in front of the principal shrine.
  • Unlike Dravida temples, water tanks or reservoirs are not present in the temple premises.
  • Built on upraised platforms. 
  • Shikharas: These are human-made representations of the natural and cosmological order, as imagined in Hindu tradition.
    • Depending on the period and geography, there is a large variation in what a shikhara looks like, or how it is used in a temple’s design.
    • Types of Shikharas: 
      • Latina or rekha-prasad: Square at the base and the walls curve inward to a point on the top.
      • Phamsana: Broader base and were shorter in height than the Latina ones; Slope upwards on a straight line.
      • Valabhi: Rectangular base with the roof rising into vaulted chambers;  Emerged in the Gupta heartland. 
      • Bhumija: Miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows; Created a grid-like effect on each face.
  • Amalaka (horizontal fluted disc): At the vertical end of the shikhara. 
  • Kalash: In spherical shape on top. 
  • Vertical planes: 
    • Triratha temples.
    • Later, pancharatha, saptaratha and even navaratha temples came into existence.
    • Used as different panels to make narrative sculptures.
  • Covered Ambulatory passageway (Pradakshina-path): Around the sanctum sanctorum. 
  • Temple premises did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
8CqTqke82mRxUHsEgUyZ8rBEckKbZ8fQqnVIyaStmK

Regional schools of Nagara Style 

Central India/ Khajuraho school or Chandela School

  • Chandelas in the centre of India around 1000 AD created this style of temple construction known as the Khajuraho School or Chandela School.
  • It is made of sandstone.
  • Generally north or east facing.
  • These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that serves as the garbhagriha.
  • This temple is in the panchayatana style.
  • The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple.
  • Examples: Khajuraho, Kandariya Mahadeo temple, in Madhya Pradesh
image 410

                                               Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khajuraho

Western India/Solanki Style

There are two schools that developed in Gujarat & Rajasthan these are Solanki school in Gujarat and Jain Temples in Mount Abu.

Gujarat School

  • The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type with sandstone being the most common construction material employed.
  • Presence of a hundred-square-metre rectangular pond(suryakund). 
  • A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides.
  • Example: Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat

Rajasthan School

  • Use of white marble.
  • The walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving and are left plain as the temple faces the east.
  • The ornamental detail spreads over the minutely carved ceilings, doorways, pillars, and panels.
  • Example: Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu

East India Temple Architecture

There are three schools that developed in east India these are Assam, Bengal and Odisha School.

Assam School of Temple Architecture

  • It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction. The temple consists of four chambers:
  • garbhagriha and,
  • three mandapas locally called Calanta, Pancaratna and Natamandira.
  • The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.

Bengal School of Temple Architecture

  • Bengal witnessed a temple building spree from the late 15th century.
  • Temple architecture in Bengal got inspired from the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thatched huts in villages, which housed local deities.
  • Dochala (two-roofed style)
  • Chauchala (four-roofed style)
  • Temples were usually built on a square platform.
  • Interior of the temples were relatively plain, but the outer walls of these temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.
  • In the Bishnupur group of temples in Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.
  • This style also incorporated elements of the dome and multilobe arch of Islamic architecture.
  • Elements of Bengal Temple architecture were adopted outside Bengal as well. 

Odisha School of Temple Architecture

  • The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
  • The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
  • Also known as Kalinga School
  • The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra.
  • The Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a tower and a hall.
  • The tower is called deula and hall is called Jagmohan.
  • The walls of both the deula and the Jagmohan are lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures.
  • The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas. It is dual or deula which makes three distinct types of temples in Kalinga Architecture.
  • These temples usually have boundary walls.

Jagannath Puri, Odisha 

Temple Architecture in Hills

There are two schools that developed in Himalayan region of India these are Kumaon,Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir School.

Kumaon School

  • The central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers on each side.
  • The main entrance is located at the front of the central tower, while several other entrances are located at each of its sides.
  • These entrances are all decorated with intricate carvings depicting various scenes from mythology.
  • The main entrance faces east
  • The main temple complex includes four large halls or mandapas.
  • Jageshwar in Almora, Uttarakhand 

Himachal School

  • Wooden buildings
  • It looks like a hut, with an intricately carved wooden entrance, interior and ceiling.
  • Laksna Devi Mandir, Himachal Pradesh

Kashmir School of Temple Architecture

  • Wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
  • The main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture.
  • Pandrethan temple is built on a plinth built in the middle of a tank.
  • The temple is moderately ornamented.
  • Pandrethan temple or Pani Mandir, Badami bagh, Srinagar

Sattras in Assam

Context: Congress leader Rahul Gandhi sought blessings at the Sri Sri Auniati Satra, a more than 350-year-old Vaishnavite monastery in Assam’s Majuli district. Sri Sri Auniati Satra was established in 1663 in Majuli. Lord Krishna is worshipped as Govinda with the original idol being brought from the Lord Jagannath Temple at Puri.

Satra (Ekasarana Dharma) - Wikipedia

About Sattras

  • Sattras are monastic institutions created as part of the 16th-century Neo-Vaishnavite reformist movement initiated by Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva.
  • Sankardeva preached a monotheistic form of Hinduism (Ekasarana tradition) called Vaishnavism and established monasteries and hermitages known as Sattra on the islet.
  • The first Sattra was founded in Majuli.
  • Sattras are spread across the state, propagating Sankardeva’s unique “worship through art” approach with music (borgeet), dance (sattriya), and theater (bhauna).
  • There are different types of Satras, such as Auniati, Kamalabari, Dakhinpat, Garamur, Samaguri, Bengenaati, and Natun Kamalabari.
  • They consist of a large prayer hall (Naamghar) headed by an influential “Sattradhikar” facing a simple shrine, surrounded by dormitories and bathing tanks for monks.
  • They also offer guest accommodation where devotees and visitors take part in the worship of Vishnu and Krishna and also watch traditional bhaona performances.
  • Young bhakats are wonderful artisans and make masks, musical instruments, as well as hand-fans and door frames.
  • Young bhakats may or may not be celibate, depending on the kind of Sattra they are inducted into.

Global Alliance for Global Good- Gender Equity and Equality

Context: In a major breakthrough, India has successfully set up a “Global Alliance for Global Good- Gender Equity and Equality” to push women’s empowerment and gender equality during the 54th Annual Meeting of World Economic Forum in Davos.

More information:

  • The aim of the alliance is to bring together global good practices, knowledge sharing, investments in the field of women’s health, education, and enterprise.
  • The project is a follow up of the activities of the Engagement Group and initiatives drafted under the G20 framework, inter alia, the Business 20, Women 20 and G20 EMPOWER, among others.
  • This alliance also aims at taking forward the commitments of G20 leaders for the benefit of the larger global community.
  • This initiative marks a significant stride toward achieving multiple SDGs, including SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-Being, 4- Quality Education, 5 – Gender Equality and Empowerment, 17- Global Partnership for Development and more, underscoring India’s commitment to gender equality and equity as a critical component of global development.
  • This alliance is Supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the alliance will be housed and anchored by the CII Centre for Women Leadership. The World Economic Forum has come on board as a ‘Network Partner’ and Invest India as an ‘Institutional Partner’.
  • Given India’s abiding commitment to ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ – One Earth, One Family, One Future– and its continued efforts towards ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Prayaas’, the ‘Alliance for Global Good- Gender Equity and Equality’ is on the verge of being a force to reckon with on all gender-related issues of G20 nations.

About World Economic Forum (WEF):· 

  • Professor Klaus Schwab founded WEF in 1971, originally called the European Management Forum, as a non-profit foundation based in Geneva, Switzerland.
  • It is the International Organization for Public-Private Cooperation. 
  • In 2015, the Forum was formally recognised as an international organization. 
  • Reports released by WEF:  
    • Global Risks Report  
    • Global Gender Gap Index   
    • Fostering Effective Energy Transition Report  
    • Travel and Tourism Development Index  
    • Global Cyber Security Outlook  
    • Global Competitiveness Report  

History of Somnath temple

Context: The Prime Minister of India is to inaugurate the Ram temple in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh on 22nd January. This brought back the memory of inauguration of Somnath temple, that was 73 years ago by the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad. 

More from the news article:

history of Somnath temple
  • British Governor General Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844) presented the temple as a symbol of Islam’s excesses on Hindus. 
  • After the British army was defeated in Afghanistan (1842) and faced heavy losses, a retaliatory strike was carried out. 
  • ‘The gates of Somnath’, during this time became a major issue. A pair of sandalwood gates from Ghazni, were brought back by the British, claiming they were the original gates of Somnath taken by the invaders. 
  • Lord Ellenborough proclaimed this as the avenging of an insult that Mahmud of Ghazni inflicted upon Hindus 800 years ago (1026). 
  • The Nawab of Junagadh, where Somnath was located, decided to accede to Pakistan in August 1947. However, he fled when the rebellion started. 
  • Sardar Patel, the then Home Minister, visited Junagadh (Saurashtra region, Gujarat) and announced the reconstruction of the Somnath temple. 
  • As per the suggestion given by Gandhiji, a trust was set up under K. M. Munshi for funding the project. (The idea was, people of the country should collectively fund the project, instead of the Government, a secular entity). 
  • In 1951, the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad was approached by K. M. Munshi for inauguration (Pran-Pratistha) of the temple. 

About Somnath Temple:

  • Location: Along the coastline in Prabhas Patan, Veraval, Saurashtra region of Gujarat.
  • Veraval was an ancient trading port. 
  • During the Indus Valley Civilisation, the site of Prabhas Patan was occupied. After abandonment in 1200 BCE, it was reoccupied in 400 BCE. 
  • As per the temple’s website, it is the holy place of the first Aadi Jyotirlinga Shree Somnath Mahadev and the sacred soil where Lord Krishna took his last journey. 
  • Since ancient times, the site has been a pilgrimage site on account of being a Triveni Sangam, i.e., the confluence of three rivers, Kapila, Hiran and Saraswati. 

Descriptions of the Temple:

  • No mentions of ‘Somnath nomenclature’ have been found in ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism.
  • However, mentions of ‘Prabhas-Pattan’ as tirtha (Pilgrimage site), where the temple is located is found. 
  • Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (a 5th century poem) mentions some of the sacred Shiva Pilgrimage sites: Banaras (Varanasi), Mahakal-Ujjain, Tryambaka, Prayaga, Pushkara, Gokarna and Somnath-Prabhasa. This clearly indicates tirthas of his time. 
  • 11th -century Persian historian Al-Biruni has also stated that, “Somnath has become so famous because it was the harbour for seafaring people and a station for those who went to and fro between Sufala in the country of Zanj (east Africa) and China.”
  • The 14th century description was given by Amir Khusrow, where he noted, Gujarati Muslim pilgrims paid their respects before departing for the Hajj Pilgrimage (Mecca, Saudi Arabia). 

Origin, Construction and Reconstruction: 

  • First temple is said to have existed 2000 years ago. 
  • 649 AD: King Maitre of Vallabhini built a second temple. 
  • Ruler of Sindh in 725, attacked and destroyed the temple. 
  • 815: Pratishtha King Nag Bhatt II constructed the temple for the third time, using Red Sandstone. 
  • 1026: Turkish ruler, Mahmud of Ghazni raided and plundered Somnath temple and destroyed it, during the reign of Solanki King Bhimdev I. This raid was confirmed by Al-Biruni, who worked in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. 
  • King Bhimdev in between 1026-1042, rebuilt the temple for the fourth time. 
  • Kumarapala of the Chalukya-Solanki dynasty of Gujarat (his capital was Anahilapataka) rebuilt the temple and studded it with jewels, as per the inscription of 1169. 
  • In 1299, during the Gujarat invasion, Allaudin Khilji’s army, led by Ulugh khan, sacked the temple after defeating Vaghela king Karna. 
  • 1308: It was rebuilt by Mahipala I (Chudasama king of Saurashtra) and the lingam in the temple was re-installed by his son Khengara. Chudasama dynasty ruled the part of present-day Saurashtra region of Gujarat, sometime between the 9th and 15th centuries. Capital: Junagadh and Vamanasthali. 
  • 1395: Attacked by Zafar khan. Zafar Khan was the last governor of Gujarat under the Delhi Sultanate and the founder of Gujarat Sultanate.
  • 1451: Sacked by Mahmud Begada, the Sultan of Gujarat.
  • As per the book: ‘Somanatha: the many voices of the 16th century’ by Romila Thapar, Mughal ruler Akbar permitted the worship of Linga in the temple and also appointed Desai/officers to administer it. 
  • 1706: Mughal ruler, Aurangzeb again demolished the temple and gradually the temple fell into disuse. 
  • 1782: Somnath temple was in dilapidated state when Maratha queen from Indore, Ahilya bai Holkar built a small temple and placed an idol. The Ahilyabai-built temple is now known as ‘Old Somnath’. 
  • After India's independence: The present Somnath temple was reconstructed in the Maru-Gurjara style. 

Maru-Gurjara Architecture or Solanki style: 

Features:

  • Curvilinear Shikhara
  • Free standing Kirti Torana
  • Kunda or a temple tank
  • Heavy carvings on ceilings of Mandapa
  • High plinths 
  • Balconies looking out on multiple side

Architecture of the temple: 

  • Pre-11th century temple: Remains of the foundation, the lower structure suggests an exquisitely carved temple. The garbhagriha (sanctum) was connected to a mukha-mandapa (entrance hall). It opened to the east. 
Architecture of Somnath temple
  • 19th-century ruined Somnath temple: British official and scholar, Alexander Burnes surveyed the site in 1830 and stated that the temple was converted into a Muslim structure (mosque) with an arch. 
  • Present temple: Temple has a ‘Kailash Maha Meru Prasad’ form. The new temple is intricately carved, with pillared mandapa and 212 relief panels. 

Jagannath Temple Corridor

Context: Chief Minister of Odisha has launched the Shree Mandir Parikrama Prakalpa, which is a massive peripheral development project around Puri’s 12th century Shree Jagannath Temple.

More about the news: 

  • Heritage Corridor: 75-metre-wide space encircling the temple, known as the heritage corridor is divided into nine different zones.
  • It has a 7-metre green buffer zone, adjacent to the Meghanada Pacheri, or the boundary of the temple.
  • A 10-metre Antar Pradakshina will allow space for ceremonial processions of the deities throughout the year. 
  • There is also a public convenience zone having restrooms, drinking water facilities, information-cum-donation kiosks, mini cloakrooms, and a dedicated emergency lane.
  • The State government organised a massive outreach programme, with Arpan Raths taken out in every village to promote, preserve and protect Jagannath culture through people’s participation.
image 89

About Jagannath temple: 

  • An important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu. 
  • Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India). 
  • Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra are deities worshipped at the temple. 
  • The temple is sacred to all Hindus, and especially in those of the Vaishnava traditions and is one of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of the Vaishnavite tradition.
    • Many great Vaishnava saints, such as Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated with the temple.
    • Ramanuja established the Emar Matha in the south-eastern corner of the temple. 
    • Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, which is the seat of one of the four Shankaracharyas.
    • It is also of particular significance to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, was attracted to the deity, Jagannath. 
  • The worship is performed by the Bhil Sabar tribal priests, as well as priests of other communities in the temple.
  • Unlike the stone and metal icons found in most Hindu temples, the image of Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
  • The temple is one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites, the other being Rameshwaram, Badrinath and Dwarka.

Construction: 

  • The present temple was rebuilt by the King of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE, as described by the Kendupatna copper-plate inscription of his descendant, Narasimhadeva II.
  • Anantavarman was originally a Shaivite, and became a Vaishnavite sometime after he conquered the Utkala region, in which the temple is located, in 1112 CE.
  • A 1134–1135 CE inscription records his donation to the temple.
  • The temple complex was further developed during the reigns of the subsequent kings, including those of the Ganga dynasty and the Gajapati dynasty (1434-1541). 
  • The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture. The temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).

Rath Yatra: 

  • The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India.
  • It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh (June or July).
  • The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra.
  • During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.
  • The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra)

Thiruvalluvar: Tamil Poet

Context: The Governor of Tamil Nadu paid tributes to a portrait of Tamil poet saint ‘Thiruvalluvar’ in saffron robes and described him as a saint of the ‘Bharatiya Sanatan’ tradition. This has revived a controversy, opposing the attempt to ‘saffronise’ Thiruvalluvar. 

About Thiruvalluvar: 

  • Valluvar was an ancient saint, poet, and prominent philosopher in the Tamil region, and his significant contributions are particularly evident in his work, 'Thirukurral.'
  • Comprising 1330 couplets, this collection holds a special place in every Tamil household. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam.
image 88

Note: 

The Three Sangam Councils: These councils were held in the Pandyan Kingdom. 

  1. First Sangam, was held in Madurai, and was attended by legendary sages. No book or literary work of this Sangam is available. Sage Agastya is believed to have chaired the first Sangam. 
  2. Second Sangam, was convened in Kapadapuram. The only surviving literary work is Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar. 
  3. Third Sangam was held in Madurai. The literary works from this Sangam provide useful sources to reconstruct the history of Sangam period. 
  • Various communities in the Tamil region regard Valluvar as the 64th Nayanmar of the Saivite tradition.
    • The renowned Mylapore temple, constructed in the early 16th century, stands as a testament to the deep reverence for Valluvar.
    • The temple is situated within the Ekambareeswara-Kamakshi (Shiva-Parvati) temple complex in Mylapore, Chennai. 
  • Valluvar influenced and shaped the perspectives of numerous scholars and he presented views on ethical, social, political, philosophical, spiritual and economic domains.  
  • Authentic information about Valluvar's life remains scarce as neither his true name nor the original title can be found in Tirukkural. 
  • The earliest known textual reference to the legend of Valluvar is found in the Shaivite Tamil text Thiruvalluva Malai.

Religious affiliation:

  • It is a subject of debate, with conjectures placing him within either Jainism or Hinduism.
  • Some scholars argue that Valluvar's writings align more closely with Hinduism, as evidenced by the integration of his teachings in Tirukkural with Hindu texts.
  • Also, Valluvar's treatment of the concept of ahimsa (non-violence), which is an important tenet in both Jainism and Hinduism, further supports the claim.

About Tirukkural:

  • It is divided into three parts: aram (virtue), porul (wealth), and inbam (love).
  • Valluvar text predominantly addresses the three aspects directly but it does not explicitly cover vitu (moksha or release).
  • The concept of turavaram (renunciation) is explored, serving as a means to achieve spiritual liberation. Hence, vitu is indirectly discussed within the Kural text.
  • The couplets are organized into 133 sections, each containing 10 couplets.
  1. Book I (Aram): Deals with the moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy.
  2. Book II (Porul): Explores socio-economic values, polity and statecraft, and administration.
  3. Book III (Inbam): Addresses psychological values and the theme of love.
  • Valluvar presents his theory of the state through six key elements: Army (Patai), Subjects (Kuti), Treasure (Kul), Ministers (Amaiccu), Allies (Natpu), and Forts (Aran).
  • Valluvar recommends the establishment of forts and other infrastructure, along with adequate supplies and food storage, in preparation for potential sieges.
  • While sharing similarities with the teachings found in Arthasastra, Valluvar's perspectives differ in some crucial aspects.
  • Example: Valluvar's theory of the state, the army (patai) emerges as the most vital element, in contrast to Kautilya's emphasis on King.

Philosophy: 

  • Contrary to being a mystic or purely philosophical document, Tirukkural is centred on the comprehensive understanding of human relationships and is renowned for its concept of 'Pragmatic idealism.'
  • Valluvar's philosophy places the 'common man' at its core, emphasizing the need for individuals to lead virtuous lives, uphold human values, promote social harmony and actively engage in political life. 

On Religion and Spirituality: 

  1. He glorifies significant divine attributes without specifying a particular deity by name.
  2. This approach leads people to perceive the teachings in the Kural text as not being attributed to any specific God or religion.
  3. He envisioned a harmonious society where diverse communities from various sects coexist peacefully, thus advocating for a monotheistic divinity.
  4. He intentionally avoided discussing moksha or liberation and emphasized on the importance of living a virtuous and honest life on Earth.
  5. He believes that individuals who exhibit virtue in their domestic, social, political, and moral spheres will experience abundant joy in all aspects of life.

On Administration and Governance:

  1. Democracy: He did not endorse democracy but accepted Royalty with ministers bound by a code of ethics and a system of justice.
  2. At the same time, the Kural text, cautions against tyranny, appeasement, and oppression, suggesting that such behaviour leads to disasters, depletion of state wealth, and the loss of power and prosperity.

Governance:

  1. He asserts that “just as living beings thrive with good rainfall, citizens flourish when a king governs justly”.
  2. He advised rulers to avoid cruelty, as a lack of daily examination of wrongdoings and the absence of justice will lead to the downfall of the kingdom.
  3. He highlighted the ruler's duty to protect the realm from terrorism, warning that a failure to control such threats will result in the loss of peace. 
  4. Role of ministers is crucial, as they are expected to assist in the smooth administration of the kingdom, understanding the nature of undertakings and offering advice when necessary to the King.
  5. He underscored the necessity of maintaining good relationships with neighbouring countries through envoys for peaceful coexistence.

On Business:

  1. He advocated for eternal values and moral principles which will govern the conduct of business leaders.

Read also:

Sangam LiteratureSangam Society
Sangam PolityDynasties of Sangam Age