GS Paper 1

History Ensemble of Dhamnar

Context: Recently, six sites from Madhya Pradesh have been added to the Tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

These sites are:

Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar
Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur
Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley
Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpura
Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla
Gwalior Fort

Difference between a World Heritage Site and Tentative list

A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by UNESCO for its special cultural or physical significance.
The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by the international ‘World Heritage Programme’, administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
To get its heritage site considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, the country makes an inventory of important natural and cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries.
This ‘inventory’ is known as the Tentative List.
Making it to the tentative list thus is the first step for any site which seeks final nomination for becoming a World Heritage site.

(Picture: Dhamnar Caves site)

About Historic Ensemble of Dhamnar:

Location: Mandsaur district (formerly Dasapura), Madhya Pradesh.
Modern Account of the site:
- Earliest reference to these monuments comes from James Tod who visited in 1821.
- James Furgusson visited the site in 1845 and Alexander Cunningham visited the site between 1864-1865.
- Dating of the caves is difficult due to absence of inscriptions, therefore, these monuments can be dated to the 7^th century CE on the basis of few similarities with caves at other sites, such as Ajanta and Ellora.
- The name ‘Dhamnar’ is not known from any historical or literary sources.
- Buddhist establishment here was known as Chandananagari-mahavihara as evidenced by a clay seal discovered by Historian A.H. Khan.
  - Scholar K.C Jain opined that the present name Dhamnar is a derived from the Shaivite epithet ‘Dharmanatha’
  - Dharmanath: Name of the Linga setup in the rock-cut Vaishnava temple during the medieval period.

About Dhamnar Caves:

Series of 51 rock-cut caves, stupas, chaityas, passages and compact dwellings. These caves were cut out from a hill of coarse laterite stone.
These monolithic spaces were further carved to form grand doors with carvings, columns, and religious sculptural symbols.
Built around 1123 years ago: 5^th, 6^th and 7^th century CE (7^thcentury CE was the second wave of cave construction in India).
These caves contain structures belonging to: Buddhism (both Hinayana and Mahayana) and Hinduism (presence of the Dharmarajeshwara/Dharmanatha temple).
Secluded spaces for monks, also known as Viharas are found. These are fairly simple volumes with a lack of ornamentation.
Representation of Buddha by motifs and sculptures as a form of religious symbolic art.
Some caves found with no iconic ornamentation indicate that these possibly belong to the Hinayana Sect of Buddhism.
Archaeological Survey of India, restored the structures here, as the porous laterite rocks which got weathered over the centuries, destabilised and weakened the structures.

(Picture: Seated Buddha, Cave No.11)

Some special features:

Rani ka Makan/Kamaniya Mahal cave (Cave no. 10)
Bhim Bazar Chaitya (Cave no. 11):
- Most extensive of all the excavations.
- Stupa: Buddha is sculpted in seated posture.
- Stupa with three-tier chhatravali and circumambulatory passage.
Chota Bazar/Child’s cave (Cave no. 13):
- Chaitya-griha
- Nirvana image of Buddha depicted on the east wall.
- Depiction of Buddha, as seated upon a throne, in the teaching attitude.
- Buddha is known to locals as Bhima.
- Principal shrine with Pradakshinapath (circumambulation).
  - On the back wall of the shrine, are five images, three seated and two standing.
  - Three seated figures are known by locals as: Pandu with his two sons, Arjuna and Nakula.
Bari Kacheri/Big courthouse (Cave no. 6): includes stupas and chaityas; stone railing with the wooden architecture.
Hathi-ka-mekh/Elephant’s stable/Hathi-bandhi (Cave No 12): simple chaitya cave where the stupa is placed to support the roof.

(Picture: Dharmanatha Temple)

About Dharmanatha Temple at the site:

The temple is situated north of Cave No. 12 of the Buddhist cave group.
Rock-cut temple is excavated in a rectangular pit within the hill.
The courtyard can also be accessed from the top of the hill by the rock-cut stairs provided.
The sculpture on the south is that of Bhairava and on the north is of Kali. The latter carries an inscription dating to the 8^th-9^th century CE.
Garbha-griha, Antarala, Mandapa and Mukha-mandapa.
It is surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines.
- Thus, the temple falls under the sapta-parivara (family of seven) category, that is generally seen in Southern India for Shiva temples.
- Among the seven subsidiary shrines, the ones located in the corners are with Latina-Nagara shikhara.
- The ones opposite the garbha-griha are of the Phamsana shikhara.
The temple is known as Chaturbhuj temple by the locals due to the image of a four-arm Sheshasayi-Vishnu installed inside the Garbha-girha. Vishnu is holding Shankha, Chakra and a Lotus flower.
Main temple is Pancharatha:
- Consisting of one bhadra, two prati-ratha, and two karna projections.
- Prati-ratha is decorated with ‘ghata-pallava’ motif.
- The vertical elevation has shikhara.
- The shikhara is Latina style of the Nagara type, consisting of six bhumis (tiers) marked by bhumi-amalakas at the Karna.
Inside the garbha-griha is a Shivalinga known as Dharmanatha.
The southern shrine has a panel depicting dancing Shiva surrounded by four Matrakas. On the right of Shiva are Maheshwari and Vaishvani while on his left are Indrani and Brahmi.
An interesting feature is the omission of Buddha who is replaced by a figure of Vishnu instead.
There is an inscription and its palaeography helped in dating the temple to the latter half of the 9^th century CE.

Nickel crashes on 2.5x rise in Indonesian output

Context: Four years ago, Indonesia implemented a permanent ban on nickel ore exports to stimulate foreign investments and promote domestic processing, aiming to bolster downstream industries. This ban attracted significant investment, particularly from China, leading to the construction of smelters and a remarkable 250% increase in Indonesia's nickel production since 2021.

However, this surge in production has resulted in nickel prices plummeting to near three-year lows.

Nickel (Ni)

Nickel is a metallic element with a silvery-white, shiny appearance.
It is the fifth-most common element on earth and occurs extensively in the earth’s crust and core.
Nickel, along with iron, is also a common element in meteorites.
Nickel occurs naturally in soil and water. It is also an essential nutrient for plants.
Ferromagnetic properties of Nickel: Nickel is one of the four elements known to have the property to display ferromagnetism i.e., the ability to form permanent magnets. The others being Iron, Cobalt and Gadolinium.
Production process of Nickel: Nickel does not occur in its native state. Pure Nickel is obtained by reduction of its oxides or by the Mond process which consists of the formation of volatile nickel carbonyl produced by passing carbon monoxide over heated Nickel oxide. This results in the dissociation of Nickel Oxide into Nickel and Carbon Monoxide, which can be used again.
Physical properties of Nickel: Nickel has a high melting point of 1,453 degree Celsius, relatively low thermal and electrical conductivity, high resistance to corrosion & oxidation, excellent strength and toughness at high temperatures and capable of being magnetised.
Chemical properties of Nickel: Pure Nickel is chemically reactive but large pieces are slow to react to a passive layer of Nickel Oxide formed over it.

Minerals of Nickel

Nickel is derived from two types of ore deposits:

Laterites: Principal ore in this class are nickeliferous limonite and garneirite. (Accounting for 54% global Nickel reserves)
Magmatic sulphide nickel deposits: Principal ore in this class is Pentlandite. (Accounting for 35% global reserves)
Hydrothermal systems such as iron-nickel alloy, sedimentary-hosted polymetallic, and volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, as well as seafloor manganese crusts and nodules. (Accounting for 10% global reserves)

In some cases, Nickel is associated with the Platinum group of elements and copper, which increases the value of nickel ore deposits.

Uses of Nickel

Primarily, world nickel demand is for the production of stainless steel where about 65% nickel is consumed.
Nickel resists corrosion and is used to plate other metals to protect them. It is, however, mainly used in making alloys such as stainless steel. It resists corrosion, even when red hot, so is used in toasters and electric ovens.
A copper-nickel alloy is commonly used in desalination plants, which convert seawater into fresh water. Nickel steel is used for armour plating.
Nickel is used in batteries, including rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles.
Nickel has a long history of being used in coins.

Global Production and exports

World Reserves of Nickel: World reserves of Nickel are estimated at 100 million tonnes with Indonesia and Australia having the highest reserves followed by Brazil and Russia.
World Nickel Mineral Production: The main producers of Nickel mineral in the world are Indonesia (42%), followed by Philippines (14%) and Russia, New Caledonia, Canada & Australia.
Production – Indonesia is the largest producer followed by Philippines and Russia.

Status of Nickel in India

Nickel is not produced from primary sources in the country and the entire demand is met through imports.
Nickel occurs principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates in India.
Important occurrence is nickeliferous limonite in Sukinda Valley, Jajpur district, Odisha.
In addition, nickel is found associated with uranium deposits at Jaduguda, Jharkhand and a process is being developed for its recovery.
The State of Odisha is endowed with the largest share of resources of nickel ore in the country at 175 million tonnes (93%) followed by Jharkhand & Nagaland.
ODISHA - Jajpur (140 million tonnes), Mayurbhanj (27 million tonnes) and Keonjhar (8 million tonnes).
Jharkhand - 9 million tonnes (5%) resources most of which are in Singhbhum (East) district associated with Uranium deposits.
Nagaland - 5 million tonnes (3%) resources which predominantly are in Kiphire district

India will have no option but to depend on imports for this metal till a technology to recover nickel from the overburden of chromite ore in Odisha is established on a commercial scale.

Historical Evidences of Ayodhya Ram Temple

Context: The Ram Temple at Ayodhya was formally inaugurated on 22nd January 2024. This was a after large scale social movement leading to the demolition of Babri Mosque at the disputed site on 6th December 1992. Following the demolition there was a long legal battle to ascertain the claims of the various groups on the disputed site. The judgement came in the favour of Hindu groups and the site was handed over to build a temple to commemorate the Ram Temple. The judgement emphasised on the following historical sources to ascertain the presence of Ram Temple and the tradition of worship of Ram at the site.

Babri mosque was built in 1528 AD on the instructions of Mughal Emperor Babur by Mir Baqi, who was the commander of Babur’s forces. However, a section of historians also say that the Babri Mosque was constructed by Aurangzeb.

Historical Sources quoted by Ayodhya Judgement

1. Janma Sakhies of Sikhism: Various Janma Sakhies have recorded the description of visit of Guru Nanak Devji to Ayodhya, where he had darshan of birthplace of Lord Ram. The accounts presented in the Janmasakhis depicts that pilgrim visited Ayodhya even before 1528 AD (when Babur is claimed to constructed the Babri Mosque).

Janma Sakhies are legendary biographies of Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of Sikhism. These are hagiographical accounts of the life of Guru Nanak written after the death of Guru Nanak, particularly noting the miracles and travels known as Udasis pursued by Guru Nanak.
Largest of the JanmaSakhis is known as Guru Nanak Prakash, written by Kavi Santokh Singh.

2. Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl: Ain-i-Akbari has section on Ramavatara or Ram-incarnation and Ayodhya. Ayodhya is noted as one of the largest cities of India and as one of the holiest cities. Around the city, earth was filtered for gold.

3. Account of William Finch: William Finch arrived in India in August 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins. He was an English Merchant in the service of East India Company. He travelled along with Captain Hawkins during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar and Jehangir. He explored various Indian cities like Delhi, Ambala, Sultanpur, Ayodhya and Lahore.

His account is preserved in a book edited by William Foster called ‘Early Travels in India (1583-1619)’ which has accounts by Ralph Fitch, John Mildenhall, William Hawkins, William Finch, Nicholas Withington, Thomas Coriyat and Edward Terry.

William Finch arrived in India in 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins.
He visited Ayodhya between 1608-11. He did not find any building of Islamic origin in Ayodhya.
He noted the mount known as Ramkot or fort of Lord Rama.

4. Account of Niccolao Manucci: Manucci was Italian traveller who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Manucci is famous for his account of his travels in Mughal India which is known as ‘Storia do Mogor’. Storia do Mogor presents a first-hand account of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Dara Shikoh, Shah Alam I and Jai Singh I. He also provides a detailed account of folk beliefs and customs of the period. Manucci has listed the chief temples destroyed by Auranbzeb. Some of them are:

(a) Maisa (Mayapur)

(b) Matura (Mathura)

(d) Hajudia (Ajudhya)

5. Account of Joseph Tieffenthaler: Tieffenthaler was a Jesuit Missionary who visited India in 1740 (three decades after the death of Aurangzeb). His travel account is known as ‘Description Historiqueet Geographique Del’inde’ written in Latin. Tieffenthaler was reportedly proficient in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.

Tieffenthaler visited Ayodhya which is described in the text. He gives the following account:

Refers to Ayodhya as Adjudea.
Contains a reference to the belief of Hindus that Lord Rama is the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Described as Beschan in the account). Lord Rama was born at the site, the symbol it being the ‘Bedi’ or ‘cradle’.
Presence of Sita Rasoi which is a table like place worshipped as the kitchen of Sita.
Emperor Aurangzeb demolished the fortress called Ramcot and got a Muslim Mosque with triple domes, constructed at the same place.
Contains a reference to the use of fourteen black stone pillars which had existed at the site of erstwhile fortress.
His noted that despite the demolition by Aurangzeb there still existed a cult that continues to worship at the site and of large gatherings to mark and celebrate the birthday of Lord Rama.

6. Account of Robert Montgomery Martin: Montgomery Martin was an Anglo-Irish author and civil servant. He authored his account of 10 years of stay in medical practice in Shillong and working as a journalist in Calcutta where he established the ‘Bengal Herald’ newspaper. He wrote the ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India’ in three volumes based on his stay in India during the 1840s. He was one of the founding members of East India Association which was a London based organisation (1866) for raising matters concerning India with membership from Indians and retired British officials. (Note: Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of East India Association).

He infers that the mosque was built by Mughal Emperor Babur and was the most modern in architecture.
However, Martin notes the destruction of Hindu places of worship by Aurangzeb.
He also noted the presence of pillars in the Mosque made of black stones.

7. Edward Thornton’s Gazetteer: Edward Thornton authored ‘Gazetteer of territories under the Government of East India Company and the Native States on the Continent of India’.

Rising temperature of Oceans

Context: The report by Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) indicates that average sea -surface temperature has reached a new high in February 2024. This unusual warming of oceans is gradually acquiring a usual color, thereby posing grave threat for ocean ecosystem and biodiversity in particular and the Earth in general.

Reasons for warming of oceans:

Increasing absorption of greenhouse gases emissions: The average global temperature has risen by at least 1.2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times on account of high levels of GHGs emissions. Consequently, oceans have absorbed around 90% of the extra heat trapped by the GHGs, thereby leading to the excess warming of oceans.
Impact of El-Nino: This phenomenon results in temperature rise in eastern equatorial pacific ocean.
Saharan impact on Atlantic: The blowing of dust from Sahara desert acted as a giant umbrella to shade the Atlantic water and reduces ocean temperatures. But now this dust umbrella has partially folded, resulting in the increased heating of the Atlantic ocean.
Impact of Sulphate aerosols: Sulphate aerosols on account of SO2 emissions act like a cloud, preventing solar radiation from reaching the ocean surface. But the decline in SO2 emissions on account of decline in Sulphur in marine fuels has negated this favorable impact.
Weakening of Ocean Current: Weakening of ocean currents has impacted the heat regulation in oceans.

Impact of Warming of oceans:

Ocean Stratification: Warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification i.e. the natural separation of ocean water into horizontal layers by density with warmer, lighter, less salty and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
Impacting the Ocean biodiversity: Due to ocean stratification, nutrients are not able to travel up to the surface of the ocean and so there is no intermixing. This threatens the population of the phytoplankton that thrive on the ocean surface and are base of several marine food webs.
Rising sea levels: Warming of oceans leads to thermal expansion of water and also melting of glaciers in the polar areas. This leads to coastal inundation of low lying areas and also saline intrusion in groundwater reservoirs.
Rising frequency of Marine Heat Waves (MHWs): MHWs are the abrupt rise in the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea by around 3 to 4 degrees Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days. Ex: Between 1982 and 2016, MHWs have doubled in frequency and have become more intense (IPCC report).
Coral bleaching: Excessive warming of oceans has led to the discharge of zooxanthellae algae by Corals, thereby bleaching them to white color. This coral bleaching reduces the productivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable to life-threatening diseases like white band disease and black band disease.
Loss of marine life: MHW events have also contributed to the sudden and unexpected death of many fish and other aquatic animals over a short period of time.
Impact on migration of marine species: Warming of oceans has impacted the migratory patterns like early migration of heat loving marine species northwards, shifting of mangroves such as in Atlantic northwards towards moderately warmer areas.
Intensification of the cyclones: The excessive warming of oceans has contributed to higher rate of evaporation and in turn more latent heat of evaporation as fuel for intensifying the cyclonic wind.

Way Forward:

WMO in its State of Global Climate report has highlighted that there is 66 percent chance that at least one of the years between 2023 and 2027 would cross the threshold of 1.5 degree Celsius (Paris target)
In this regard, it is important to achieve the goals set out in programs like Mangroves for Future
Limiting greenhouse gas emissions: There is an urgent need to achieve the mitigation targets set by the Paris Agreement on climate change and hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. This will help prevent the massive and irreversible impacts of growing temperatures on ocean ecosystems and their services.
Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems: Well-managed protected areas can help conserve and protect ecologically and biologically significant marine habitats. This will regulate human activities in these habitats and prevent environmental degradation.
Restoring marine and coastal ecosystems: Elements of ecosystems that have already experienced damage can be restored. This can include building artificial structures such as rock pools that act as surrogate habitats for organisms or boosting the resilience of species to warmer temperatures through assisted breeding techniques.
Improving human adaptation: Governments can introduce policies to keep fisheries production within sustainable limits, for example by setting precautionary catch limits and eliminating subsidies to prevent overfishing. Coastal setback zones which prohibit all or certain types of development along the shoreline can minimise the damage from coastal flooding and erosion. New monitoring tools can be developed to forecast and control marine disease outbreaks.
Strengthening scientific research: Governments can increase investments in scientific research to measure and monitor ocean warming and its effects. This will provide more precise data on the scale, nature and impacts of ocean warming, making it possible to design and implement adequate and appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Mehrauli

Context: Mehrauli city in Delhi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was recently revamped for the G-20 summit.

About Mehrauli City:

Introduction:

Mehrauli is one of the seven medieval cities that make up the present union territory of Delhi apart from Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Deenpanah and Shahjahanabad.
The Lal Kot fort was constructed by the Tomar chief Anangpal I around 731 AD and expanded by AnangPal II in the 11th century,who shifted his capital to Lal Kot from Kannauj.
The Tomars were defeated by the Chauhans in the 12th century.
Prithviraj Chauhan further expanded the fort, which is now Qila Rai Pithora. He was defeated and killed in 1192 by Mohammed Ghori, who put his general Qutb-ud-din Aybak in charge and returned to Afghanistan.
In 1206, after the death of Mohammed Ghori, Qutubuddin enthroned himself as the first Sultan of Delhi.
Thus, Delhi became the capital of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (Slave dynasty), the first dynasty of Muslim sultans to rule over northern India.
Mehrauli remained the capital of the Mamluk dynasty which ruled until 1290.
During the Khilji dynasty, the capital shifted to Siri.
In 12th-century Jain scriptures, the location is also mentioned as Yogninipura, now noticeable by the presence of the ‘Yogmaya Temple’, near the Qutub Minar complex.
It was also the execution place of Banda Singh Bahadur after he sacked the regional Mughal capital of Samana.

Various historical structure in Mehrauli:

There are a number of tombs of prominent people from the Sultanate (1206 to 1506) and Mughal (1506 to 1857) era. These tombs are usually placed near the dargahs of saints.
- Tombs of the later Mughals are near the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli or Humayun’s tomb near Nizamuddin Auliya’s dargah.
16th Century tomb of Adham Khan and his mother, Maham Anga:
- Reminder of Akbar’s wrath on Adham for murdering his general and prime minister Atgah Khan.
- Built in an octagonal shape with low towers at corners.
- Consists of Lodhi-style domed octagonal chambers with ‘Verandahs’ on each side.
Zafar Mahal or Lal Mahal built in red sandstone:
- Zafar Mahal was the summer palace of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- The building has two components namely, the Mahal, which was built first by Akbar Shah II in the 18th century, and the entrance gate that was reconstructed in the 19th century by last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar II, wished to be buried in the precincts of the Zafar Mahal. However, after the first war of Independence (1857), he was deported by Major William Hudson in 1858 to Rangoon (Burma/Myanmar), where he died of old age.
- This palace is also known for the Phoolwalon Ki Sair pass. This festival was started in 1812 by Akbar Shah II’s wife Mumtaz Mahal, after her son Mirza Jahangir was exiled to Allahabad by the British Resident Sir Archibald Seton.

Jamali Kamali tomb and mosque contain the tombs of Sufi saint Jamali or Shaikh Fazlu’llah and his disciple. Jamali was a well-known court poet who enjoyed the patronage of the Lodhi dynasty and that of Babur and Humayun as well.
Tombs of Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) and his son, Shahid Khan:
- Shahid had died fighting against the Mongols near Multan during Balban’s reign.
- Balban of Mamluk dynasty is remembered for taking strong steps to control dacoity and robbery on Delhi roads in the 13th Century.
- Balban’s tomb is housed in the building Dar-ul Amaan (Haven of Safety) and as the name suggests, it served as a haven from debt collectors.
- It is the first site where the true arch and dome, a prominent feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, introduced by the Turks, made its appearance.
A baoli or stepwell known as Rajon Ki Baoli:
- It was constructed in 1506 during Sikandar Lodhi's reign.
- It was used to store water.
- It was commissioned by Daulat Khan in 1506 CE, an administrator of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
- The enclosure of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a mosque and a tomb.
- The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris', the term used for masons.
- A courtyard surrounded by a verandah with many beautiful pillars and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time.
Qutb Complex, close to the North-West of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
- Tomb of Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE):
  - Built by Iltutmish himself in 1235, a year before his death.
  - Made in white marble, surrounded by carved arched entrances on the three sides.

Lakhpati Didi Scheme

Context: The interim budget for 2024-25 has introduced an expansion of the ‘Lakhpati Didi’ scheme, increasing the target from 2 crore Lakhpati Didi’s to 3 crore. Additionally, the Prime Minister refers to 'Lakhpati Didi’s in Mann Ki Baat to catalyse women empowerment.

Lakhpati Didi Scheme

Launched in: 2023
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Rural Development
Aim: To catalyze economic empowerment and financial independence among women in rural areas.
Criteria for identifying potential lakhpati Didi:
- A Self Help Group member who has completed a minimum of two years and has availed of the Community Investment Fund (CIF).
- A beneficiary of livelihood intervention through DAY-NRLM and practising at least two livelihood activities.
Key features: A Lakhpati Didi is a Self-Help Group Member.
- The government aims to train 3 crore women to become influencers both at home and in their communities. The objective is to shift the focus from social and financial inclusion to entrepreneurial success.
- The programme is aimed at training women in self-help groups (SHGs) to earn a sustainable income of at least Rs 1 lakh per annum per household.
- Women will be trained in various skills and after completing the training, women will be provided with opportunities to earn income using their skills.
- It facilitates diversified livelihood activities, by ensuring convergence across all Government departments/ Ministries, Private sector and Market players.
Subset of the programme:
- Drone Didi: Under this scheme, drones will be provided to approximately 15,000 women SHGs for agricultural activities. Drones have the potential to revolutionize agriculture by enabling precision farming, crop monitoring, and pest control.
- Skill training: Women under this scheme receive training in diverse skills such as LED bulb making, plumbing, and more.

Urbanization

Context: The recent inauguration of the new Parliament building, and the Ram temple has sparked discussions regarding the intersection of politics and religion in urbanisation.

About Urbanization:

Urbanization is a process that transforms the built environment, converting formerly rural into urban settlements, while also shifting the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas.
Urbanization in India is mainly due to liberalization of its economy after the 1990s, which gave rise to the development of the private sector.
Presently, although urbanization is taking place at a fast rate in India, but still urban areas account for just 3% of the nation’s land and 31.1% of its population (Census of India 2011).

Factors that have led to the Urbanization in India

Population growth: An outcome of more births than deaths in urban areas, a direct function of the fertility rate as well as the quality of healthcare systems (lower mortality rates, particularly for infants).
Migration: Rural to urban migrations due to agriculture distress, better employment opportunities, access to better education, healthcare and amenities etc. has been a strong urbanization factor.
Expansion of towns and cities: Due to high economic growth that the city has witnessed over the years. Because of this, the government in India has decided to grab the opportunity to further thrust the country into urbanization, several smart cities to be put up in various locations, and other initiatives.

Emerging challenges due to unsustainable Urbanization

Overcrowding: Beyond the carrying capacity results in congestion, pollution and additional burden over limited natural resources of urban areas.
Governance status: As per Census 2011, the urban system of India consists of 7933 settlements - statutory and census towns. While statutory towns are governed as urban local bodies, census towns are governed as villages. As a result, India is transitioning from a mostly rural to a quasi-urban country.
Lack of adequate town planning: Master plans statutory instruments critical for managing urbanisation. They guide and regulate the present and future utilisation of land, expansion, and zoning of cities. But about half of our statutory towns are expanding without any master.
Enhanced sense of relative deprivation: Gives rise to urban crimes such as human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour, Juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drugs and suicides.
Sub-Optimal utilisation of urban land: Due to fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land. multiple public sector organizations/agencies— ports, railways, ULBs, etc.— own land under their jurisdictions. For a city to develop holistically, planning for each land parcel needs to fall into one comprehensive spatial strategy.
Pressure on basic infrastructure: Giving rise to unsustainable land price, unaffordable rent, inadequate health and education infrastructure, solid waste management problem etc.
Unplanned growth of slums: As per Census 2011, 17.3% of the total urban population was under slums in India.

Government initiatives to deal with urbanisation:

100 Smart Cities Mission: To develop smart cities across the country, making them citizen friendly and sustainable.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): To provide basic civic amenities like water supply, sewerage, urban transport, parks as to improve the quality of life for all especially the poor and the disadvantaged.
National Mission on sustainable habitat: It is one of the eight climate missions under the NAPCC mitigation strategy, to make the cities sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in building, management of solid waste and to shift to public transport.
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): For bringing together urban planning, economic growth and heritage conservation in an inclusive manner to preserve the heritage character of each Heritage City.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): To addresses urban housing shortage among the EWS/LIG and MIG categories including the slum dwellers by ensuring a pucca house to all eligible urban households by the year 2022, when Nation completes 75 years of its Independence.

Way forward:

Recommendations by Niti Aayog:
- 500 Healthy Cities Programme’, for a period of 5 years to ensure holistic socio-economic development of Indian cities.
- All the cities/towns under the proposed 'Healthy Cities Programme' should strengthen regulations to maximize the efficiency of urban land.
- A citizen outreach campaign for making the process of urban planning more inclusive and accessible.
- National Council of Town and Country Planners to be constituted as a statutory body of the Government of India to improve the governance of urban areas.
Adopt a circular economy system to minimize their negative impacts on the environment.
Preventing distress migration to cities through Rurbanization i.e., providing urban like facilities in rural areas or make rural areas smart.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has recommended that master plans in cities should be revisited for the improved governance of cities.

Byadagi chilli

Context: In Central Karnataka, farmers rampaged through the APMC market yard due to a crash in the prices of the Byadagi chili.

About Byadagi chili

It is a variety of chilli mainly grown in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is named after the town of Byadgi which is located in the Haveri district of Karnataka.
It has the second-largest turnover among all chilli varieties of India.
It is also known for its deep red colour.
The chilli pods are harvested from January to May.
It is less spicy and is used in many food preparations. It is also used in an oil, oleoresin, extracted from these chillies is used in the preparation of nail polish and lipstick.
It has been accorded Geographical Indication (GI) in 2011.
There are two types of Byadagi chili: dabbi and kaddi.
- Byadagi dabbi, which is small and plump, is more popular for its colour, flavour and taste. Though it has more seeds, it is less spicy compared to the kaddi variety. This variety is best suited for masala preparation and oleoresin extraction.
- The kaddi type is gnarled, thin, long and has fewer seeds.

Namda art of Jammu and Kashmir

Context: The first batch of Namda Art products for export to the United Kingdom was flagged off. Namda is a hand-embroidered rug made with sheep wool that reflects the rich culture and history of Kashmir Valley. Namda craft is under the process to get a Geographical Indication tag.

About Namda Craft

It represents the traditional craftsmanship of Kashmir, focusing on the creation of rugs primarily crafted from pure sheep wool.
Diverging from conventional rug-making methods, this craft employs the felting technique instead of the typical weaving process, eliminating any involvement of traditional weaving.
The term ‘Namda’ refers to an additional layer crafted above a standard rug, utilizing old blankets in its construction. This versatile craft is designed to suit various climates.
This artistic tradition is thought to have originated in the 11th century, attributed to the inventive Nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppes.
The art form gained popularity in India during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
- As per the historical records, Akbar’s exchequer named Nubi personally crafted a felt for Akbar’s horse and adorned it with beautiful designs through embroidery.
- This exquisite creation earned the name Namda in honour of its skilled manufacturer, Nubi.
Artisans specializing in Namda can be found across India, particularly in regions like Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
- The craft is predominantly practiced by the Pinjara and Mansuri communities, who are Sama Muslims native to Kutch.

How is Namda made?

The intricate process involves multiple stages, including carding, border creation, layer formation, soap solution application, rolling, drying, and the meticulous Aari work.

Involves carding the wool, a process dedicated to removing impurities and refining the material.
Application of soap solution to wash the wool. Application of water to wool gives binding, enhancing the durability and longevity of the Namda.
Namda undergoes rolling/pressuring using a tool called Pinjra and drying. In
Weaver then attaches the border pattern to the wool to give the foundation.
Next comes, initiation of the primary layer, and adding of the colour and pattern of the Namda.
Aari work: This stage involves intricate embroidery that imparts a delicate form to the Namda.

Designing:

Border (Hashi): Borders play a pivotal role in defining the central layout, preventing the Namda from resembling mere fabric.
Double Khatamband: Interplay of octagons and squares.
Taldaar: Derived from the Kashmiri word ‘Tal,’ meaning 'ceiling,' this motif mirrors the craftsmanship found in ceilings.
Gul-i-akhtab: Reflecting its name, which translates to ‘flower of the sun,’ this Namda motif draws inspiration from the sunflower.

About Namda Project:

Namda Project, an industry-based training program, was introduced in 2021.
Namda craft is a rug made of sheep wool through a felting technique instead of the normal weaving process.
It is being successfully revived under a Skill India’s Pilot Project as part of the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), with nearly 2,200 candidates from across six districts of the state, receiving training in the dying art form.

Need of the project:

Unavailability of adequate raw materials;
Dearth of skilled craftsmen;
Infiltration of machine-made carpets;
Adulteration and inadequate marketing strategies declined the export by almost 100 per cent and brought the heritage craft to the brink of extinction.

Bhojshala Complex

Context: The Madhya Pradesh High Court directed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque complex.

About Bhojshala

Located in: Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Established in: 1034 AD
Built by: Raja Bhoj of Parmar Dynasty (1000–1055 AD)
Key features of the temple: It was the University in which the statue of Vagdevi ( Mata Saraswati) was installed.
- Bhojshala was first attacked by Alauddin Khilji in 1305 AD.
- In 1514 AD, Mehmudshah Khilji II attacked Bhojshala and tried to convert it into dargah. He encroached land outside Saraswati Temple and built ‘Kamal Moulana’ Makbara.
- In 1952, the Central Government gave up Bhojshala to the Archaeological Survey of India.

Architecture of the complex:
- It has a large open courtyard around which there is a verandah decorated with pillars and a prayer hall is located behind it in the west.
- The carved pillars and the exquisitely carved ceiling of the prayer hall were from Bhojshal.
Inscriptions: In the rocks of complex , two hymns written in Prakrit language of the Karmavatar or crocodile incarnation of Vishnu are engraved.
- Two Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions, one containing the Sanskrit alphabet and the main endings of nouns and verbs and the other containing the individual declensions of the ten tenses and moods of Sanskrit grammar. These inscriptions belong to the 11th-12th century.
- Two Sanskrit texts are engraved in Anustubha verse.
- In one of these, Raja Bhoj's successors Udayaditya and Narvarman have been praised.
- In the second, it is told that these pillars were installed by Udayaditya.

Guru Ravidas

Context: Magh Purnima marks the observance of Sant Guru Ravidas Jayanti (February 24). To commemorate the 647th birth anniversary of Sant Guru Ravidas, the Prime Minister unveiled a statue in Varanasi.

About Guru Ravidas:

Sant Guru Ravidas statue in Varanasi — ***(Ravidas’s statue in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh)***

Born: 1377 CE in Govardhanpur near (Varanasi) Uttar Pradesh.
His place of birth is now known as Shri Guru Ravidas Janam Asthan.
Revered as a guru in regions such as Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.

Early life:

Parents: Mata Kalsi and Santokh Das, belonged to an untouchable caste and were engaged in leatherworking.
At the age of 12, he married Lona Devi, and together they had a son named Vijay Dass.
Ravidas redirected his focus towards spiritual pursuits along the banks of the Ganga.
Took extensive pilgrimage travels to Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Himalayas.
He became a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
Contributions to Bhakti movement:
He adhered to the Nirguna sampradaya and rejected the Saguna form of Bhakti.

Historians of religion classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories:

Saguna (with attributes): Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of God.

Ravidas’s teachings symbolized resistance against untouchability, confronting discrimination by higher-caste individuals against those from lower castes.
His egalitarian teachings are adhered by various scheduled classes, now known as Dalits, influencing social-reform movements in the 20th century.
He engaged with Sufi saints, sadhus, and ascetics, fostering a diverse spiritual understanding.

***(Manuscript painting of Ravidas-Left and Kabir-Right)***

In Literary works/traditions:

His devotional verses have found a significant place in Sikh scriptures:

Scholars suggest that Ravidas had interactions with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.
41 of his poems are included in the Adi Granth, signifying his status as one of the 36 contributors to this central scripture of Sikhism.
Premambodha, a Sikh hagiography written over 170 years after his death, portrays him as one of the seventeen saints in the Indian religious tradition.
Dadu Panthi tradition within Hinduism incorporates numerous poems attributed to Ravidas in the Panch Vani text.
Anantadas Parcai, considered one of the earliest surviving biographies of poets from the Bhakti movement, narrates the birth of Ravidas.
Bhaktamal, proposes that he was a disciple of the Brahmin bhakti-poet Ramananda (1400-1480 A.D), and thus, it is believed that Ravidas was the contemporary of Sant Kabir.
Although Ravidas's hagiographies were penned long after his demise, they shed light on social dynamics during the period he lived:
Illustrate a clash between heterodox communities and the orthodox Brahminical traditions as well as an inter-communal and inter-religious struggle for social unity
Present various legends, including Ravidas's interactions with Hindu Brahmins and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Sikander Lodi (1458-1517).

Guru Ravidas and Meera Bai:

In Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, adjacent to Mirabai’s temple, a chhatri (pavilion) with the engraved footprints of Ravidas is found.
This signifies the spiritual and poetic connection between Ravidas and Mirabai.

As per the legends, Ravidas was a guru to Mirabai.
Mirabai, as a respect to her Guru, wrote: ‘Guru Miliya Ravidasji’.

Philosophy:

A recurring term in his verses is ‘Sahaj,’ representing a mystical state characterized by the union of diverse truths into a singular reality.
Manuscripts originating from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (18th and 19th centuries), feature a debate between Ravidas and Kabir on the nature of the ‘Absolute’.
Kabir advocates for a monistic Oneness, while Ravidas argues from the premise that the Brahman can be both a monistic Oneness and a separate anthropomorphic incarnation.
According to the Bhaktamal text, Ravidas's teachings aligned with Vedic and ancient scriptures, embracing ‘non-dualism’.
However, conflicting beliefs within the Dalit community suggest that Ravidas rejected the Hindu Vedas and faced opposition from Brahmins and caste Hindus, as reflected in certain hymns present in the Guru Granth Sahib.

His concept of Beghumpura:

Signifies a ‘city without sorrow.’
His vision encompassed a utopian world free from discrimination and inequality.
Aiming to eradicate the evil of untouchability.
Emphasizing the significance of labor (Kirat).
Ravidas followed Ananya bhakti, which emphasises on the devotion that transcends the sense of duality between the worshipper and the object of worship.
Rejected formal devotion and advocated for personal bhakti through meditative meditation.
Disapproved of rituals, pilgrimages, and penances as the optimal paths to realize God.

Ravidassia Religion:

Originating in the 21^stcentury, it emerged as a distinct faith separate from Sikhism, shaped by the followers of Guru Ravidas’s teachings.
It was established following an event in 2009, when Sikh militants attacked a Ravidas temple, in Vienna, Austria.
Ravidassia religion formulated a new sacred text, the ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidas ji’, exclusively based on teachings and writings of Guru Ravidas and comprises 240 hymns.

Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project (PMP)

Context: India and Nepal signed an agreement on long term power sharing without making any forward movement on Pancheshwar Multipurpose project.

About Pancheshwar Multipurpose project (PMP):

It is a bi-national hydropower project to be developed on Mahakali River bordering Nepal and India.
Development of PMP is covered under integrated Mahakali Treaty signed between Nepal and India according to which, equal sizes of underground power house i.e. of 3240MV will be constructed on each side of Mahakali river in India and Nepal.
It offers the benefit of regulated water for irrigation to a vast area of agricultural land both in Nepal and India along with the benefit of flood control downstream.

About Mahakali Treaty:

It is an agreement signed in 1996 between the Government of Nepal and the Government of India regarding the development of the watershed of Mahakali River.
It calls for an integrated development of barrage, dams and hydropower for mutual cooperation of the two countries by managing the water resources.
It recognizes the Mahakali River as a boundary river between the two countries.

About Mahakali or Sharda River:

The Sharda River, also called Kali River and Mahakali River, originates at Kalapani in the Himalayas in the Pithoragarh district in Uttarakhand, India.
It flows along Nepal's western border with India.
It joins the Ghaghra River, a tributary of the Ganges.
It takes the name Kali River from the union of the two streams at Gunji as it flows through the hills. After Brahmadev Mandi near Tanakpur, it enters the Terai plains, where it is called the Sharda River.