GS Paper 1

Petroleum traps & Sedimentary basins

Context: Mumbai high turns 50. This makes one wonder, why no other discovery has earned such repute — despite discoveries being announced by various players.

What are the issues involved?

What ere the unique properties of Mumbai High which increased its prospects?

Mumbai High is a large anticlinal structural — that is, an arch-like fold in the rock that has its oldest beds at its core.
Structural traps of hydrocarbon deposits were considered easy oil as these are easily interpreted.
Such structural features have been discovered in other basins also, but the size has not been comparable to Mumbai High.
In the deeper parts of the basins, stratigraphic traps are more likely to be present with significant hydrocarbon (oil + gas) deposits. However, these are difficult to identify on classical seismic interpretation as well as difficulty in drilling deeper wells with high temperature-high pressure conditions.

Understanding the petroleum traps:

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Petroleum trap is an underground rock formation that blocks the movement of petroleum and causes it to accumulate in a reservoir that can be exploited.
The oil is accompanied always by water and often by natural gas; all are confined in a porous and permeable reservoir rock, which is usually composed of sedimentary rock such as sandstones, arkoses, and fissured limestones and dolomites.
The natural gas, being lightest, occupies the top of the trap and is underlain by the oil and then the water.
A layer of impermeable rock, called the cap rock, prevents the upward or lateral escape of the petroleum.
That part of the trap actually occupied by the oil and gas is called the petroleum reservoir.

Many systems have been proposed for the classification of traps; one simple system divides them into structural traps and stratigraphic traps.

Structural traps are formed by tectonic events, such as folding or faulting of rock units. It forms as a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface. These changes block the upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead to the formation of a petroleum reservoir.
The most common type of structural trap is formed by an anticline, a structure with a concave (as viewed from below) roof caused by the local deformation of the reservoir rock and the impermeable cap rock.

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Stratigraphic traps are related to sediment deposition or erosion and is bounded on one or more sides by zones of low permeability.

Note: Structural trap is formed by the tectonic processes AFTER deposition of the reservoir beds involved while stratigraphic traps are formed during the depositions of the reservoir beds.

Sedimentary basins in India:

There are 26 sedimentary basins in India, covering a total area of 3.4 million square kilometer. The area is spread across onland, shallow water up to 400 meter water depth and deepwater farther up to Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Of the total sedimentary area, 49% of total area is located onland, 12% in shallow water and 39% in the deepwater area. There are 16 onland basins, 7 located both onland and offshore and 3 completely offshore.

These basins are divided into three categories based on maturity of hydrocarbon resources as under:

Category-I (30% of total basinal area): Basins, which have reserves and already producing.
Category-II (23% of total basinal area): Basins, which have contingent resources pending commercial production
Category-III (47% of total basinal area) Basins, which have prospective resources awaiting discovery

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Mahima Dharma of Odisha

Context: The President of India paid her tributes to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi, a saint reformer belonging to the Mahima Dharma. Bhima Bhoi's works emphasized upon social equality. The President also paid homage to Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi at his birthplace, Rajrakhol, Odisha.

***(Fig.1 : Joranda Mahima Temple, Odisha)***

Emergence of reform movement

Late 18^th century and the early years of the 19^th century saw a wave of reform movements that swept through Hinduism.
Aim: To bring about significant changes within the religious and societal structures; to eradicate superstitious beliefs and distorted rituals.

Complex societal structure in 19^th century Odisha:

Society was entangled in numerous religious superstitions and social obstacles.
Hinduism was dominated by magic, animism, and superstition.
Lack of education and knowledge hindered human development.
Colonial rule focused primarily on revenue collection.
The temple of Jagannath, which used to be inclusive, closed its doors to the low-caste population, which further intensified the influence of caste rules in the region.
Mahima Dharma, emerged in the background of this socio-religious-cultural reality.
Its significance extended to being seen as the precursor to a renaissance in Odisha, challenging prevalent practices such as idolatry, polytheism, the caste system, priestly dominance, religious superstitions, animism, and barbaric customs.

While other socio-religious movements of the late 19^th century primarily influenced the educated class in urban centres, Mahima Dharma, with its simpler philosophy gained popularity among the common people in the villages of Odisha, thus, transforming into a mass movement.

About Mahima Dharma:

The movement was started by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain (Dhulia Baba/Nirahari Baba) who played a significant role in the religious landscape, particularly in the late 18^th century and early 19^th century Odisha.
- Mahami Swami was first mentioned in 1867 in the Orissan Newspaper ‘Utkala Deepika’.
- He was a contemporary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
As per the historical sources, Mahima Gosain meditated for 24 years in Kapilas hill in Dhenkanal, Odisha, wearing the bark of a Kumbhi tree.
He established the ‘Dharma’, with the emphasis on ‘Advaitabada’ (belief in the oneness of God).
Mahima Gosain’s disciples came to be known as ‘Abadhutas’, the first 64 Siddhas of Mahima Dharma, a title given when they attained perfection.
‘Mahima Gadi’ (religious seat of the dharma), is located in Joranda, Dhenkanal, where the prominent Magha Mela is held annually.

His preachings included:

Preachings fused the elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and positioned itself against established religious norms.
Adhered to the principles of truth, non-violence, and belief in immortality and rebirth.
Core philosophy revolves around the idea of Absolute Monism, emphasising the worship of the one ultimate reality.
He emphasised on asceticism and a casteless society.
He offered a unique perspective on the creation theory:

Asserted that the world was not formed by the mixing of atoms, Purusha, and Prakrit.
It was created by Alekha Prabhu, pure and without vice, the root of all creations.
The adherents of Mahima Gosain are ‘Dharmis’, and a true ‘Dharmi’ has to abstain from practices like idol worship, touching Prasad or Tulsi leaf, and consuming medicines.

Extent:

Propagation extended across districts like Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, as well as areas in Dhenkanal, Athagarh, Hindol, Boudh, Sonepur, Sambalpur, and Angul.
The movement gained wider acceptance among tribal communities and those considered lower in the Brahmanical hierarchy.

About Santha Kabi Bhima Bhoi

Bhima Bhoi, born in Rairakhol/Redhakhol (Odisha) in 1850, was a saint, poet and social reformer.
He belonged to the less privileged Kondh tribe.
Despite his challenging circumstances, he acquired knowledge by listening to religious texts.
He was a devout follower of Mahima Gosain and played a significant role in challenging the prevailing caste hierarchy and advocating for social equality.
Bhima Bhoi, set up his ashram in Khaliapali.
Core elements of his teachings:
- ‘Ekaishwara Brahmavada’, emphasizing belief in an indescribable, formless, shapeless, and pure God residing in the void.
- Promoted unity among followers from diverse backgrounds, thus breaking away from the social identities.
- Centred around humanity and the liberation of the world.
Bhima Bhoi used a language (characterized by mysticism and musicality), which departed from Sanskritized Odia. He adopted a vernacular approach with influences from the Sambalpuri dialect.
His verses were composed orally and later transcribed, which highlights the oral tradition of the movement.
His famous assertion: “mo jeevana pachhe narke padithau, jagata uddhara heu" (let my life rot in naraka if necessary, but let the world be redeemed)”, shows his dedication for the upliftment of the socially deprived.
Important works are: Brahma Nirupana Gita, Stuti Chintamani, Astaka Bihari Gita, Chautisa Madhu Chakra, and Bhajanamala. Two collections, Atha Bhajan and Bangala Atha Bhajan, are written in Bengali.

Broader perspective on beliefs and practices in Mahima Dharma:

1. Idea of non-dualism:

God is singular and unparalleled, characterized by omniscience, omnipresence, and omnipotence.
The supreme soul (Parameswar) and the creator of the universe, the God is formless (Nirakar), inexpressible (Avyakta), without body (Adeha), without name (Anam), without any feeling (Nirvikara).
This god is present in every living being, from insects to humans.
The movement became a potent force for liberation by rejecting the caste system, emphasizing the worship of a single God named Alekha.

2. Supreme role of a Guru:

Role of a teacher or Guru holds a pivotal position.
Guru is seen as essential for guiding disciples on the path to deliverance, making the practice of dharma meaningful.

3. Concept of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’:

Entire universe is a single family.
Follows the motto: “Happiness, peace and welfare for all” .
One element of this concept is 'Satsanga Gosthi' or 'Common meal for all'.
- Introduced by Mahima Gosain.
- Emphasizes the equality of all souls, as they collectively worship the one Brahman.
- Involves preparation of food by household devotees under the open sky, shared by all participants, regardless of caste or creed.

Practices:

Adherents are prohibited from engaging in adultery, consuming intoxicants, violence, or eating flesh.
Perform the act of complete surrender, known as Sarana/Darsana, three times a day.
Engage in charity, providing food for those in need.
A monastic order bears resemblance to Buddhist monks, leading lives of poverty, celibacy, piety, and constant movement.
Rejects the worship of Lord Jagannath and emphasizes ascetic practices over idol worship.
- In 1881, followers of Mahima Dharma, seized and reportedly set ablaze the murtis (idols) of Lord Jagannath in Jagannath Puri, opposing any form of idol worship.

Impact of Mahima Dharma on Hindu society in the 19th century:

Boldly rejected established norms, including the veneration of gods, philosophers, religions, temples, mosques, and churches.
Introduced a radical shift towards monotheism, emphasizing the worship of a singular, indescribable deity. This entity was not to be represented through man-made idols.
Renouncing worldly possessions became a central tenet of this religion.
Philosophy of Ahimsa, or non-violence:
- Rejection of animal sacrifice in worship and conveyed a commitment to purity of heart, devoid of violence and selfishness.
- Actively promoted peace and opposed war, practicing ‘Shanti Ahimsa’ in daily life.
Social mobilization:
- Ashrams for Sanyasis (ascetics), organized congregations where people from diverse backgrounds dined together.
- Explicitly denounced caste-based discrimination and untouchability.
Influenced the consciousness of health and hygiene:
- Rejected traditional beliefs in the supernatural causes of illnesses.
- Prohibiting the use of remedies from sorcerers and village physicians.
- Attracted a large following, especially among rural and tribal communities, offering relief to those unable to afford the elaborate rituals associated with mainstream Hinduism.

Conclusion

The dharma represents a revival of Vedantic principles and serves as a reformist movement originating from the Odisha region. It simplifies profound Indian philosophy in a manner accessible to the common person.

Cuttack Rupa Tarakasi, Banglar muslin get GI tag

Context: Recently, the Geographical Indications Registry in Chennai, Tamil Nadu has given the Geographical Indication (GI) tags to a number of products from various states.

Rupa Tarakasi (Silver Filigree), Cuttack, Odisha

Filigree has been traditionally associated with fine craftsmanship and luxurious design in classical jewellery.
Archaeological evidence suggests that filigree was incorporated into jewellery as early as 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia (historical region of West Asia in present day Iran) where it is practiced even today as Telkari work.
As per the historians, Tarakasi work reached Cuttack from Persia through Indonesia some 500 years ago by sea trade. This is based on the evidence that similar workmanship is seen in both Cuttack and Indonesia.
In this work of craft, silver bricks are transformed into thin fine wires (tara) or foils, from which silver filigree is made with all designs (kasi).
The filigree artists are called ‘Roupyakaras’. For Tarakasi, silversmiths use an alloy of 90% or more pure silver.
The jewellery worn in Odissi, one of the classical dances of India originating from Odisha, are made from Tarakasi work.

Banglar Muslin, Bengal

The Banglar muslin is one of the popular traditional handloom craft of Bengal.
This finest sort of muslin is made of cotton, which are spun to create threads that maintain tensile strength at counts higher than any other cotton products.
Original muslin was produced solely from a cotton plant called, Phuti Karpas, that grew exclusively along the banks of a certain stretch of the Brahmaputra River.
Tragically, the industry was deliberately erased by past colonial rulers, especially the East India Company and replaced with their machine-made fabrics in the 19th century.

Narsapur Crochet Lac, Andhra Pradesh

Narsapur in West Godavari region is known for crochet skills.
Crochets are beautifully crafted with cotton thread and it is believed that the women of the farming community of this region started creating highly attractive artefacts from colourful lace, about 150 years ago.

Kutch Rogan Craft and Ambaji White Marble, Gujarat

The Rogan Art, an ancient textile art, with its origins in Persia, came to Nirona Village Kutch Gujarat around 400 years ago.
Rogan art is produced by boiling castor oil or linseed oil for about two days and then adding Pigments Mineral Colour (vegetable dyes) and a binding agent (the resulting paint is thick and shiny).
Yellow, White and red and Blue, green are the most frequently used colours.
Rogan art is very well known for its ‘Tree of life’.
This craft began among the Muslim Khatris community in Gujarat.

Riyawan Lahsun (Garlic), Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh: The GI tag opens up new opportunities in international markets, complementing the state government's efforts to promote Ratlam's garlic as a district product.

Risa Textiles, Tripura

One of the garments worn by tribal women in Tripura is called Risa.
It is usually five feet in length and is wrapped around the upper body.
Some of the designs are called ‘kosom pali’, ‘khamjang’ etc.
To weave a risa, weavers require cotton yarn in different colours, especially in the colour red, which is most commonly used.
The Reang community usually weave Risa primarily in black yarns, whereas the Debbarma community uses red yarns.

Lac Bangles, Hyderabad, Telangana

Lad bazaar is the main production centre for lac bangles.
The craft originated over 500 years ago during the Mughal period.
The craft flourished over the decades and was patronized by many royal families.
The artisan skilfully embellishes the bangle with precious and semi-precious stones.
This recognition promises to enhance the livelihood of over 6000 artisan families.

Majuli Mask and Majuli Manuscript Painting, Assam

Majuli Mask of Assam:

It developed in response to Neo-Vaishnavism, initiated by Srimanta Sankardeva in the 15th century.
These masks were developed for it to be used in the Bhaona's (Traditional drama of Assam).
The art of making masks was prevalent in Satra community for centuries.
Made in different varieties and sizes as they are mainly divided into different categories: ‘Mukha bhaona’ (covers the face); ‘Lotokoi’ (extends to the chest) and, ‘Cho Mukha’ (head and body mask).

Majuli Manuscript Paintings:

The manuscripts are painted on handmade paper, which is treated with a mixture of cow dung and earth to create a smooth surface.
The paintings are usually done in black and white, although some may have small areas of colour.
The artists who create these paintings are known as Sattriya artists, and they are members of the Neo-Vaishnavite monasteries of Majuli.
Illustrate stories from Hindu epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana.
Three distinct styles of manuscript painting: Gargayan script, Kaithall, and Bamunia, flourish in this region.

What is a GI tag?

Geographical Indications of goods refer to the place of origin of a product.
GI tags are a form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) that convey an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, attributable to the fact of its origin in a specific geographical locality, region or country.
The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry awards GI Tag in India.
A GI registration is given to an area, not a trader, but once a product gets the registration, traders dealing in the product can apply to sell it with the GI logo.
Any trader’s body, association, or organisation can apply for a GI tag.
The applicants need to prove the uniqueness of the item with historical records and a complete breakdown of how the product is made.
Authorised traders are each assigned a unique GI number.
The raw materials for such products do not have to come from that region (unless it is an agricultural tag). E.g., Leaf in Banarasi paan is not grown in Varanasi; it comes from Bihar, West Bengal, or Odisha.
If any unauthorised trader tries selling the product under that name, they can be prosecuted under the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999.
India, as a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999 which came into force in 2003.
Under Articles 1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, geographical indications are covered as an element of IPRs.

Categories of GI products

There are over 500 GI tags as of January 7, 2023. There are 34 classes of products that can get GI tags, ranging from chemicals and paint to foodstuff, handicrafts, musical instruments, firearms, locomotives etc.
The products in the GI registry fall under five major categories Handicrafts dominate the list, with over half the GI tags being given to products crafted by skilled artisans.

Significance of GI tags

After a product receives this designation, no one or business may sell a similar product under that name.
A product’s GI registration gives it legal protection and safeguards against unauthorised use by others.
The GI tag aids in marketing the product’s exports and gives customers confidence in the product’s legitimacy.

Leap year: Everything you need to know about Feb. 29

What is a leap year?

A leap year has 366 days in a year as opposed to the regular 365 days. The extra day is added to February, the shortest month of the year, as February 29.

Why was a leap year introduced?

One year in a solar calendar reflects one revolution of the Earth around the Sun which generally we take to be 365 days.
But in actual the Earth takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds to revolve around the Sun.
Now this extra time of about 6 hours is to be adjusted.
Hence at the interval of four years (6*4=24 hrs) one extra day is added in the shortest month i.e. February.
However, even this method was not error-free, because the six hours used for calculation are still different from the actual 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, making the calendar year slightly longer than the solar year.

Does leap year come every four year?

No. Because even the above method was not error-free, because the six hours used for calculation are still different from the actual 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, making the calendar year slightly longer than the solar year.
Thus, it was decided that some leap years — about one leap year every century — would be dropped to manage the extra day. The years chosen for this were those ending with 00.
However, dropping the leap year from all years ending with 00 would again throw the calculation out of whack. Finally, in the Gregorian calendar, the 00 years that were divisible by 400 ended up as leap years. Thus, 1900 was not a leap year, but 2000 was.

Population growth committee

Context: The Finance Minister promised a committee to study India’s population growth to ensure that the nation is on target to meet the Viksit Bharat goal by 2047.

India’s current Population Dynamics and further challenges:

The steady decline in fertility rates is leading to a scenario where two parents are now being replaced by two children and all segments of the society have begun to adopt family planning.
Currently, 33 per cent of the population is aged 20-29, while 23 per cent of the population is aged 40-59. But in 2047, the proportion of the younger population will decrease, and the proportion of older working ages will increase, with each forming about 28 per cent of the population.
Dependency burden, defined as the number of individuals ages 15-59 supporting children under 15 and older population above 60, will vary dramatically between states.
- For example in 2021, in Bihar, 151 working-age adults supported 100 dependents, while in Tamil Nadu, 189 adults supported the same population; this will flip with the worker-to-dependent ratio changing to 201 in Bihar and 132 in Tamil Nadu by 2051.
As fertility declines, the burden of child care for women will drop. An analysis of National Family Health Survey data shows that in 1993, an average woman spent about 14 years caring for children under age five.
- This number dropped to eight years in 2021, however, time freed up from childcare has not been utilised in increased participation in the workforce.

Way forward:

To ensure that this growing proportion of middle-aged workers can keep up with the changing demands of an increasingly technologically driven economy, government must invest in continued skill upgradation and on-the-job training.
For expanding women’s ability to participate in the job market may be to improve the availability of childcare, possibly through creative combinations of Anganwadi and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. MGNREGA works should include rotational provision of childcare under the supervision of a trained early childhood educator.
A combination of rising numbers of elderly and a declining number of children to care for them means the government must increase the ability of this older population to be self-sustaining.
A combination of policies will be needed, including rising retirement age, enhanced old age pension schemes, and increased ability to sell land or homes, assets in which most of the wealth of the Indian elderly resides.
Lessons from China, as China implemented a strict one-child policy, bringing it to a demographic cliff. China has reached a point where the needs of its aging population have begun to drag down its economic growth. Relaxing the one-child limitation has been unsuccessful in increasing fertility.
- This suggests that India should refrain from a similar panicked reaction and let fertility decline continue at a natural pace.
The future of elderly and children in India will depend on how productive workers are in states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. The newly formed 16th Finance Commission will have the task of investing in workers in these states to ensure the well-being of all Indians in the future.

Conclusion

Addressing these difficult challenges needs input from various experts like population researchers, economists, social scientists, and government policy specialists. Creating a special committee to study the challenges brought about by changes in population alongside the 16th Finance Commission will help guide government spending decisions, leading to positive effects on priorities.

Discovery of temples in Telangana shows spread of Chalukya reign

Context: An excavation was undertaken, in Telangana, in the village of Mudimanikyam on the banks of river Krishna, which was part of the kingdom ruled by Badami Chalukyas.

More information:

After the end of the Kingdom (ruling present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh), Mudimanikyam continued to have a thriving community, believing in the Hindu gods of Vishnu and Shiva.
As per the new discovery, the Jogulamba temples at Alampur and the submerged Yeleswaram sites in Telangana, are evidences that show the reach of Chalukya Badami kingdom (ruling from 543 AD to 750 AD).
An inscription dating to the rulers of Badami Chalukyas was also discovered.
The discovered temples highlight the ‘Deccan cosmopolitanism’ where there was space for more than two religions to co-exist. Along with Brahmanical religion, there was space for Buddhism and Jainism to flourish.

Chalukyas of Badami:

Introduction:

Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years.
During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
- Chalukyas of Badami (also called Early Chalukyas), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century.
- Chalukyas of Kalyani (also called Western Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas)
- Chalukyas of Vengi (also called Eastern Chalukyas).

Badami Chalukyas:

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes were seen in the areas south of the Vindhyas, the Deccan and Tamilakam.
The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543.
Chalukyas of Badami, ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital.
Pulakeshin II, commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.
- Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom.
- He halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada.
- Pallava Narasimhavarman, in 642, attacked and occupied Badami temporarily. Pulakeshin II, died in the battle.
- The Aihole inscription/prashasti, is a Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka.
- The eulogy dated 634–635 CE, was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honour of his patron king Pulakesin Satyasraya (Pulakeshin II).

The dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds. Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.
It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restored order to the empire.
- Vikramaditya I took the title ‘Rajamalla’.
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the Vikramaditya II (733–744).
- He is known for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam (historical region located in the northernmost part of Tamil Nadu and southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh).
- He defeated Pallava Nandivarman II, and thus, avenged the earlier defeat of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas. He engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple, in Kanchipuram.
- Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.

Architecture:

Their style of architecture is called ‘Chalukyan architecture’ or ‘Karnata Dravida architecture’.
The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone.
The temple building activity was mostly concentrated in a relatively small area within, Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.

(Aihole Inscription)

Temple building activity can be categorised into different phases:

1.The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century:

Cave temples developed at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).
- The Vedic temples sculpted images of Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).

2.The second phase of temple building was at Aihole and Badami:

70 structures exist at Aihole and has been called one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture.
- Lad Khan Temple (dated to 450 but more accurately to 620).
- Meguti Jain Temple shows progress in structural design.
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture.
- There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style.
- Well known are the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style.

Kerala capital sees massive turnout of devotees for Attukal Pongala

Context: Women celebrated the Attukal Pongala festival by making the ritual offering to the presiding deity of the Attukal Bhagavathy temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

More Information:

The temple, Attukal Bhagavathy temple is also known as ‘Women’s Sabarimala’, since women form the major portion of the Devi’s devotees.
‘Attukal Pongala’ includes rituals such as, lighting of the ‘Pandara Aduppu’, the main hearth of the temple. After this, ritual offering is cooked by the women.
The presiding deity, Attukal Bhagavathy, is the divine incarnation of Kannaki, the protagonist of the Tamil epic, Silappadhikaram.
The story is that after destroying Madurai to avenge the injustice done to her husband Kovalan, Kannaki reached Kerala, and took rest at Attukal.
- Silappadhikaram is the earliest Tamil epic.
- It is a poem of 5,730 lines describing the tragic love story of an ordinary Kannaki and her husband Kovalan. The epic is set in a flourishing seaport city of the early Chola kingdom.
- Author: It is attributed to a prince-turned-Jain monk Illango Adigal (brother of Chera king Senguttuvan) and was probably composed in the 5th or 6th century CE.

Attukal Bhagavathy temple:

The Attukal Bhagavathy Temple is a Hindu religious shrine in Kerala, India.
Goddess 'Attukal devi', is the supreme mother, goddess of power and courage.
She is often referred as Kannaki, the heroine of Ilanko Adikal's 'Silappadhikaram'.
A festival that has figured in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the single largest gathering of women for a religious activity, the Attukal Pongala continues to draw millions of women with each passing year.
Attukal Temple is situated near the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple, in Thiruvananthapuram.

Attukal Pongala:

Attukal Pongala Mahotsavam is a 10 days festival which falls on February-March every year.
The festival begins with the traditional Kappu Kettu and Kudiyiruntha ceremony, in which, the idol of Devi, is embellished with Kappu (Bangles).
The 9th day of the festival, 'Pooram day' is the major attraction.
Pongala/Naivedyam (rice cooked with jaggery, ghee, coconut as well as other ingredients) is prepared in the open in small pots to please the Goddess Kannaki.

Narsimha Rao, Chaudhary Charan Singh and M. S. Swaminathan conferred Bharat Ratna

Context: Prime Minister conferred the Bharat Ratna on former Prime Ministers Chaudhary Charan Singh and P V Narasimha Rao, and agricultural scientist M S Swaminathan who led India’s Green Revolution. Earlier, Karpoor Thakur (for his social justice legacy) and L.K. Advani was conferred the Award.

More Information from the news article:

At five, this is the maximum number of Bharat Ratnas announced in a year. In 1999, four Bharat Ratnas were announced.
P. V. Narasimha Rao, served as the 9th prime minister of India from 1991 to 1996:
- He is known for introducing various liberal reforms to India's economy.
- When he held the Industries Portfolio, he dismantled the Licence Raj.
- In 1991, Rao employed Manmohan Singh as his finance minister to embark on important economic transition.
- With Rao's mandate, Manmohan Singh launched India's globalisation angle of the reforms that implemented the International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies to rescue the almost bankrupt nation from economic collapse.
Chaudhary Charan Singh served as the 5th prime minister of India:
- Charan Singh followed Mahatma Gandhi in non-violent struggle for independence and was imprisoned several times.
- In 1930, he was jailed by the British for contravention of the salt laws.
- Charan Singh opined that the right of ownership was important to the farmer. He wanted to preserve and stabilize a system of peasant proprietorship.
- He was the chief architect of land reforms in the U.P. and he took a leading part in formulation and finalization of the Debt Redemption Bill 1939, which brought great relief to rural debtors.
- As the 5^th Chief Minister of U.P., he was instrumental in bringing about the Land Holding Act 1960 which was aimed at lowering the ceiling on land holdings to make it uniform throughout the State.
- His birthday on 23 December is celebrated as Kisan Diwas in India.
M.S. Swaminathan:
- He is credited as the architect of the Green Revolution.
- Swaminathan's collaborative scientific efforts with Norman Borlaug and other scientists and backed by public policies, saved India and Pakistan from certain famine-like conditions in the 1960s.
- His leadership as director general of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines was instrumental in his being awarded the first World Food Prize in 1987.
- The United Nations Environment Programme has called him ‘the Father of Economic Ecology’.
- He coined the term ‘Evergreen Revolution’ in 1990 to describe his vision of ‘productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm’.
- It was the Swaminathan Committee that recommended in 2006 that the MSP should be 1.5 times the cost of production that a farmer incurs.

Awards given by Government of India:

About Bharat Ratna:

The designation ‘Bharat Ratna,’ which translates to 'Jewel of India,' signifies the highest civilian honour presented by the Republic of India.
Established in 1954, the Bharat Ratna is granted to extraordinary individuals who have demonstrated exceptional accomplishments.
Originally focused on recognizing achievements in art, science, literature, and public service, the criteria underwent an expansion in December 2011 to encompass excellence in 'any field of human endeavour.'
Selection process:
- Recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees honoured annually.
- In 1999, an exception saw four individuals receiving the honour.
- Although no monetary reward accompanies the honour, recipients receive a unique Peepal-leaf shaped medal and a certificate known as a ‘Sanad.’
- In the hierarchy of the Indian Order of Precedence, Bharat Ratna recipients hold the seventh rank.

The usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix or suffix is exempt from Article 18(1) of the Constitution, as established by the Supreme Court's precedent in Balaji Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995.
The first recipients in 1954 included C. Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of the Dominion of India; Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President and first Vice President of India; and Nobel Prize Laureate and Physicist C. V. Raman.
Originally, the statutes did not allow for posthumous awards, but in January 1955, amendments were made to permit them. The first posthumous honouree was former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri.
Despite typically being conferred upon India-born citizens, notable exceptions include Mother Teresa, a naturalized citizen, and non-Indians such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan (originally from British India, later a citizen of Pakistan) and Nelson Mandela, a citizen of South Africa.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, faced brief suspensions during the periods of July 1977 to January 1980 and August 1992 to December 1995, due to changes in the national government and legal challenges to their constitutional validity.
In 1992, controversy arose over the posthumous award to Subhas Chandra Bose, leading to a cancellation following a Supreme Court decision in 1997, a unique instance where the award was announced but not conferred.
Recipients whose awards have been revoked must surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
There is no Bharat Ratna Award winners list for 2020 and 2021.

Several special entitlements:

The medallion and its miniature counterpart.
A Sanad (certificate) signed by the President of India.
Treatment as a state guest by state governments when traveling within a state.
Assistance from Indian missions abroad upon request.
Eligibility for a diplomatic passport.
Lifetime complimentary executive class travel on Air India.
Occupying the seventh position in the Indian order of precedence.

Traditional Paddy of Tamil Nadu

Context: Traditional paddy to be cultivated on 10k acres in Tamil Nadu.

Traditional Paddy

Aruvadham Kuruvai: -This rice is believed to increase bone strength and prevent bone related ailments. It contains antioxidants equivalent to blue berries. It cures the problem of loss of appetite in children and also rectifies nutritional deficiencies.

Karunkuruvai arisi : -It is believed to control Diabetes and Cholesterol levels and is also a Blood Pressure regulator. It also improves the strength of the body.

Poonkar: - Poongar rice is found to contain Zinc, Magnesium, and Molebidinum, which is essential for everyday well-being. Apart from the above-mentioned minerals, it also contains Iron, which is essential for good blood count and heart health.

Thooyamalli: - With its high nutritional content, including carbohydrates, fiber, and essential minerals, Thooyamalli parboiled rice is considered a healthy choice, especially for those with gluten intolerance, as it is gluten-free.

Seeraga Samba: - It is a rich source of carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and essential minerals such as magnesium, potassium, and zinc. It is also low in fat and gluten-free, making it a healthier option compared to other varieties of rice. Seeraga samba rice is commonly used in the preparation of biryanis, pulao, and other rice dishes.

Mappillai Samba: -This Rice variety increases stamina, provides energy especially for school going/studying children. It specifically aids helps build a healthy body and an alert mind.

Karuppu Kavuni: - Packed with antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, this forbidden rice offers a nutritional punch that sets black rice apart from its counterparts. Black rice supports heart health, aids in blood sugar regulation, enhances skin health, promotes weight management, and provides antioxidant protection.

India to display relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand

Context: India will be holding an exposition of some of the relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand in February. The relics will be kept at the National Museum, Bangkok at first and then would be exhibited at different venues in Thailand.

(Fig.: Case containing four pieces of the Holy relics of Lord Buddha)

More about the news:

Relics of Lord Buddha along with the relics of two of his disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) preserved in Madhya Pradesh’s Sanchi are being sent.
These relics (known as Kapilavastu relics) are under the protection of the National Museum, India, were excavated from Piprahwa in Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh.
- Siddharthnagar, is an ancient city of Kapilavastu region.
- Kapilavastu, where Buddha is believed to be born in 563 BC (in the Sakya Kshatriya clan).

In 1952, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took ownership of Piprahwa and this enabled further excavations at the site.
The collection of sacred relics has been earlier taken to Sri Lanka in 1976 and 2012, Mongolia in 1993 and 2022, Singapore in 1994 and 2007, South Korea in 1995 and Thailand also in 1995.
These relics are categorised as ‘AA’ (rare) antiquities, which means they are not meant to be lent for exhibitions, within India or in foreign nations.
However, the exposition in Thailand was being held upon a ‘special request’ by the Thai Government.
The event will be organised by the Ministry of External Affairs in collaboration with the Indian Embassy in Thailand, the International Buddhist Confederation and the Madhya Pradesh government.

About Buddhism:

Buddhism belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements (means one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic).
Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth is the event when Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.
Buddha died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP) and the event is known as Mahaparinirvana.

Religious teachings of Buddha:

Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e., Buddha(the enlightened), Dhamma(doctrine) and Sangha(commune).
The core of his doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-sachchani (Four Noble Truths):
- there is suffering (dukkha);
- it has a cause (dukh samudaya);
- it can be removed (nirodha); and
- There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow (dukh nirodha gamini pratipada)

The way to achieve this is following the Atthanga-magga (Eight-fold Path)/ Ashtangik marga/ Madhya Marga (one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism. It consists of right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Buddha was against caste system and opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes.
Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained (free from the cycle of birth and rebirth).

Relics associated with Buddha

Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta (in Digha Nikaya) mentions that after attaining Parinirvana, the body of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.
First it was considered that ashes should go to the Sakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.
However, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions, for erecting stupa over the sacred relics.
- to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha;
- to the Licchavis of Vaishali;
- to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu;
- to the Bullis of Allakappa;
- to the Koliyas of Ramagama;
- to the Brahmana of Veṭhadipa;
- to the Mallas of Pava;
- to the Mallas of Kushinagara.

Stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
Two other important relics were distributed:
- Drona (the Brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated;
- Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.
Research and excavations support the authenticity of the stupa at Piprahwa,as well as the Relic Stupa of Vaishaliand the Ramabhar Stupa at Kushinagar.
- But the archaeological investigations to date have not definitively identified other remaining stupas.

Mahavaṃsa and Ashokavadana mentions that Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, collected seven of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them across 84,000 stupas. These stupas were constructed around the world.
As per the 5^th century scholar, Buddhaghosha, the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, believes that a proper Buddhist monastery was that which possessed the relics.
Relics of Buddha's noble disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) are preserved in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.

Some of the sacred Relics in India:

Kapilavastu relics:
- During an excavation in 1898, five small vases was found containing bone fragments, ashes, and jewels in a stupa in Piprahwa. (the Archaeological Survey of India has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu)
- The inscription on the lid, refers to the relics of Buddha and his community, the Sakya: ‘Sukiti bhatinam sa-bhaginikanam sa-puta-dalanam iyam salila nidhare Bhaddhasa bhagavate sakiyanam.’
- Means: ‘this shrine for relics of the Buddha, is that of the Sakyas. The brethren of the distinguished One, in association with their sisters and with their children and their wives.’
Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali (Bihar) as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE.
Devni Mori, Gujarat (a Buddhist archaeological site): Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third or fourth century were found during an excavation in 1962–1963.
Dhamma Vinaya Monastery Pune, Maharashtra, was constructed and relics of Gautam Buddha's and Arhant’s were enshrined.
- An Arhant is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment).

Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai, and the relics of the Buddha were enshrined in the central locking stone of the dome, making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha.
Lalitgiri, Odisha: A casket was discovered, believed to contain bones of Buddha.

To read about Buddhism, follow the link: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/india-to-host-maiden-global-buddhist-summit/

Donor gametes are allowed: New rule on surrogacy

Context: The Union government has modified Rule 7 the Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022 and notified that both gametes need not come from a married couple in case they are certified as suffering from a medical condition.

About Surrogacy:

Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 defines surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an intending couple with the intention to hand over the child after the birth to the intending couple.
Surrogacy can be classified into:
- Altruistic surrogacy entails no financial compensation for the surrogate.
- Commercial surrogacy involves paying the surrogate for bearing the child, implying a profit.
- Compensated surrogacy simply involves covering the incurred expenses and loss of wages.
In Devika Biswas v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that Right to Reproduction was an essential facet of the ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021:

The Act prohibits commercial surrogacy, but allows altruistic surrogacy.
The Act permits surrogacy when, an intending couples who suffer from proven infertility and an Indian woman who is a widow or divorcee between the age of 35 to 45 years and who intends to avail the surrogacy.
Surrogacy clinics are prohibited from conducting surrogacy or any associated procedures unless they receive registration approval from the relevant authority.
The National Surrogacy Board (NSB) and State Surrogacy Boards (SSBs) shall be established by both the central and state governments, respectively.
For a surrogate mother to be eligible for a certificate from the appropriate authority, she must have a familial relationship with the intending couple; not have served as a surrogate mother previously; possess a certificate confirming her medical and psychological health, be an ever-married woman having a child of her own, and be 25 to 35 years old.
The surrogate mother is not allowed to use her own eggs for the surrogacy process.
An order of parentage and custody of the surrogate child passed by a Magistrate's court.
Insurance coverage for a period of 36 months Covering postpartum delivery complications for surrogate.

The rationale for this rule:

Prior to the March 2023 rules, which insisted on the use of both eggs and sperm from the intending couple, the 2023 surrogacy rules allowed the use of donor eggs, but not sperm.
The 2023 rules was challenged in the Supreme Court by a woman with Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser (MRKH) Syndrome, a rare congenital disorder that affects the reproductive system and can cause infertility.
The modifications in the Surrogacy Rules came after the Supreme Court doubted the correctness of the existing rules.
Also the quality and number of eggs go down with age. While the decline accelerates after the age of 35 years, doctors recommend definitely using a donor egg after the age of 45 years.

About Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022:

As per the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, the couple can have a child born through surrogacy but must have at least one gamete from the intending couple, thus restricted married couples from getting donor gametes.
In case when the District Medical Board certifies that either husband or wife constituting the intending couple suffers from medical condition necessitating use of donor gamete, then surrogacy using donor gamete is allowed.
While the relaxation is for intending couple only. If a divorced or widowed woman opts for surrogacy, the egg has to come from the mother and Single woman (widow or divorcee), undergoing surrogacy must use self-eggs and donor sperms to avail surrogacy procedure.

Challenges of this act:

Exclusionary: The provisions deny this opportunity to LGBTQ+ persons, live-in couples, unmarried women and single parents.
Altruistic surrogacy is paternalistic – It expects a woman to go through the physical and emotional tolls of surrogacy free of cost and only out of ‘compassion’. Thus reinforcing age old patriarchal norm of no economic value to the women’s work.
It doesn’t respect the bodily autonomy of women – By shifting from right based to need based approach it snatches away the right of a women to decide upon her reproductive choices. Further it is and violative of her fundamental rights under Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (right to life) of the Constitution.
Impetus to black marketing- Blanket ban on commercial surrogacy may lead to creation of unregulated, exploitative underground/black markets.
Does not defines close relative – The act didn’t define ‘close relative’, which is a condition to be fulfilled by the surrogate mother. Thus scope for confusion and exploitation of loop holes is always there.
Reproductive liberty to the couples – Several restriction in form of eligibility criteria etc restricts the surrogacy option to intending couple which is a denial of reproductive liberty to them.
No power to make decision on abortion – Intending couple don’t have final say in the consent to abort a surrogate child, even if the child being born out of a surrogacy arrangement is at the risk of physical or mental abnormalities.
Identity and emotional aspect – Several times couples do not want to reveal their plans of oping for surrogacy,now putting the condition of close relative to be a surrogate clearly ignores this aspect and restricts the choices. Further, familial bonds and interaction may involve high emotional complications between surrogate mother and intended parents.
Definition of infertility: Infertility is restricted to failure to conceive, does not cover other issues that a women may face in delivering a child.

Way forward:

The government should remove the time limit for IVF treatment before permitting surrogacy, taking into consideration medical circumstances and concerns that deter some women from childbirth.
The government is should address postpartum depression by implementing provisions for its management, and maternal benefits should be accessible to all mothers.
Government should provide clear definition of close relative and infertility.
With appropriate safeguards, expanding the surrogacy sector to include commercial surrogacy will benefit individuals who long for the experience of parenthood.
Government should include live-in couples, unmarried women, and single parents in this act, as Right to Reproduction is the fundamental rights .

GULMARG AVALANCHE

Context: The group was skiing in the higher reaches known as Army Ridge in the tourist town in Baramulla; one injured skier hospitalized; the avalanche was triggered by heavy snowfall in the region; Khelo Games participants safe.

GULMARG

Gulmarg literally means “Meadow of flowers”. It is located in Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir.
One of the main attractions in Gulmarg is the Gulmarg Gondola, the Highest Cable Car in the world.
Tourists can enjoy horse Riding and can go riding to the magnificent “Strawberry Valley”, Leopards Valley and ride up to “Kongdori” to see the frozen lake of “Al- Pathar”.
Gulmarg in winter is a magnificent experience, fully covered in a white blanket of Snow which turns it into a skier paradise.

Avalanche

Avalanche, a mass of material moving rapidly down a slope.
An avalanche is typically triggered when material on a slope breaks loose from its surroundings; this material then quickly collects and carries additional material down the slope.
There are various kinds of avalanches, including rock avalanches (which consist of large segments of shattered rock), ice avalanches (which typically occur in the vicinity of a glacier), and debris avalanches (which contain a variety of unconsolidated materials, such as loose stones and soil).
Snow avalanches constitute a relatively common phenomenon in many mountainous areas.

Conditions

The occurrence of an avalanche depends on the interaction of mountainous terrain, weather conditions, snowpack conditions, and a trigger.
Slab avalanches typically occur on slopes of 30 to 50 degrees.
The probability of avalanches may be increased or decreased by several other terrain features, such as slope shape, a slope’s exposure to sun and wind, and elevation.

Prediction and Forecasting

Forecasting combines the historical knowledge of past conditions with their knowledge of the affected terrain, current weather, and current snowpack conditions to predict when and where avalanches are most likely to occur.

India

An avalanche monitoring radar, the first of its kind in India, has been installed in North Sikkim by the Army and Defense Geoinformatics and Research Establishment (DGRE).
It has the capability to detect avalanches within three seconds of its trigger and will assist in saving lives of troops and reducing damage to property in super high-altitude areas.

Famous Places of Skiing

Skiing in India is an activity that mostly takes place in the northern states of India, where the Himalayas are situated.
Skiing is administered by the Indian Mountaineering Foundation in India.
The Himalayas provide excellent skiing experience owing to their great height which makes for long descents. Heliskiing is also gaining popularity in places like Manali and Gulmarg.
However, skiing in India suffers from lack of infrastructure.
There are also security concerns in Gulmarg which is 20 km (12 mi) from the Line of Control, however since 2002, it has been peaceful, which has led to an increase in skiing activity in the region.
Some of the most popular skiing locations in India are Gulmarg in Jammu and Kashmir, Solang in Himachal Pradesh, and Auli in Uttarakhand.
The skiing season in India is from January to March.