Context: In an interim order, the Delhi High Court allowed two children suffering from autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to undergo stem cell therapy for treatment of their condition.
Earlier, in December 2022, the Ethics & Medical Registration Board said that the use, promotion and advertisement of stem cell therapy shall amount to professional misconduct.
Experts from AIIMS have maintained that stem cell therapy is allowed as a mode of treatment only for blood cancer and its use for treating autism spectrum disorder is currently at an experimental stage. More research is required about the use of the therapy for ASD before it is prescribed as a treatment.
Stem Cells and Stem Cell Therapy:
Stem cells are unique cells with the potential to develop into specialised cell types in the body. They can self-renew which makes them valuable for therapeutic applications.
Stem cell therapy or treatment utilises stem cells to promote the repair, regeneration, or replacement of damaged or diseased tissues within the body.
Uses of Stem Cell Therapy:
Regenerative Medicine: The technology can replace or regenerate damaged or diseased tissues and organs. This could revolutionise treatments for conditions like spinal cord injuries, heart diseases, Parkinson's, and diabetes.
Cell-Based Therapies: Stem cells can be used to create specialised cells for transplantation. E.g., Hematopoietic stem cells are used in bone marrow transplants to treat blood-related disorders and cancers.
Personalised Medicine: Potential to create patient-specific therapies by using patient's own cells to generate replacement tissues, reducing the risk of immune rejection and the need for organ donation.
Drug Testing/Disease Modeling: Used to create disease-specific cell models, enabling researchers to better understand diseases and develop new drugs. This reduces the need for animal testing and enhances the accuracy of drug testing.
Status of Stem Cell treatment in India:
Stem Cell Treatment is still under research mode in India and the Government is supporting various basic pre-clinical and clinical research.
Indian Council of Medical Research has released the National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research (NGSCR) 2017, through which the government has supported the ethical and scientific conduct of stem cell research.
As per the NGSCR 2017, only bone marrow/hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for blood disorders (including blood cancers and thalassemia) is permitted use of stem cells. This is known as bone marrow transplant (BMT) or hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT).
At present, stem cell therapy other than BMT/HSCT for conditions listed in the NGSCR 2017 is neither available nor permissible. For other diseases, studies are being conducted to find if stem cells can help cure these diseases.
Challenges:
Ethical Considerations: The use of embryonic stem cells raises ethical concerns, as their extraction from embryos results in destruction of the embryo.
Tumour Formation: In certain cases, stem cells can form tumours if they differentiate in an uncontrolled manner.
Immune Rejection: Even if the patient's own cells are used, there is some possibility of immune rejection.
Cost and Accessibility: Stem cell therapies can be expensive, limiting access for many patients.
Regulation: Through India has "National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research 2017”, however, as the field of stem cell research and therapy is rapidly evolving, challenges may arise regarding its oversight and regulation.
Way Forward:
Developing clear and appropriate regulations for stem cell research and product development.
Informed Consent for trials and potential risks arising out of it.
Developing affordable and accessible therapies.
International collaboration for sharing best practices and advancement of technology for responsible development.
Stem cell technology has the potential to revolutionise medicine and scientific understanding, however, its challenges must be addressed responsibly through rigorous research, ethical considerations, and effective regulatory oversight.
Context: The Election Commission of India (ECI) has become a center of disagreement between the government and the judiciary. The recent conflict revolves around the process of appointing its officials. The Supreme Court ruled that the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (EC) should be appointed by the President based on a committee's advice, including the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha or the largest Opposition party leader, and the Chief Justice of India (CJI). This was a unanimous judgment by a five-judge Bench and aimed to strengthen the ECI's constitutional standing.
However, the government introduced a bill to change this procedure, seeking to remove the Chief Justice of India from the selection committee. The proposed committee would then consist of the Prime Minister (Chairperson), Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (Member), and a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister (Member).
This move reflects the government's desire for more influence in appointing top election officials, potentially undermining the institution's independence.
Various committees and leaders have previously suggested a more representative selection process for ECI members. The idea was to reduce the ruling party's sway and ensure fairer elections. The current bill, introduced by the ruling party (BJP), contradicts its previous stance as an opposition party and aims to increase government control over the ECI.
Despite being respected for its reliability and responsible conduct, the ECI's autonomy and trust have been questioned due to perceived leniency towards the ruling party. The bill highlights the government's pursuit of a tighter grip on the ECI's functioning.
Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body (under Article-324) vested with the responsibilities of superintendence, direction and control of conduct of elections. It consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners.
Article 324 states that the Election Commission shall consist of Chief Election Commissioner and such numbers of other Election Commissioners, if any, as the President may from time to time fix and appointment of CEC and other ECs shall, subject to provisions of any law made in that behalf by the Parliament, be made by the President.
Still, appointments in ECI is associated with various issues:
Lack of security of tenure for Election Commissioners (ECs).
Article 324(5) of the Constitution protects only CEC from removal, except if the manner and grounds of removal are the same as a judge of the Supreme Court. However, ECs can be removed by the government on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner.
The appointment of CEC and other ECs according to the Article 324, shall be done as per the law made by the Parliament in this regard. However, no such law has yet been made which leaves a “gap” and leaves the appointment of such a crucial post solely to the executives.
The constitution has not prescribed the qualifications (legal, educational, administrative, or judicial) of the members of election commission.
The constitution has not debarred the retiring Election commissioner from any further appointment by the government.
There is no clarity regarding the power division between the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners.
Reforming the Election Commission of India: A Concise Action Plan
Legislation for Appointment: Create a clear law outlining how the Chief Election Commissioner and Election Commissioners are appointed, ensuring transparency and fair selection.
Qualifications Defined: Specify necessary qualifications and experience for Commissioners, focusing on legal expertise, administrative competence, and integrity.
Secure Tenure: Guarantee secure tenure for all Election Commissioners to prevent arbitrary removals and political influence.
Clear Powers Division: Clearly define roles and responsibilities of Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners to prevent conflicts.
Transparent Selection: Form a diverse selection committee including judiciary and civil society to assess candidates fairly.
Post-Retirement Rules: Introduce rules preventing retiring Commissioners from taking immediate government positions to prevent conflicts of interest.
Enhance Independence: Consider amending the Constitution to grant the Election Commission greater autonomy from government influence.
Capacity Building: Invest in regular training for Commissioners and staff to improve their understanding of electoral processes and technologies.
Public Awareness: Launch awareness campaigns to educate citizens about their voting rights and the significance of elections.
Ongoing Review: Periodically review and adapt the Commission's functioning to address emerging challenges and maintain electoral integrity.
Implementing these focused reforms will bolster the Election Commission's credibility, efficiency, and impartiality, strengthening India's democratic foundation.
Context: A combination of global warming and a cyclical event called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation that repeats every 20-30 years, could make cyclones that originate near the Equator more frequent in the coming years.
What the study says?
In recent times, equatorial cyclones originating near the Equator have exhibited an unexpected trend of moderation. The most significant recent occurrence of such a cyclone was the 2017 Cyclone Okchi, which brought widespread destruction to regions including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka.
A convergence of factors, namely global warming and the cyclic phenomenon termed the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), which operates on a 20-30-year cycle, suggests a potential elevation in the frequency of these cyclones in the years ahead.
Between 1981 and 2010, equatorial-origin cyclones occurred at a strikingly lower rate of 43% compared to the period spanning 1951 to 1980. This decline aligns with the PDO's 'warmer' or positive phase.
A warming of the Central Equatorial Pacific, known as El Nino, often corresponds to decreased rainfall over India.
Conversely, cooler-than-normal temperatures, referred to as La Nina, are associated with heightened rainfall.
The interplay of these phenomena, collectively known as the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), recurs in the Pacific every two to seven years.
In contrast, the PDO follows a non-annual cycle and, over considerably longer timescales, results in warmer conditions in the Western Pacific Ocean and relatively cooler conditions in the Eastern Pacific.
Identifying a 'positive' or 'warmer phase' of PDO necessitates years of observing ocean temperatures and their interaction with the atmosphere.
Notably, in 2019, the PDO transitioned into a cooler, negative phase. If this state persists, it could potentially lead to an increase in the number of equatorial-origin tropical cyclones during the post-monsoon months.
Currently, an emerging El Nino event is evident in the Pacific, with its effects already manifesting in central and southern India, where rainfall deficits of 7% and 17% have been observed.
While a positive PDO combined with ENSO typically yields unfavourable outcomes, a negative PDO coupled with the same phenomenon results in increased rainfall for India.
Important Terms:
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO): A recurring climatic cycle manifesting every 20-30 years in the Pacific Ocean. It results in fluctuations in sea surface temperatures. When in a positive phase, it is associated with warmer waters in the western Pacific and cooler waters in the eastern Pacific. This phenomenon significantly influences global climate dynamics and weather patterns.
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO): A recurrent climate phenomenon observed in the Pacific Ocean, characterized by two primary states—El Nino (warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures) and La Nina (cooler-than-normal temperatures). ENSO holds considerable sway over worldwide weather patterns, with implications for temperature and precipitation distributions.
Equatorial Cyclones: Cyclones originating in proximity to the Equator. Fuelled by warm waters and abundant moisture, these cyclones typically form at a distance from the Equator due to the Coriolis effect. Although infrequent, they can be exceptionally intense and cause significant damage.
What is Tropical Cyclone?
A tropical cyclone is a weather phenomenon characterized by a region of low atmospheric pressure that originates over warm tropical waters and subsequently advances towards coastal regions, unleashing powerful winds, intense rainfall, and storm surges.
The rotational direction of the winds within a tropical cyclone follows a distinctive pattern: counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This rotation is a consequence of the Coriolis effect, which influences the motion of air masses in relation to the Earth's rotation.
Critical conditions contribute to the formation of tropical cyclones:
Sea Temperature: The presence of an expansive sea surface with a temperature exceeding 27°C serves as a conducive environment for the genesis of tropical cyclones. Warm ocean waters provide the necessary energy for these systems to gather strength.
Geographical Location: Tropical cyclones tend to develop within specific geographical boundaries, specifically between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These areas offer optimal temperature conditions for their formation.
Coriolis Force: A crucial requirement for tropical cyclone formation is the presence of the Coriolis force, a result of the Earth's rotation. Consequently, these cyclones do not form near the equator but rather at latitudes where the Coriolis effect is sufficient to induce rotation.
Vertical Wind Speed: The presence of relatively stable vertical wind speeds, with minimal fluctuations, aids in the organization of a tropical cyclone's structure. This consistency facilitates the development and maintenance of the cyclonic circulation.
Upper Divergence: Successful tropical cyclone development necessitates a well-established upper-level divergence within the atmosphere. This divergence ensures the continual removal of rising air currents from within the cyclone, maintaining low pressure at its centre.
High Humidity: Adequate humidity levels, typically ranging between 50 to 60 percent, are essential in the mid-troposphere. This humidity is fundamental for the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds, a significant component of tropical cyclones.
Influence of Climate Change on Tropical Cyclone Formation
Temperature Shifts: The temperature of both the ocean and the atmosphere plays a crucial role in the creation of tropical cyclones. As the climate warms, these storms gather strength by harnessing the energy released when evaporated ocean water condenses into rainfall within the cyclone.
Warmer Ocean Impact: The escalation in temperature leads to a warmer ocean, elevating evaporation rates. This, in turn, augments the moisture content in the atmosphere, intensifying the availability of water vapor.
Enhanced Rainfall: The rising temperature enables the atmosphere to retain more moisture, thereby increasing rainfall. The amplified rainfall not only releases more heat but also contributes to bolstering wind intensity.
Heightened Rainfall Rates: Recent investigations reveal a 7% surge in hurricane rainfall rates per degree of warming, underscoring the pronounced impact of rising temperatures on precipitation.
Storm Intensification: The warming climate is poised to elevate wind velocities, leading to a higher frequency of powerful Category 4 and 5 storms, with their potential for devastating impact.
Sea Level Rise Influence: Climatic warming elevates sea levels, augmenting the height of ocean water. This elevated water level permits storm surges to penetrate further inland.
Impact of Storm Slowing: The velocity of a storm significantly influences the cumulative rainfall in a given area. Slower-moving storms grant additional time for rainfall accumulation, heightening the potential for flooding.
Complex Storm Speed Changes: While studies indicate a reduction in storm speed, the underlying mechanisms behind this trend remain elusive.
Confluence of Storms: Within an increasingly warmer world, the merging of two significant tropical storms over global oceans could lead to the formation of extremely powerful mega cyclones.
Context: In the past few years, the Centre has discontinued two key educational schemes for religious minorities, narrowed the scope of another and gradually cut down on the expenditure incurred on multiple programmes of the Ministry of Minority Affairs.
Importance of Scholarships for Religious Minorities
India is home to over 30 crore (20%) people from religious minority communities. These include six religions notified under Section 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Among them, Muslims make up the largest religious minority but face challenges in various sectors.
Their participation in salaried jobs is low and many are engaged in the informal sector, characterised by low wages, weak social security and poor working conditions. The Justice Rajinder Sachar Committee was constituted by the UPA government to look into the social, economic and educational standing of Muslims in India. In a comprehensive 400-page report tabled in Parliament in 2006, the Sachar Committee concluded that the Muslim minority was neglected in almost all dimensions of development. “By and large, Muslims rank somewhat above SC/ST but below Hindu OBCs [Other Backward Classes], Other Minorities and Hindu General [mostly upper castes] in almost all indicators considered,” the report stated.
Around the same time, the Manmohan Singh-led UPA government accepted the long-pending demand for a Ministry of Minority Affairs in 2006. The new Ministry was to “ensure a more focused approach” on issues affecting the notified minorities, especially “educational empowerment, economic empowerment, infrastructure development and special needs.”
Directive Principles of State Policy require the state to ensure the welfare of the citizens, for example, Article 38 requires the state to minimise the inequalities in terms of income, status, facilities and opportunities.
To achieve the objectives of the slogan sabka sath sabka vikas it is necessary to equal opportunity for quality education to sections of the society.
Access to quality education for sections of society is crucial to realise the objectives of the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.
We are aspiring to become a developed nation by 2047, inclusive development is the only way to achieve this aspiration.
Some of the Scholarships for Minority
The Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme- One of the first central sector programmes implemented by the Ministry of Minority Affairs. The scholarship was initially awarded to minority students from class 1 to 10 and ranged between ₹1,000 and ₹10,700 for each selected candidate. The scheme has now been discontinued for classes 1 to 8, only covering classes 9 and 10 in its revised form.
The Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme- for students of class 11 and above (till Ph.D). It aimed to give minority students access to quality higher education, with a scholarship ranging between ₹2,300 and ₹15,000. The funds for this scheme increased from ₹515 crore to ₹1,065 crore this fiscal year.
The Merit-cum-Means based Scholarship Scheme- targeted professional and technical courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Eligible candidates in any of the 85 institutes listed under the scheme are reimbursed full course fees, while those in other institutions are reimbursed course fees worth ₹20,000 per annum. The scholarship scheme saw a major reduction in funds in 2023-24. It was allotted ₹44 crore this year, while last year’s allotment was ₹365 crore.
Maulana Azad National Fellowship (MANF)-The scheme provided financial assistance for five years to research scholars pursuing an M.Phil and PhD from institutions recognised by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Under the scheme, junior research fellows received a grant of ₹31,000 for the first two years while senior research fellows got ₹35,000 per month for the remaining tenure. The MANF benefited over 6,700 candidates between 2014-15 and 2021-22, with ₹738.85 crore paid before it was cancelled in 2022.
The Padho Pardesh scheme was launched to provide better opportunities for higher education abroad, providing an interest subsidy on education loans for overseas studies to students belonging to economically weaker sections of minority communities. However, this scheme was discontinued from 2022-23. The scheme benefited 20,365 beneficiaries since its inception in 2006.
The Begum Hazrat Mahal National Scholarship was for meritorious girls to pursue higher secondary education and was provided by the Maulana Azad Education Foundation (MAEF). The scholarship has had zero allocation this year.
The Naya Savera was a separate programme launched to provide free coaching to minority students for entrance to technical and professional courses and competitive examinations. In the Union Budget 2023-24, the scheme was allotted ₹30 crore but the Centre has since discontinued the scheme stating that the New Education Policy 2020 does not support coaching programmes. Official records show that 1.19 lakh students benefited under the scheme.
The Scheme for Providing Education to Madrasas and Minorities (SPEMM), a centrally sponsored umbrella programme, has a sub-scheme, the Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas (SPQEM), under which recognised madrasas receive financial assistance to introduce ‘modern’ subjects such as science, mathematics, social studies, Hindi and English in their curriculum. The scheme was allocated ₹10 crore for the financial year 2023-24 — more than 90% less than the allocation in 2022-23, which was ₹160 crore.
Consequences of discontinuation of scholarship programmes
Social consequences- The minority community is already backward as affirmed by the Sacher committee if the youth of this community are deprived of quality higher education then there is a higher chance that they may be trapped in social evils like communalism, and crimes.
Political repercussions-uneducated generations are breeding grounds for polarisation of the society by political parties as is evident from our own history. In the long run, depriving a community of quality education can hamper the unity and integrity of the nation itself.
Economic fallouts- we can't achieve the goals of inclusive and sustainable development by depriving a section of quality education, because education is crucial to fostering productivity and equitable resource distribution.
Way forward
The government should adhere to constitutional morality of ensuring the welfare of all of its citizens without discriminating on the grounds of religion, race or region.
The government can promote the NGOs in this sector so that it can achieve its target of availing quality education with reduced economic burden.
Ensure adequate employment opportunities at the local level so that people can afford quality education on their own.
Community leaders can come forward to ensure quality education for the community by resource pooling.
According to author the dynamics of the emerging fiscal federalism of India entails significant rethinking especially in the context of the 16th Finance Commission. One Fundamental aspect of our Governance is the fiscal federalism which provides the autonomy of the states to raise revenue and undertake expenditure according to their priorities and needs. Such form of fiscal federalism has been formulated keeping in mind the diverse needs and aspirations of the states across India and hence considered critical for balanced and holistic development of the entire country.
Before going into details of the report which shall be extremely important from the perspective of Mains examination, Let us first understand the need for any such body at the first place? Specially given that states and centre both have been enabled to levy and collect taxes in their domains.
Now finance commission is body to facilitate fiscal balance in the Indian federal structure and hence enabling Fiscal federalism.
What is a Fiscal imbalance?
Fiscal imbalance occurs when the revenues of a are not appropriate to carry out the responsibilities allocated to it.
Now there are two kinds of imbalances that can occur in Indian Federalism:
vertical imbalance (between state and centre)
horizontal imbalance (among the states)
Finance Commissions – A Historical Perspective
Vertical and horizontal imbalances are common features of most federations and India is no exception to this.
So why does vertical imbalance (between state and centre) occur?
Because there is a mismatch of responsibilities and revenue sources between the Union and the States?
Now why is that?: mainly because of two reasons
Constitution assigned taxes with a nation-wide base to the Union (which earn higher revenues)
Why was this done?
This was done to make the country one common economic space unhindered by internal barriers to the extent possible.
Constitution assigned functional responsibilities involving high expenditure disproportionate to their assigned sources of revenue
Since the expenditures are incurred mainly in the executive branch, let us see the constitutional scheme for the same:
Legislative responsibility
Executive responsibility
LIST I
Union
Union
LIST II
State
State
LIST III
Both
State
So you can see that states take care of both List 1 and List II
Why was this done?
States being closer to people and more sensitive to the local needs have been assigned
These two factors have resulted in vertical imbalances.
So why does horizontal imbalance (among the states) occur?
Unlike in most other federations, differences in the developmental levels in Indian States are very sharp.
Horizontal imbalances across States are on account of factors, which include historical backgrounds, differential endowment of resources, and capacity to raise resources.
So you can say that the creation of Finance commission is the recognition of the imbalance which exists in the federalism and hence mechanisms under article 280 and 281 have been created to ensure that these imbalances are minimized.
Hence let us have a look at the constitutional provisions related to the finance commission as far as constitution of India is concerned:
So as you read in article 280, the report of the Finance Commission has to be submitted for every five years and you also know that the report of the last FC (14th) was applicable for 2015-2020 period, then why did FC 15 not submit the final report for the period 2020-2025?
At the formation of the 15th FC, It was required to submit the report by October 30, 2019 for five years for the period 2020-21 to 2024-25.
However, due to various political and fiscal developments, its term was extended.
So what are the reasons behind the extensions?
Speak: the basic reason is that the reports of the FC are based on the projections of various parameters related to taxation, GDP and deficits. the current state of Indian economy makes it difficult for any panel to successfully do a projection.
So why making medium-term projections in the current scenario would mean serious risks?
Changes in the federal units
the abolition of Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir required the Commission to make an estimation excluding the Union Territory.
Historically low Nominal growth rate
the deceleration in growth and low inflation has substantially slowed down the nominal GDP growth which is the main tax base proxy; making projections of tax revenues and expenditures based on this for the medium term could have posed serious risks.
Also the compensation agreement to the loss of revenue to the States is applicable only till 2022(which means it will cover only two years of the period covered by the Commission’s recommendations hence posing uncertainties)
So these are the factors which have compelled the extension of the term of 15th FC as well as its submission of interim report.
Let us now discuss the highlighting features of the report:
14th FC
15 FC
Remarks
Vertical distribution
42
41
the Fifteenth Finance Commission continued with the recommendation of the previous Commission relating to vertical division of taxes, and adjusted the States’ share to 41% to exclude the share of Jammu and Kashmir.
it has used two additional factors — demographic performance and tax effort.
Demographic Performance
NA
12.5%
the inverse of fertility rate hence showing sensitivity to the concerns of these States.
Tax Efforts
NA
2.5%
However, in recent years, the fiscal federalism has become skewed towards the Centre in certain aspects and the same has been opposed by number of states. In this regard, let us understand some important issues which have arisen in the Centre State Fiscal Relations.
Higher Share of Cess and surcharge: Cess and surcharge imposed and collected by the Centre do not form part of Central Divisible pool of taxes. They are not distributable among the States and hence continue to remain with the centre. Over a period, the Centre has been imposing large number of surcharge and Cess to mobilise revenue. A Case in point is the recent introduction of the Agri Infrastructure Cess in the Union Budget 2021-22.
The share of Cess and Surcharge as a percentage of Gross Tax Revenue (GTR) of the centre has increased sharply from 2.3% in 1980-81 to 15% in 2019-20. The States see this as an illegitimate way of depriving resources that are rightfully due to them.
GST compensation: States agreed to give up the power to impose indirect taxes and adopt GST based on a guaranteed 14 per cent growth in GST revenues per annum. The Centre committed to pay the states for the shortfall in their GST revenue through the imposition of GST Compensation Cess for a period of 5 years.
However, on account of CoVID-19 pandemic, there was GST shortfall of almost around Rs 3 lakh crores. However, money collected under GST compensation Fund was hardly around Rs 65,000 crores. Hence, there was an obligation on the Centre to pay compensation amount of almost Rs 2.35 lakh crores. Initially, the Centre asked the States to borrow this amount from the market. Later on, due to strong opposition, the Centre decided to borrow on behalf of the states and compensate them. This recent issue over GST compensation has led to erosion of trust in the fiscal federalism.
Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): The Centrally Sponsored schemes are the schemes which are financed by both Centre and States in a defined proportion (70:30 or 60:40 or 50:50 etc), but implemented by the respective State Governments. Some of these schemes include MGNREGA, Ayushman Bharat, National Education Mission etc.
The Centre lays down elaborate rules and guidelines with respect to implementation of these schemes. It also lays down purposes for which the funds can be utilised for. The State governments claim that such rules and guidelines do not provide them with enough financial and operational autonomy in executing the schemes.
These Centrally sponsored schemes have also faced political controversy. For instance, some of the States such as West Bengal, Telangana etc. have decided not to implement Ayushman Bharat Scheme. These states claim that their own health insurance schemes are better than centre's Ayushman Bharat Scheme.
Borrowing powers of the States: Under Article 293, the States are allowed to raise loans from the Centre or market. However, a State cannot raise a public loan without the consent of the Centre if there is still outstanding any part of a loan. Since all the State Governments have been and continue to be indebted to the Centre, the Centre effectively controls the amount of public debt raised by State Governments.
In recent times, particularly in the aftermath of CoVID-19 pandemic, frictions have risen over the Centre’s attempt to perpetually control borrowings by the States. The recent 50-year interest free loan announced by the Centre for the states is a case in point. Any State which avails this facility will need to take Centre’s permission for all future borrowing at least for the next 50 years.
Policies: Several other policies initiated by the Union government in the recent past have also led to the weakening of States’ autonomy. These include the farm laws; the Government of National Capital Territory Amendment Act, 2021; the Dam Safety Bill, 2019; the National Education Policy of 2020 etc.
Context: Increasing its membership from five to eleven, the BRICS alliance has significantly bolstered its status as a noteworthy global coalition.
More about the news:
The selection of countries to join the BRICS coalition has notable significance, as it introduces four major Western Asian players—Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE—alongside Ethiopia and Argentina from Africa and South America.
This marks a shift in the foundational principles of this non-Western economic alliance, aiming to transform it into a more politically pertinent bloc.
The fact that the summit and the expansion of BRICS proceeded despite efforts by the U.S. and Europe to isolate Russia due to its Ukraine invasion, holds substantial implications for the Western bloc.
Although India might not have been enthusiastic about such swift expansion, the inclusion of Iran in BRICS conveys a clear message against U.S. sanctions, mirroring Iran's recent entry into the SCO.
The admission of both Iran and Saudi Arabia, as well as the UAE, into the same grouping has primarily been facilitated by Beijing's mediation in a peace agreement.
India's endeavours for UN reform, increased representation from the Global South, and the expansion of the UN Security Council continue to remain important factors.
What is 'BRICS'?
Initially termed BRIC in 2001, the acronym BRICS was coined by Jim O’Neill, a Goldman Sachs economist, to encompass Brazil, China, India, and Russia.
The BRIC grouping's first formal summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia, commenced in 2009. During this summit, BRIC Leaders issued a Joint Statement elucidating the objectives of the BRIC collaboration. This comprehensive document also provided a detailed framework for addressing the global financial and economic crisis.
South Africa officially became a member nation in 2010. The group was renamed BRICS – with the "S" standing for South Africa – to reflect the group's expanded membership.
It was anticipated by Goldman Sachs that the four BRIC economies—China, India, Brazil, Russia—alongside South Africa, would dominate the global economy by 2050.
The foundation for this assertion lay in the sustained presence of China, India, Brazil, Russia, and South Africa among the world's swiftest expanding and emerging market economies.
These nations possessed a notable competitive advantage owing to their economical labor costs, advantageous demographics, and copious natural resources, particularly during the era of the global commodities upswing.
By the year 2013, the BRICS collective accounted for approximately 27% of the global GDP in terms of purchasing power parity.
These five nations constituted around 42% of the global populace. In geographical terms, the BRICS countries spanned 26% of the Earth's total land area.
Role of the BRICS
From 2009 to 2014, the BRICS member countries reached a consensus on matters concerning economics and finance, which encompassed reforms within institutions such as the World Bank and IMF.
A collective commitment was made to implement strategies aimed at mobilizing adequate resources to enhance the IMF's capacity to effectively manage various forms of crises.
Additionally, during this period, they established the BRICS Interbank Cooperation Mechanism, facilitating the provision of credit facilities denominated in local currencies, along with the formation of the BRICS Exchanges Alliance.
Furthermore, their attention extended to regional challenges, encompassing issues related to countries like Libya, Syria, Afghanistan, and Iran.
BRICS also coordinated together in resolving:
Conflicts
IMF reform
The struggle against illicit drug trafficking
The need, use, and development of technologies in information and communication
The BRICS countries also sought to create favourable conditions for barrier-free trade.
Operation of BRICS:
On the basis of UN Charter, BRICS partners’ relations are built.
They follow the recognized principles as well as international law’s norms.
All the member countries agreed to the following principles during 2011 Summit.
Principles
Solidarity
Openness
Pragmatism
Neutrality (regarding third parties)
Non-bloc nature
New Development Bank:
A multilateral development institution formerly known as the BRICS Development Bank, was founded by the collaborative efforts of the BRICS member nations: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
The bank's inception involved an initial authorized capital of $100 billion.
The distribution of this subscribed capital was executed equitably among the founding members—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
The NDB Agreement assures uniform voting rights for all member countries and excludes the presence of veto powers.
Shanghai, China, is the bank's headquarters and it stands as principal operational hub.
To supplement this, regional offices were set up, commencing with Johannesburg, South Africa, and subsequently expanded to São Paulo, Brazil, GIFT City, India, and Moscow, Russia.
The origin of this bank traces back to a proposal by India during the 4th BRICS summit held in Delhi in 2012,where the focus revolved around conceptualizing a new development bank.
A formal consensus on this initiative was solidified at the 5th BRICS summit in Durban, South Africa, in 2013.
The pivotal Agreement establishing the New Development Bank was officially signed in 2014, during the 6th BRICS summit in Fortaleza, Brazil.
Key Agendas of recently held 15th BRICS summit in Johannesburg:
1.Active Engagement in Dialogues:
BRICS-Africa Outreach Conversations
BRICS Plus Dialogue Interactions
2.Cultivating Partnerships:
Enabling an equitable and just transition, which addresses the risks posed by climate change.
Achieving the goals outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
3.Addressing Political Issues:
Deliberation on the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
Examination of the post-coup situation in Niger.
Assessment of heightened tensions between the Western bloc and Russia.
4.Advancing Economic Reforms:
Fostering increased participation and influence of Emerging Markets and Developing Countries (EMDCs) within international economic decision-making.
Advocating for reforms within Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) and measures to alleviate debt-related stress.
Exploring potential opportunities through the African Continental Free Trade Area.
5.Enlarging the Scope of BRICS:
Emerging as an appealing alternative to the developed countries' "club" of the G-7 nations.
Witnessing interest from over 40 countries in joining BRICS, with at least 19 countries formally applying for membership.
6.Broadened Participation:
South Africa has extended invitations to leaders representing the Global South and the African Union (AU) for parallel sessions on the sidelines of the summit.
Significance of 15th BRICS summit for India:
Multi-dimensional Alignment: Entails a strategy of alignment based on specific issues, wherein India simultaneously participates in and pursues its interests within various strategic and economic coalitions, such as the Quad and BRICS.
Poly directional Foreign Policy: Bolsters economic growth, technological advancements, research and innovation, norm-setting influence, and security enhancement.
Diplomatic Advantages: Enables a diplomacy centred around developmental engagement, with a goal of expanding BRICS membership.
Geopolitical Influence: Within the BRICS framework, emphasis is placed on addressing non-traditional security threats and enhancing economic security.
Political Assertion: Serves as a political countermeasure against unjust coercive practices, including instances such as the European Union's Carbon Border Tax, unilateral sanctions, and biased economic transactions.
Strategic Consideration: Marks a significant milestone as it is the first in-person meeting following the military standoff with China along the Line of Actual Control in 2020.
Positive Developments: Ahead of the summit, the 19th round of the India-China Corps Commander Level Meeting resulted in a joint statement, signifying a favourable step forward.
Context: News reports and weather experts say that India might be facing its driest August in 100 years. As of Sunday, India had received 7% less rainfall cumulatively this monsoon compared to the long period average (LPA). This situation is expected to get worse. A recent report in Reuters quotes an India Meteorological Department official saying that. India is expected to receive an average of less than 180 mm of rainfall this August, which is the lowest since records began in 1901.
What is Irrigation?
The process of supplying water to crops by artificial means such as canals, wells, tube-wells, tanks, etc. from the sources of water such as rivers, tanks, ponds, or underground water is called irrigation.
Types of irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Surface irrigation utilizes gravity flow to move water across land, wetting and infiltrating soil. It encompasses furrow, border strip, and basin irrigation, also known as flood irrigation.
Localized irrigation: Localized irrigation involves the distribution of water through a network of pipes, utilizing low pressure, and delivering water in a predetermined pattern to each individual plant or in close proximity to it.
Drip irrigation: The technique of delivering water drop by drop at or near the root zone of plants is known as drip irrigation or trickle irrigation. When managed properly, this method can be highly efficient in terms of water usage since it minimizes evaporation and runoff.
Sprinkler irrigation: In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns.
Sub-irrigation: Sub-surface irrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plant root zone.
Uneven Rainfall Distribution: While some areas receive heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, others experience long dry periods. Irrigation helps to provide water to crops during dry spells, ensuring consistent and reliable water supply for agricultural activities.
Agricultural Productivity: Agriculture is a major contributor to India's economy, employing a significant portion of the population. Irrigation helps increase agricultural productivity by providing water when needed, which is crucial for crop growth, yield improvement, and food security.
Drought Mitigation: Irrigation systems help mitigate the impacts of drought by providing water even in dry years.
Crop Diversification: Irrigation enables farmers to grow a wider variety of crops, including those that are not well-suited to rain-fed conditions.
Stabilizing Farm Income: Irrigation helps stabilize farm income by reducing the vulnerability of farmers to the uncertainties of weather patterns. When rainfall is inadequate or erratic, farmers with irrigation systems can still produce crops and generate income.
Industrial and Economic Growth: Apart from agriculture, water from irrigation sources can be used for various industrial purposes, such as power generation, manufacturing, and other sectors. A stable water supply supports economic growth beyond just the agricultural sector.
Environmental Conservation: Efficient irrigation practices can help conserve water resources by reducing water wastage and promoting more responsible water use. Modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems minimize water runoff and evaporation.
Climate Change Resilience: As climate change brings about shifts in rainfall patterns and increased unpredictability, having a robust irrigation infrastructure becomes even more critical to adapt to changing conditions and ensure food security.
Sources of irrigation
Tank irrigation: A tank consists of water storage which has been developed by constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and for other purposes. The tank irrigation is practiced mainly in peninsular India due to the following reasons:
The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
There is little percolation of rainwater due to hard rock structure and ground water is not available in large quantity.
Most of the rivers of this region are seasonal and dry up in the summer season. Therefore, they cannot supply water to canals throughout the year.
There are several streams which become torrential during rainy season. The only way to make best use of this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks.
The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favors tank irrigation.
Merits of Tank irrigation
Demerits of Tank irrigation
Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost of their construction.Tanks are generally constructed on rocky bed and have long life span.
Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most.Silting of tank bed is a serious problem and it required desilting of the tank at regular intervals.Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a strenuous and costly exercise.
Wells and Tube wells: A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. It is popular in areas where sufficient ground water is available. It accounts for about 16.6% of the net irrigated area in the country. A tube well is a deeper well from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.
Merits of Well and Tube well irrigation
Demerits of Well and Tube well irrigation
It is the simplest and cheapest source of irrigation.It is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises.A well can be dug at any convenient place.
Only limited area can be irrigated.The well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it.In the event of a drought, the ground water level falls and water is not available in the well.Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighboring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture.Well and tube well irrigation is not possible in areas of brackish groundwater.
Canals: Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low-level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Canals in India are of two types, viz. (i) Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs. (ii) Perennial canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. The percentage of canal irrigation in the country is about 23%.
Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)
The programme was launched in 1996-97 to provide assistance to major/medium irrigation projects in the country, with the objective to accelerate implementation of such projects which were beyond resource capability of states or were in advanced stage of completion.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
It was launched in 2015-16 which aimed at enhancing physical access of water on farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation, improve on farm water use efficiency, introduce sustainable water conservation practices, etc.
Objectives:
Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level.
Enhance the physical access of water on the farm and expand cultivable area under assured irrigation.
Enhance the adoption of precision – irrigation and other water saving technologies.
Enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices.
Ensure the integrated development of rainfed areas using the watershed approach towards soil and water conservation.
Promote extension activities relating to water harvesting, water management and crop alignment for farmers.
Attract greater private investments in precision irrigation.
IRRIGATION IN INDIA:
According to NITI Aayog, in 2022-23, of the 141 million hectares of gross sown area in the country, nearly 73 million hectares, or 52%, had irrigation access, up from 41% in 2016.
8 out of 73 million hectares have the micro irrigation facility
40% of the total irrigated area are watered through canal networks, the remaining through groundwater.
The total potential for micro-irrigation in the country is estimated to be 60 million hectares.
Conventional surface irrigation provides only 60% efficiency but drip irrigation has nearly 90% efficiency.
The country can create irrigation potential in about 60% of its arable land and 40% of the cultivable area will remain dependent on rains because it is not possible to create irrigation networks in certain regions due to hydrological and geographical reasons.
Related concepts & definition:
Net Area Sown: This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown more than once in the same year is counted only once.
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.
Area Sown more than once: This represents the areas on which crops are cultivated more than once during the agricultural year. This is obtained by deducting Net Area Sown from Gross Cropped Area.
Irrigated Area: The area is assumed to be irrigated for cultivation through such sources as canals (Govt. & Private), tanks, tube-wells, other wells and other sources. It is divided into two categories:
Net Irrigated Area: It is the area irrigated through any source once in a year for a particular crop.
Total/Gross Irrigated Area: It is the total area under crops, irrigated once and/or more than once in a year. It is counted as many times as the number of times the areas are cropped and irrigated in a year.
Cropping Intensity: It is the ratio of Net Area Sown to the Total Cropped Area.
What is the present status regarding STEM education in India?
India produces over 25 lakh graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) every year, across bachelors and masters courses.
Among STEM graduates, the aggregate enrolment of students in BSc courses is close to 50 lakh.
However, the number of science graduates drops to 2.9 lakh at the masters level (25% of BSc graduates), and even further at the doctoral level, with only 6,000 science PhDs awarded each year.
In the QS Global Ranking of 1,000 universities from 82 countries, there are only 23 Indian institutions, with IIT Mumbai at 152, followed by IIT Delhi at 182 and IISc Bengaluru at 184 ranks.
India produced 25,550 doctorates in 2020-21, of which 14,983 were in science and engineering disciplines. This 59 per cent proportion in the overall doctorates compares well with other countries, putting India in the seventh rank overall.
What are the associated challenges?
Lack of Funding - The expenditure on research as a proportion of GDP has gone down, from about 0.8 per cent at the start of this millennium to about 0.65 per cent now. For the last decade or so, this share has remained stagnant.
Lack of research - Only one per cent of universities engage in active research, according to the detailed project report on NRF on account of poor coordination between various departments and lack of interdisciplinary approach.
Intellectual property - In 2021, a total of 61,573 patents were filed in India, making it the sixth largest in the world. But this was nowhere close to the nearly 16 lakh patents filed in China, and about six lakhs in the United States that year.
What does NEP 2020 say about this?
NEP proposes to increase the overall proportion of Public Expenditure on Education from 10% to 20.9% in the next 10 years.
Of this additional 10.9%, a major share of 5% has been assigned for strengthening the quality / faculty /operations at universities and colleges.
In addition, it recommends greater contribution from the private sector and ‘Not-for-profit’ organisations in education.
What is NRF?
It was recommended by N.E.P 2020 with a total estimated cost of Rs 50000 cr during five years (2023-28)An apex body to provide high-level strategic direction of scientific research in the country.
Department of Science and Technology (DST) will be the administrative Department of NRF which will be governed by a Governing Board consisting of eminent researchers and professionals across disciplines.Prime Minister will be the ex-officio President of the Board and the Union Minister of Science & Technology & Union Minister of Education will be the ex-officio Vice-Presidents. NRF’s functioning will be governed by an Executive Council chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India.
NRF will forge collaborations among the industry, academia, and government departments and research institutions, and create an interface mechanism for participation and contribution of industries and State governments in addition to the scientific and line ministries. It will focus on creating a policy framework and putting in place regulatory processes that can encourage collaboration and increased spending by the industry on R&D.
Recently, the government has introduced NRF bill 2023 which will repeal the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) established by an act of Parliament in 2008 and subsume it into NRF which has an expanded mandate and covers activities over and above the activities of SERB.
What can be a way ahead?
Differentiate the needs for science and technology for a) Science education, b) Professional education and c) Vocational education.
Take definite steps to upgrade pedagogical capacity of the science teachers at school, college and university levels and ensure that every school has a science laboratory equipped with fundamental facilities.
Identify universities for research grants on the bases of their performance, scientific strength and any special needs which are location specific.
A number of scientists of Indian origin are doing excellent research in the countries abroad. Such persons may be invited to work in India on sabbatical and mentor young researchers.
Healthy collaboration with the private sector R&D facilities could be a win-win situation for faster development of technology and their innovative application. Best performing students may be given an opportunity to work as interns in the private labs with a possibility of placement.
Identify programmes in the critical fields for every five years. Strengthen the ones where India has a comparative advantage, or is at par with the global competence.
Context: Karnataka Chief Minister Siddaramaiah has written to the Union government to bring changes to the Manual for Drought Management, 2016 (updated in 2020) for the declaration of drought by the States.
Rationale and objectives: Drought declaration’ signifies the beginning of Government response to conditions representing a drought situation.
Indices & Parameters
Five categories of indices are recommended for developing a monitoring matrix for drought. The five categories of indices are Rainfall, Vegetation, Water, Crop and others.
The first step is to look at two mandatory indicators — rainfall deviation and dry spell. Depending on these, the manual specifies various situations that may or may not be considered a drought trigger.
The second step is to look at four impact indicators — agriculture, vegetation indices based on remote sensing, soil moisture, and hydrology. The manual States that States may consider any three of the four types of the Impact Indicators for assessment of drought and make a judgement. If all three chosen indicators are in the ‘severe’ category, it amounts to severe drought; and if two of the three chosen impact indicators are in the ‘moderate’ or ‘severe’ class, it amounts to moderate drought.
The third step comes in after both previous triggers have been set off. In that event, “States will conduct sample survey for ground truthing in order to make a final determination of drought. The finding of field verification exercise will be the final basis for judging the intensity of drought as ‘severe’ or ‘moderate’.”
Once a drought is determined, the state government needs to issue a notification specifying the geographical extent. The notification is valid for six months, unless de-notified earlier.
Challenges in Drought declaration:
Strict parameters – Various experts have opined that the parameters are so strict that it becomes very difficult to implement them and declare droughts.
One size fits all approach – There indices do not take regional variations into account. It is important to develop region specific criteria that consider local ecological factors, water availability, and agricultural practices.
Traditional practices - Many States still continue to rely on the traditional practice such as the annewari/ paisewari/ girdawari systems of eye estimation and crop cutting experiments.
Time taken to declare droughts – To estimate the losses in crops one has to wiat till the season end. For e.g, estimates for kharif crops are generally available by December or after, whereas those for rabi crops are available not before March. This delays the timely intervention.
Support from centre - Moderate drought is no longer eligible for relief funds from the Centre. The 2016 manual makes it clear that only if the calamity is of “severe nature” can the state governments submit a memorandum for financial assistance under the National Disaster Response Fund. For mild and moderate droughts, the states have to shell out their own funds.
Context: The world still depends on fossil fuels for 82% of its energy supply. The recent uptick in coal consumption in Europe, despite the increase in solar and wind power, suggests that reliable, 24/7 low-carbon electricity resources are critical to ensure the deep decarbonisation of power generation, along with grid stability and energy security.
What are Small Modular Reactors (SMR)?
Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors. SMRs, which can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity, are:
Modular – making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
What are the benefits of SMR?
Due to smaller size, they can be sited on locations not suitable for larger nuclear power plants.
They have relatively lower carbon footprint as they have lower fuel requirements.
They are easy to manufacture, ship, transport and installed.
They offer savings in cost and construction time.
They can be deployed incrementally to match increasing energy demand. SMRs are designed to operate for 40-60 years with capacity factors exceeding 90%
They can be installed into an existing grid or remotely off-grid.
They are relatively safer as they operate on lower power and pressures and hence lower potential for the uncontrolled release of radioactive materials into the environment.
They require no human intervention or external power or force to shut down systems.
Hence, an efficient regulatory regime comparable to that in the civil aviation sector – which has more stringent safety requirements – is important if SMRs are to play a meaningful role in decarbonising the power sector. This can be achieved if all countries that accept nuclear energy direct their respective regulators to cooperate amongst themselves and with the International Atomic Energy Agency to harmonise their regulatory requirements and expedite statutory approvals for SMRs based on standard, universal designs.
What steps should be taken in India?
The Atomic Energy Act will need to be amended to allow the private sector to set up SMRs.
To ensure safety, security, and safeguards, control of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste must continue to lie with the Government of India.
The government will also have to enact a law to create an independent, empowered regulatory board with the expertise and capacity to oversee every stage of the nuclear power generation cycle, including design approval, site selection, construction, operations, certification of operators, and waste reprocessing.
The security around SMRs must remain under government control, while the Nuclear Power Corporation can operate privately-owned SMRs during the hand-holding process.
Indian government can negotiate with foreign suppliers to reprocess nuclear waste from all SMRs in a state-controlled facility under IAEA safeguards. The reprocessed material may also be suitable for use in other NPPs in India that use imported uranium. India can set up facility to reprocess spent fuel from SMRs.
Finally, the Department of Atomic Energy must improve the public perception of nuclear power in India by better disseminating comprehensive environmental and public health data of the civilian reactors, which are operating under international safeguards, in India.
Context: China has been hit by devastating floods in July, inundating cities and causing deaths and infrastructural damage, as well as raising questions about the effectiveness of its 2015 sponge city initiative to reduce urban flood risks.
About Sponge Cities
It describes urban areas with abundant natural areas such as trees, lakes, and parks or other good designs intended to absorb rain and prevent flooding.
It can alleviate urban flooding, water resources shortage, and the urban heat island effect and improve the ecological environment and biodiversity by absorbing and capturing rainwater and utilizing it to reduce floods.
There are three main facets to developing such systems: protecting the original urban ecosystem, ecological restoration, and low-impact development.
It is part of a worldwide movement that goes by various names: green infrastructure in Europe, low-impact development in the United States, water-sensitive urban design in Australia, natural infrastructure in Peru, and nature-based solutions in Canada.
Associated techniques include permeable roads, rooftop gardens, rainwater harvesting, rain gardens, green space and blue space such as ponds and lakes.
Need for Sponge Cities
A growing number of urban areas are experiencing devastating floods as climate change brings heavier rainfall and growing flood risk.
A recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report said 700 million people already live in areas where rainfall extremes have increased, a number expected to grow as global temperatures rise.
They can hold more water in rivers, greenery, and soil instead of losing it to evaporation, meaning they are more resilient to drought.
Natural ways to absorb urban water are about 50% more affordable than man-made solutions and are 28% more effective.
It can reduce the frequency and severity of floods and improve water quality.
Helps in preventing beach pollution by capturing stormwater
Associated strategies like green space can improve quality of life, improve air quality and reduce urban heat islands.
China's Sponge Cities
A sponge city is a new urban construction model for flood management, strengthening ecological infrastructure and drainage systems, proposed by Chinese researchers in early 2000 and accepted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the State Council as urbanism policy in 2014
The "sponge city initiative" undertaken by the Chinese government involves the construction of water-absorbent infrastructure in 30 different urban centers. This initiative aims to effectively manage and utilize 60% of the rainfall in these cities.
The strategy includes creating ponds, wetlands, and installing permeable surfaces on roads and public areas, facilitating the natural infiltration of stormwater into the earth.
China's goal is for 80% of its urban regions to have the capacity to absorb and recycle a minimum of 70% of rainwater by the year 2020.
With rapid urbanisation in India and increasing urban floods, it is time for India to move towards sponge cities.
Context- The Government of India recently approved the New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules (2023), with the objective of substituting animal experimentation, particularly in the field of pharmaceutical testing.
Key-highlights of the Amendment:
The amendment grants researchers the authority to use alternative techniques that do not include animals and are more applicable to humans.
These methods encompass technology such as 3D organoids, organs-on-chip, and sophisticated computational approaches, which are utilized to assess the safety and effectiveness of novel pharmaceuticals.
The aforementioned regulations provide that any Contract Research Organization (CRO) doing a clinical trial or bioavailability/bioequivalence research involving novel or experimental medications in human participants must get registration from the Central Licensing Authority prior to commencing such investigations.
Clinical Trials module in India:
Each pharmaceutical undergoes a comprehensive series of evaluations aimed at assessing its efficacy in treating the specific ailment it was developed for, as well as its potential adverse effects.
The first stage of the drug testing procedure is evaluating the candidate molecule in a minimum of two animal species, namely rodents (mice or rats) and non-rodents, such as dogs and primates.
Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge the intricacies of human physiology, as biological mechanisms and their reactions frequently exhibit individual variations.
These variations can be attributed to various factors including age, gender, existing medical conditions, genetic makeup, and dietary patterns. Consequently, relying solely on laboratory-bred animal species raised under controlled environments may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the human response to a particular drug.
Need for new regulations:
In spite of the escalating allocation of resources in the pharmaceutical industry, a substantial proportion of medications that successfully pass the animal-testing phase encounter failure throughout the subsequent stage of human clinical trials.
The constraints associated with the traditional testing procedure, which starts with animal experimentation, have prompted a growing cohort of academics to prioritize the development of alternative systems that more effectively emulate the complexities of human biology and enhance the ability to forecast human reactions.
Status of regulations worldwide
In the year 2021, the European Union enacted a resolution outlining an action plan aimed at expediting the shift towards non-animal-based technology in the domains of research, regulatory testing, and teaching.
In the year 2022, the United States enacted the FDA Modernization Act 2.0, which granted researchers the authorization to use these systems for the purpose of assessing the safety and effectiveness of novel pharmaceuticals.
The Republic of Korea implemented a legislative proposal known as the 'Vitalization of Development, Dissemination, and Use of Alternatives to Animal Testing Methods Bill'.
In the year 2023, the Environmental Protection Act of Canada underwent an amendment with the objective of substituting, decreasing, or improving the use of vertebrate animals in toxicity testing.
In March 2023, the Indian government made modifications to the New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules 2019, including these systems into the drug-development pipeline.
New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules (2019)
The aim of this study is to modify the existing regulatory framework pertaining to the authorization process for novel pharmaceuticals and the implementation of clinical trials inside the nation.
This set of regulations will be applicable to a wide range of pharmaceutical products, including newly developed medications, experimental pharmaceuticals intended for human use, clinical trials, bioequivalence studies, and the activities of Ethics Committees.
The period required for approving applications has been decreased to 30 days for pharmaceuticals produced in India and 90 days for drugs generated outside the nation.
If there is a lack of contact from the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI), it might be assumed that the application has been granted.
The need of conducting a clinical trial at a local level might be exempted in the process of approving a novel pharmaceutical product, provided that it has already received authorisation and is being sold in certain countries designated by the Drugs Controller General, subject to government consent.
Safety in clinical trials is of paramount importance, since it guarantees the well-being and protection of patients who voluntarily participate in these studies after providing informed permission.
The oversight committee responsible for ethical considerations will oversee the clinical trials and determine the appropriate level of compensation in instances of adverse occurrences.
Technologies suggested as alternatives:
In order to circumvent the use of animals in clinical studies, the implementation of various technologies might prove to be very successful.
Technologies using human cells or stem cells include the creation of three-dimensional cellular constructs, referred to as "organoids" or "mini-organs," which replicate distinct bodily organs on a millimeter scale.
The 'organ-on-a-chip' technology refers to the use of AA-battery-sized chips that are coated with human cells and interconnected with microchannels. This configuration is designed to replicate the circulation of blood inside the human body.
These systems include several facets of human physiology, including interactions between different tissues as well as the analysis of physical and chemical signals occurring inside the body.
The use of 3D bioprinters involves the fabrication of biological tissues by the deposition of human cells and fluids, which serve as the bio-ink.
Given their ability to be constructed using cells that are distinct to individual patients, these structures may also be used to customize drug testing procedures.
There are several obstacles associated with clinical trials that have been alleviated by the use of technology.
The aforementioned factors include expedited recruiting and enhanced retention, enhancement of the patient experience, optimization of patient data collection, availability of non-conventional data sources, and remote monitoring of patients.
Moreover, the decentralization of trials and the implementation of a patient-centric strategy might be considered.
Furthermore, the obstacles encountered by trials in the current paradigm shift resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic may be effectively addressed by the use of innovative technology.
The use of mobile devices, smartphone-based applications, and wearable medical technology has considerable promise in enhancing the process of patient data collection. The use of patient data plays a vital role in clinical trials as it serves to shape the trajectory of research and ultimately influences the final therapeutic results.
The COVID-19 pandemic and the need of social separation to mitigate disease transmission have led to a heightened emphasis on remote monitoring in clinical trials. Researchers are increasingly using remote site access and monitoring capabilities.
Clinical trials face various barriers, including challenges related to decentralized trials such as patient compliance and participants' technological proficiency. Nevertheless, this form of clinical trial effectively addresses obstacles like logistical constraints, transportation limitations, and the difficulty of reaching remote populations, which otherwise impede the global expansion of trials.
Conclusion
India's drug development law change reduces animal experimentation and promotes ethical principles for safer and more effective pharmaceuticals.
India establishes a foundation for responsible drug development by promoting alternative approaches, animal welfare, and international criteria.
This innovative technique is intended to progress science, helping the pharmaceutical industry and people worldwide.
