Mains Exhaustive

Adult literacy

Context: In 2018, Karthyayani Amma, who became the oldest learner at the age of 96, passed away.

About adult literacy

  • It is a type of education system that educates mature students that have already taken part in the workforce.
  • The 2011 Census the adult literacy rate for women in rural areas at 50.6 per cent as compared to 76.9 per cent in urban areas, whereas for men, the same in rural areas is pegged at 74.1 per cent as compared to 88.3 per cent in urban areas.
  • To extend educational options to adults who have lost the opportunity for formal education and have crossed the age of traditional schooling. These individuals now feel a need for various types of learning, including literacy, basic education equivalency, skill development (vocational education), and continuing education.

Advantages to adult education

  • Gaining education after secondary school as a mature-aged student helps and allows adults to gain valuable skills to increase career prospects and expand their professional knowledge.
  • It helps individuals understand their fundamental rights and also take corrective measures against crimes like domestic violence and child marriage.
  • It can sharpen critical thinking, problem-solving abilities and decision making, in professional as well as personal life.
  • It helps people adapt to rapidly evolving technologies, which is crucial in the modern workplace.
  • Research suggests that continuing education can have positive effects on mental health, reducing the risk of cognitive decline.

Reason for adult illiteracy

  • Limited access to education: Due lack of schools, lack of literacy programs, books, and educational materials or being forced to work at a young age, can lead to lifelong illiteracy. Almost 8% of India’s schools have only one teacher. Some of the most populous states also have the most one-teacher schools.  
  • Early school dropout: Due to family obligations, economic necessity, or personal challenges.
  • Learning disabilities: Some adults may have undiagnosed or untreated learning disabilities like dyslexia, dyscalculia etc. that hinder their ability to acquire literacy skills.
  • Cultural and social barriers: Societal norms, customs, and beliefs can discourage certain groups, particularly women, from receiving an education. Discrimination and gender inequality can contribute to high rates of illiteracy among adults.
  • Language barriers: Migrants move to a new place may face language barriers that make it difficult for them to learn the language and acquire literacy skills.

Government initiatives

  • National Literacy Mission (NLM): Launched in 1988 to impart functional literacy to non-literates in the age group of 15-35 years in a time bound manner. By the end of the 10th Plan period, it had made 127.45 million persons literate of which 60% were females 23% belonged to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and 12% to Scheduled Tribes (STs).
  • Saakshar Bharat: Implemented during 2009-10 to 2017-18 to raise literacy rate to 80%, reduce gender gap to 10% and minimize regional and social disparities, with focus on Women, SCs, STs, Minorities and other disadvantaged groups. 
  • National Literacy Mission Authority (NLMA): It is responsible to design, develop and implement Adult Education Programme in the country. It formulates and exercises policy and planning, developmental and promotional activities, operational functions, technology demonstration, leadership training, resource development, research & development, monitoring & evaluation in the country. 
  • Padhna Likhna Abhiyan (PLA) – A centrally sponsored scheme of Adult Education, was launched in 2020. To impart Functional Literacy to 57 lakh non-literates of 15 years and above age group.
  • New India Literacy Programme(NILP): To impart foundational literacy and numeracy for FYs 2022-27 is 5 crore learners at one crore per year and also to cover all the aspects of Adult Education to align with National Education Policy 2020 has been approved.
    • Critical life skills (including financial literacy, digital literacy, commercial skills, health care and awareness, child care and education, and family welfare),
    • Vocational skills development (with a view towards obtaining local employment),
    • Basic education (including preparatory, middle, and secondary stage equivalency); and 
    • Continuing education (including engaging holistic adult education courses in arts, sciences, technology, culture, sports, and recreation, as well as other topics of interest or use to local learners, such as more advanced material on critical life skills).
  • National Digital Literacy Mission: To empower at least one person per household with crucial digital literacy skills.

To enhance adult education, it is crucial to establish accessible and flexible learning opportunities. This can be achieved through a combination of initiatives such as expanding online courses and resources, offering financial incentives or subsidies for adult learners, developing targeted outreach programs, and collaborating with employers to support skill development and lifelong learning.

Operation Polo in Hyderabad: Explained

Context: In the book "Remaking History — 1948 Police Action and the Muslims of Hyderabad", Afsar Mohammed delves into the events surrounding the 'Police Action' and sheds light on how people coped with the trauma and changes in their social fabric during Operation Polo. 

Introduction

  • In the wake of World War II, the British government came up with a series of diplomatic measures to break the deadlock with the Indian Congress, which had embraced a policy of non-cooperation: 
  • Princely States' demand for Sovereignty: They considered forming their own union, conceiving themselves as either sovereign entities or as an influential third force in India's political arena.
  • June 3rd Plan, played an integral role in clarifying the princely states' status. It was determined that the states had the freedom to choose between joining either of the two dominions, India or Pakistan. Importantly, Lord Mountbatten did not grant sovereign status to the princely states during this time.
  • Sardar Patel was responsible for overseeing the states' ministry within the interim cabinet, worked to secure the allegiance of the princely states to the Indian dominion. Assisted by V.P. Menon, the ministry's secretary, Patel appealed to the princely rulers, particularly in matters of defence, communication, and external affairs.
  • By August 15, 1947, a total of 136 princely states had joined the Indian Union.
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Brief history of Hyderabad

  • Quli Qutb Shah had taken control from the Bahamani kingdom in 1512 and laid the foundation of the fortified city of Golconda.
  • In the year 1591, under the leadership of Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Hyderabad was founded.
  • Aurangazeb successfully captured Golconda in 1687.
  • Asaf Jah I, the viceroy of Mughal empire declared himself the Nizam and established an independent rule over the Deccan. Hyderabad assumed the role of a prominent capital city, now under the successive rule of Nizams belonging to the Asaf Jahi dynasty.
  • In 1798, a subsidiary alliance, was forged between the Nizam and the British East India Company.

Accession of Hyderabad to Indian Union

1. Geographical and Demographic Position:

  • Hyderabad, a landlocked state in southeastern India, had a distinctive geographical. 
  • Despite a predominantly Hindu population, comprising 87%, Hyderabad was under the rule of Nizam Osman Ali Khan, a Muslim ruler.
  • Hyderabad's political landscape was marked by the dominance of a Muslim elite, with the Muslim nobility and the influential pro-Nizam Muslim party, Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, at the forefront.

2. Demand for Independence:

  • In June 1947, Nizam Osman Ali Khan issued a declaration (firman) expressing Hyderabad's desire to regain its independence upon the transfer of power.
  • The Government of India, however, rejected this declaration, viewing it as a "legalistic claim of doubtful validity."

3. Concerns:

  • India argued that Hyderabad's strategic location, situated at the crossroads of the main communication routes connecting northern and southern India, had the potential to pose a threat to national security by serving foreign interests.
  • Therefore, as a provisional measure, a temporary Standstill Agreement was established, although Hyderabad had not yet agreed to accede to India and the agreement only assured that Hyderabad would not join Pakistan.

4. Negotiations:

  • Negotiations were initiated through intermediaries, with K.M. Munshi representing India and the Nizam's envoys, Laik Ali and Sir Walter Monckton, guided by Lord Mountbatten.
  • By December 1947, India accused Hyderabad of repeatedly violating the Standstill Agreement, while the Nizam claimed that India was blockading the state, which India denied

5. 'Heads of Agreement' Deal:

  • In June 1948, Lord Mountbatten proposed the 'Heads of Agreement' deal, offering Hyderabad the status of an autonomous dominion within India.
  • The plan outlined restrictions on Hyderabadi armed forces and the disbanding of voluntary forces.
  • Although the plan was approved and signed by the India, it was rejected by the Nizam, who insisted on complete independence or dominion status within the British Commonwealth.

6. International Mediations:

  • The Nizam attempted to seek arbitration from U.S. President Harry S. Truman and intervention from the United Nations. 

7. Communist Uprising: 

  • A communist-led uprising in Telangana, stemming from a peasant revolt in 1946 against feudal elements, escalated in 1948, creating a situation the Nizam struggled to suppress.
  • The Razakars, a militia affiliated with Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, supported the Muslim ruling class and carried out acts of intimidation against Hindu communities.
  • The state police and Razakar militia suppressed communist and peasant revolts, involving atrocities against the Hindu population, forced conversions, and the resettlement of Muslims from outside the state.

Operation Polo

  • The Indian Army was deployed to Hyderabad in response to the deteriorating law and order situation and the operation was referred to as a "Police Action" because it was viewed as an internal matter within India.
  • The Indian government was deeply concerned about the idea of Hyderabad arming itself with support from Pakistan. Sardar Patel likened the concept of an independent Hyderabad to "an ulcer in the heart of India" that required surgical removal.
  • This period marked the initiation of negotiations between India and Hyderabad, culminating in the annexation of Hyderabad, known as "Operation Polo" or sometimes referred to as "Operation Caterpillar."
  • Fearing potential reactions from other regions of India, a state of emergency was declared as 36,000 Indian troops entered Hyderabad to ensure order and stability.
  • Following the surrender of Hyderabad, the Nizam of Hyderabad delivered a radio address on the 23rd of September 1948.
  • After the annexation, the Nizam retained his position as the head of state, in line with other princely rulers who had acceded to India.
  • The Nizam disavowed the complaints made to the United Nations, despite protests from Pakistan and criticism from other nations. The UN Security Council did not pursue the matter further, ultimately leading to Hyderabad's integration into India.

Is the caste Census a useful exercise?

Context: The Central government has decided to hold a caste census as part of the next Census exercise. The dates for the next decennial Census exercise, last held in 2011, are yet to be notified by the government.
The last time that India’s entire population was counted by caste was in 1931. Since then, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been counted in the Census exercises.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Need For Caste based Census and associated Challenges.

Timeline of Caste based Census: 

  • Caste census means inclusion of caste-wise tabulation of India’s population in the Census exercise.
  • Pre-Independence:
    • 1871 Census was the first attempt to measure the population and enumerate caste data across India. 
    • 1931 Census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data. 
  • Post-Independence: 
    • Union of India after Independence, decided as a matter of policy not to enumerate caste wise populations other than SCs and STs. 
    • Thus, India’s largest caste bloc – Other Backward Classes – have not figured in any census from 1951-2011. 
    •  There is no proper estimate for the population of OBCs, various groups within the OBCs, and others. 
    • In 1961, the GOI advised States to conduct their own surveys and draw up State-specific OBC lists if they so desired. 
  • Aftermath of Mandal Commission: 
    •  In 1979, Mandal Commission (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission) suggested expansion of affirmative action to include other backward classes. 
    • OBCs, as per 1931 census, amounted to 52% of Indian population. Based on which a 27% reservation was given to the OBCs in 1990. 
    •  Later there appeared demand for introducing the OBC category in the decennial census to count them. 
  • Socio-Economic Caste Census 2011: 
    • SECC 2011 was the first caste-based census since 1931. 
    • It was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) and Ministry of housing and urban poverty alleviation in rural and urban areas respectively. 
    •  This was the first time such a comprehensive exercise has been carried out for both rural and urban India, which included caste-wise population data. 
    •  2011 SECC data, excluding the caste data, was finalised and published by the government. 
    • Demand being raised to enumerate castes as part of Census 2021 itself. To make available authentic data on caste-wise population and their socio-economic conditions.

What is the need For Caste based Census?

  • Estimate change in demography: Present reservations and other welfare scheme entitlements to OBC are still based on the population estimates of 1931
  • Bring about social justice: Help governments’ welfare schemes reach the most backward and deprived castes that have been marginalised to date.
  • Help rationalise reservation policy as per the need of a specific caste or community: Land fragmentation and decades of agricultural stagnation have turned many upper-caste landowners into marginal farmers. Whereas rising rural wage has benefitted some of the backward classes including Dalits.
  • Demand for Reservations: There have been demands to expand OBC reservation (as the present 50% cap is arbitrary) and inclusion of dominant castes like Jats, Kapus, Patidars, Marathas etc. into the OBC category. Often these demands are not based on scientific evidence. Hence, a Caste based socio-economic census will bring out the real picture.
  • OBC Sub-categorisation:  OBC membership is large and heterogeneous, with vast intra-caste differences in socio-economic conditions. Some better-off groups among OBC castes have cornered a disproportionately large share of seats reserved for OBCs giving rise to the demand for sub-classification of various caste groups among OBCs. The caste-based socio-economic census will help in such classification.
  • Assess the impact of Affirmative action: A socioeconomic caste census would help in assessing how far the extension of reservations to OBCs benefited them.
  • Identify relative deprivation of some castes.

Concerns against Caste Based Census: 

  • Subvert India’s anti-caste struggle: Constitution, social reform movements and forces of modernity have long aspired for the annihilation of caste.
  • Reinforces Caste Identities: Enumeration of castes might reinforce caste identities prevalent in society.
  • Vote bank politics: Caste wise data may be used as a tool for caste-based political mobilisation. 
  • New demands for Reservation: Numbers about OBCs might provide a new issue to the regional parties to mount pressure on the Centre for an OBC quota in central government jobs and educational institutions.
  • Federal concerns: According to the 7th schedule of the Constitution, the Census is in the domain of the Union. Thus, State governments conducting their own caste census is against the constitutional spirit. 

Conclusion: While caste-based OBC enumeration is necessary for documenting discrimination, understanding current social- economic conditions of various castes and developing policy to distribute resources. A full caste census might be cumbersome as Indian society is divided into roughly 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes. However, caste as a criterion for the distribution of resources may pose significant risks, including reinforcing caste identities and promoting divisive politics.

Reforms needed for Multilateral Development Banks

Context: As per the Centre for Global Development’s Tracker (CGD), World Bank and six other multilateral banks (MDBs) have made good progress in integrating global challenges like climate change into their agendas, more reforms are needed for better functioning of these institutions.

More information:

  • The tracker assessed progress at seven multilateral development banks (MDBs) on twenty-eight specific items under five categories:
    • using capital more efficiently
    • expanding capital
    • adding global challenges to their mandates
    • mobilising private finance
    • making country engagements more efficient.
  • Results found by the tracker:
    • Highly uneven results among the institutions and no single MDB excelled in all reform categories.
    • World Bank Group was at some stage of pursuing 96 per cent of the agenda items.
    • European Bank for Reconstruction and Development was close behind with 93 per cent.
    • Asian Development Bank and the Inter-American Development Group had taken action on half the agenda.
  • On Climate challenges:
    • The US, the World Bank’s biggest shareholder and other countries are pushing the bank and its sister development banks to focus on climate change alongside poverty reduction and development and to take on more risk to expand their lending.
    • Developing and emerging economies need $2.4 trillion per year to meet global climate challenges (far exceeding the amount of financing now available).
    • As per the CGD, banks had largely recognized the urgency and importance of addressing climate change within the financial sector and all seven MDBs assessed had either included global challenges in their mandates or were in the process of doing so.
  • In October, 2023, G20 finance ministers and central bank governors at a meeting in Marrakech (Morocco) have taken up recommendations suggested by the second volume of the Independent Expert Group on Strengthening Multilateral Development Banks. 
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What are Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs)?

  • A multilateral development bank (MDB) is an international financial institution established by two or more countries with the primary objective of promoting economic advancement in low income and developing nations.
  • These MDBs comprise member countries that represent a mix of developed and developing nations.
  • MDBs extend financial support in the form of loans and grants to their member nations.
  • Multilateral development banks operate under the framework of international legal principles.

Objectives

  • While commercial banks primarily aim to generate profits through loans and other financial services, Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) makes grants and affordable loans to enhance the economic conditions of impoverished or developing nations.
  • MDBs extend non-concessional financial support to middle-income countries' governments, private sector enterprises in developing countries, and select governments of low-income nations.
  • MDBs supply concessional aid, including grants and low-interest loans, to low-income country governments.
  • Focus is on development-oriented goals, such as eradicating extreme poverty and reducing economic disparities.
  • Provide loans at minimal or no interest rates or issue grants to finance projects in infrastructure, energy, education, environmental sustainability, and other sectors that foster development.

Evolution of MDBs

  • At the end of World War II, representatives from 44 nations convened in Bretton Woods, USA, to establish a new framework for international cooperation and post-war reconstruction.
  • This meeting in 1944 gave rise to the establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank Group (WBG).
  • The World Bank assumed the responsibility of providing financial aid to facilitate the post-war rebuilding and economic progress of underdeveloped nations.
  • World Bank Group's role has evolved, and presently, it consists of various institutions:
    • International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which extends loans to both low- and middle-income countries (LICs and MICs);
    • International Development Association (IDA), which provides loans to Low Income Countries;
    • International Finance Corporation (IFC), support to the private sector;
    • Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which encourages private enterprises to invest in foreign countries;
    • International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) for resolving disputes.

Types of (MDBs):

  • The first category comprises the largest and most renowned institutions, which offer loans and grants. Example: Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), established in 1959.
  • The second category of multilateral development banks is formed by the governments of low-income countries, which then collaborate to borrow collectively through the MDB, enabling them to secure more favourable interest rates. Example: Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), established in 1969.

Challenges for multilateral development banks

  • Within the realm of Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs), the major share of responsibility for extending financial support to emerging and developing economies (EDEs), predominantly rests with the World Bank (WB) system.
  • The degree of competition and cooperation within the realm of MDBs is currently suboptimal, leaving significant room for improvement, particularly concerning customer service and the ease of borrowing.
  • Regional MDBs often find their autonomy limited, particularly when their major shareholders overlap, resulting in the formulation of similar policies.
  • MDB governance and the distribution of country voting shares present considerable challenges when seeking to increase capital. Additionally, criticisms are frequently directed at the bureaucratic procedures within MDBs, which can hinder project implementation and decision-making.
  • The original purpose of Multilateral Development Banks was to address challenges of the period after Second World War. The contemporary world introduces new concerns related to global public goods, climate change, inequality and pandemics. 
  • Another issue pertains to the absence of adequate representation, influence, and voice for developing countries in the decision-making processes of MDBs. Ensuring transparency, accountability, and legitimacy in their actions and outcomes remains a significant challenge.
  • MDBs grapple with constraints in their resources as they contend with the increasing demands for development financing. This is particularly evident in areas like climate change mitigation, adaptation, and infrastructure development.
  • Encouraging private sector investments in development projects poses challenges. MDBs must create an environment conducive to attracting private capital by addressing risks and offering financial incentives for private sector engagement.
  • MDBs face the challenge of addressing climate change and supporting sustainable development initiatives. This necessitates the incorporation of climate considerations into their policies, strategies, and project financing decisions. 

Reforming Multilateral Development Banks

The independent expert group has proposed a comprehensive triple agenda for Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs). This agenda focuses on three core areas:

  1. Eliminating Extreme Poverty: MDBs should prioritize initiatives aimed at reducing and ultimately eliminating extreme poverty.
  2. Tripling Sustainable Lending Levels by 2030: The report recommends increasing annual sustainable lending levels to $390 billion by the year 2030.
  3. Flexible Funding Mechanisms: MDBs should create flexible funding mechanisms to engage investors actively supporting MDB goals.

The recommendations are:

  • Encouraging Private Sector Engagement: The report emphasizes the importance of private sector engagement. It suggests that MDBs should break away from limited operational interaction between their private financing arms and their sovereign activities, encouraging a more collaborative approach with the private sector.
  • Optimizing Balance Sheets and Cooperation: The report underscores the significance of optimizing balance sheets and enhancing cooperation among MDBs. These steps are seen as critical for achieving the objectives of the triple agenda.
  • Leveraging Private Capital: Currently, MDBs leverage only $0.6 in private capital for every dollar they lend from their own resources. The expert group recommends that MDBs aim to at least double this figure to attract more private investment.
  • Establishment of a Global Public Goods (GPGs) Funding Mechanism: The report proposes the creation of a funding mechanism for global public goods (GPGs). This innovative mechanism has the potential to unlock an additional annual lending capacity, estimated at a minimum of $20 billion. To achieve this, a flexible legal and institutional framework needs to be established.
  • Focus on "Country Platforms": G20 expert panel recommends that MDBs shift their focus from individual projects to helping countries build and operationalize "country platforms." These platforms are voluntary country-level mechanisms set out by respective governments to foster collaboration among development partners based on shared strategic vision and priorities.
  • Co-Creation of Multi-Year Programs: The expert group suggests that MDBs should prioritize programs identified by national governments with a sectoral focus and long-term transformation plans. This approach aligns MDBs more closely with the developmental priorities of individual nations and encourages the co-creation of multi-year programs.
  • Independent Assessment Mechanism: The expert panel recommends that G20 finance ministers establish a mechanism to advise and independently assess the first-year implementation of the proposed roadmap, ensuring transparency and accountability in the reform process.
  • Recommendations for Operational Improvements: Several smaller, well-defined improvements are suggested, including board monitoring of new targets, changing procedures, easing the utilization process, improving managerial incentives for small ticket lending, and providing training for giving warranties.
  • Building Bankable Projects: Countries are encouraged to create bankable projects that can compete for finance on the country platforms. Technical support can help in developing granular asset specifics, measurement, disclosure, and appropriate incentives. Transparency and competition are key factors in reducing the impact of geopolitics in project decisions.
  • Green Concessional Lending Arm: The report proposes the creation of a green concessional lending arm for the World Bank (WB) with more equitable voting shares, which could make it easier to raise capital for environmentally sustainable projects.

Other Recommendations:

  • Reform and Incentive Structures, which may involve implementing first loss guarantees, establishing realistic return targets, and improving risk management. Additionally, incentive structures should be designed to foster innovation and adaptability.
  • Global South Representation to should ensure that the voices and perspectives of the Global South, including countries such as India, are not only heard but also advocated for in decision-making processes. This ensures a more inclusive and equitable approach to their operations.

Global Hunger Index 2023: India ranks 111 out of 125 countries

Context: India's ranking in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) has slipped from 107th place out of 121 countries in 2022 to 111th place out of 125 countries in 2023, according to the report jointly published by Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe. This indicates a worsening situation with regards to hunger and underlines the ongoing challenges in addressing food security and malnutrition in the country.

More about Report: 

  • The GHI score is calculated on a 100-point scale reflecting the severity of hunger, where zero is the best score (no hunger) and 100 is the worst. 
  • India’s ranking is based on a GHI score of 28.7 on a 100 point scale. This categorises India’s severity of hunger as “serious”. 
  • The country came after neighbouring countries Pakistan (102nd), Bangladesh (81st), Nepal (69th) and Sri Lanka (60th). However, India fared better than South Asia and Africa South of the Sahara, which recorded a score of 27 each.
  • While the rate of undernourishment in India stood at 16.6 percent and under-five mortality at 3.1 percent, the prevalence of anaemia in women aged between 15 and 24 years stood at 58.1 percent.
  • As per the index, India also has the highest child wasting rate in the world at 18.7 percent, reflecting acute undernutrition. 

Global Hunger Index:

Each country’s GHI score is calculated based on four indicators. 

Undernourishment – calculated by the share of the population with insufficient caloric intake. 

Child stunting - calculated by the share of children under age five who have low height for their age, reflecting chronic undernutrition. 

Child mortality - Calculated by the share of children who die before their fifth birthday, partly reflecting the fatal mix of inadequate nutrition and unhealthy environments.

Child wasting - Calculated by the share of children under age five who have low weight for their height, reflecting acute undernutrition.

What is Hunger?

  • Hunger is a condition in which a person cannot eat sufficient food to meet basic nutritional needs for a sustained period. Hunger can manifest itself in different ways – undernourishment, malnutrition and wasting.

Concerns/Effects

  • Human Well-being: Ensuring that people have access to sufficient and nutritious food is fundamental to their health and well-being. Hunger can lead to malnutrition, which in turn can cause a range of physical and mental health problems, particularly among children.
    • While mortality has declined by half and fertility by two-fifths, malnutrition has only come down by about one-fifth in the last 40 years. The inescapable conclusion is that further progress in human development in India will be difficult to achieve.
  • Economic Development: A well-nourished population is more productive. When people are not hungry and malnourished, they can work effectively, contribute to the workforce, and participate in economic activities, leading to overall economic growth.
    • Malnutrition costs India at least $10 billion annually in terms of lost productivity, illness, and death and is seriously retarding improvements in human development and further reduction of childhood mortality (World Bank).
    • This inter-generational cycle of undernutrition transmitted from mothers to children greatly impacts India’s present and future.
  • Educational Attainment: Malnourishment can also significantly lower cognitive development and learning achievement during the preschool and school years, and subsequently result in lower productivity.
    • Nutritional anaemia is implicated in low physical and mental performance.
    • Malnutrition not only blights the lives of individuals and families but also reduces the returns on investment in education and acts as a major barrier to social and economic progress.
    • Widespread child undernutrition greatly impedes India’s socio-economic development and potential to reduce poverty.
  • Reducing Inequality: Hunger often affects marginalized and vulnerable communities disproportionately. Addressing hunger is a step toward reducing socio-economic disparities and promoting social equity.
  • Food Security: It is important for a country's stability and security. Addressing hunger helps ensure social stability and reduces the potential for social unrest and conflict.
  • Global Commitments: India, like many nations, has made international commitments to eradicate hunger and improve nutrition under initiatives like Goal 2 of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda seeks to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition, and double agricultural productivity between 2015-2020.
    • According to UNICEF, one in three malnourished children in the world is Indian. It is estimated that reducing malnutrition could add some 3% to India’s GDP.

Reasons behind India’s persistent problem of hunger:

Inappropriate child feeding practices:

The WHO and UNICEF recommend that breastfeeding should be initiated within the first hour of birth and infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first six months. 

NFHS-5 says that only 42% of infants are breastfed within one hour of birth and only 64% of infants are exclusively breastfed for first 6 months. 

Low Female literacy:

Nutrition levels are majorly affected by the education level of women. It increases awareness about nutrient-rich diet, personal hygiene, good feeding practices etc. Educating women also help in containing the family size in poor, malnourished families. But female literacy in India is only 65% and the rate is much lower for the states like Bihar and Rajasthan that recorded high levels of malnutrition in children. 

Poor Sanitation: 

Repeated infection with diarrhoeal diseases due to poor sanitation contributes to chronic malnutrition by inhibiting intestinal absorption of nutrients and is strongly correlated with stunting. The proportion of people with access to improved sanitation facilities in India is only 49% as per NHFS-4.

Micro nutrient deficiency: 

According to studies, more than 80 per cent of the Indian population suffers from micronutrient deficiencies, contributing to compromised immunity. This is mainly due to lack of dietary diversification, changed dietary habits, food processing resulting in plant micronutrient loss, crop homogenisation. 

Food inflation: 

With rising food inflation families become less able to buy and eat nutritious food. According to a report of ADB, 1 per cent increase in food inflation leads to an increase of 0.3 per cent in both infant and child mortalities, and 0.5 per cent in undernourishment. 

Limitations of existing schemes:

  • The ICDS program, while successful in many ways, has not made a significant dent in child malnutrition. This is mostly due to the priority that the program has placed on food supplementation, targeting mostly children after the age of three when malnutrition has already set in.
  • Stringent conditions to avail the benefits of Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana  has led to the exclusion of teenage mothers and poor women who birth more than one child, thereby abetting the intergenerational cycle of undernutrition. Exclusion errors, non-inclusion of  nutritious items such as pulses and edible oil in the PDS basket failed to improve the nutritional status of poor households.
  • Poverty: Poverty restricts food choices and has been the causative factor of hunger-related deaths.
  • Climate change impact: Erratic rainfall and increasing frequency of extreme events have impacted agricultural activities everywhere creating unfavourable conditions for food production.
    • Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms and long periods of drought are on the increase with catastrophic consequences for the hungry poor in developing countries.
  • Gender inequality: In many parts women’s nutritional requirements are often unmet as they consume whatever is left after everyone else has eaten.
  • A person’s ‘nutritional quotient’ is also dependent on demographic factors like gender, caste, age, etc. For instance, the nutritional needs of girl children and the elderly are not adequately addressed in our society.
  • Corruption: Corruption in PDS is widely recognised. PDS a food distribution scheme is mired with inefficiencies and corrupt practices denying food to many.

Measures taken by the Government: 

  • POSHAN Abhiyaan is an overarching umbrella scheme to improve the nutritional outcomes for children, pregnant women and lactating mothers by holistically addressing the multiple determinants of malnutrition. It involves convergence of multiple programs and schemes: ICDS, PMMVY, NHM (with its sub components such as JSY, MCP card, Anaemia Mukt Bharat, RBSK, IDCF, HBNC, HBYC, Take Home Rations), Swachh Bharat Mission, National Drinking water Mission, NRLM etc.
  • Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN) for providing one hot cooked meal in Government and Government – aided Schools.
  • Food fortification: 
    • Fortification of wheat is being implemented in 12 states on pilot basis.
    • Fortification of edible oil, too, was made compulsory across the country by FSSAI in 2018.
    • Fortification of milk was started in 2017 under which the National Dairy Development Board of India (NDDB) is pushing companies to add vitamin D.
    • States have been scaling up the use of double-fortified salt in an effort to combat iron and iodine deficiencies.
  • Price stabilisation fund to regulate the price volatility of important agri horticultural commodities like onion, potatoes and pulses.

Measures to be Taken

  • Systemic overhaul of the public administration and service delivery systems, as well as engagement from the community.
  • Need to invest in the infrastructure of ICDS and the Anganwadi centres as well as improve their coverage.
  • Need to better target nutritional programs and substantially increase their quality and impact. 
  • Inclusion of all vulnerable groups (children, adolescent girls, mothers, expectant women) under the safety cover of ICDS.
  • Fortification of essential food items with legal provisions (e.g., twin fortification of salt with both iodine and iron).
  • Popularize low-cost nutritious food.
  • Control of micro-nutrient deficiencies with a special focus on vulnerable groups. Some district-level interventions have aimed to address this issue. For instance, Angul district in Odisha, which has a large geographically isolated tribal population, has periodic grievance redressal camps set up in areas far from the Anganwadi centres to provide ICDS services.
  • Need to address gaps and inefficiencies in the present setup through public awareness, community engagement and empowerment, while such an intervention would assist the community in realising their rights and entitlements, and then act as a deterrent to inefficiencies and gaps, it would also help in developing community-based solutions to malnutrition, unburdening the stressed public healthcare and ICDS infrastructure.
  • Strengthen inter-departmental convergence and resource allocation based on real-time data. In this regard, the approach undertaken by Bangladesh has been successful and replicable in India.

Conclusion

For solving the malnutrition challenges in India requires the nutrition policy and program to have lasting and old challenges, as well as keep pace with new and emerging challenges.

Mission Poshan 2.0 (Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0) has been announced in the Budget 2021-2022 as an integrated nutrition support program is the right step in this direction.

What are Generic Drugs?

Context: The use of quality generic medicines holds plenty of promise to reduce the burden on the common man. However, India needs to ensure people have access to quality generic drugs. 

About Generic Drugs

  • Generic Drugs refer to a medication that is equivalent to a brand-name product in terms of its active ingredient, strength, dosage form, and intended use. 
  • It is marketed either by a salt or brand name. They have the same potency, quality, and implications and work in an identical manner as the branded medicine. 
  • India is the largest producer of generic drugs globally.

Need for generic drugs

Need for generic drugs
  • Reduce Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: In India, around 94 million people are pushed into poverty due to expenditure on healthcare. About two-thirds of the expenditure is incurred on medicines.
  • Accessibility, availability and affordability: It may become available once the patent on the brand-name drug expires. This allows for competition in the pharmaceutical market, which often results in lower prices for consumers. This makes generic medicines price 30% to 70% less than branded medicines.
  • Effectiveness: It works in the same way as their brand-name counterparts. They have the same intended use and are equally effective.
  • Rise in the number of fatal diseases: It has increased over the years and the cost of medicines for such diseases is very high.

Challenges to generic drugs

  • Falsified and counterfeit drugs: Due to lack of transparency in the licensing procedures of Drugs, and lack of quality facility, it has resulted in the increased supply of low-quality, spurious and substandard drugs.
    • In 2018, the Central Drug Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) identified nearly 4.5 per cent of all generic medicines in the domestic market to be substandard due to lack of testing facilities.
    • Counterfeit products have entered the supply chain with severe consequences, as seen in Gambia and Uzbekistan.
  • Absence of appropriate scientific standards: Doctors do not prescribe a generic drug due to their lack of trust in the quality available in the Indian market, which lacks scientific standards in India.
  • Lack of resources and manpower: Drug control procedures in India suffer from a lack of resources and manpower. Widespread corruption within the system makes matters worse.
  • Problem of naming a fixed-dose combination (FDC): Many fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) drugs contain even 8 or 9 Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients. To prescribe a generic name for each of the eight or nine ingredients is a very tedious and impractical task.

Government Initiatives

  • Guidelines by the National Medical Commission (NMC) make it mandatory for doctors to write generic drug names legibly and preferably in capital letters.
  • Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP): To provide quality generic medicines at affordable prices. Prices of medicines sold through these outlets are 50-90% less than that of branded medicine prices in the open market.
  • Free Drugs Service Initiative (FDSI) 2015: It was launched under the National Health Mission (NHM) on procurement of generic essential medicines at low prices, eliminating irrational medicines and unscientific fixed-dose combinations.
  • Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) has recommended that retailers should maintain a separate rack/shelf solely for the storage of generic medicines sold in the proper name.

Way Forward

  • Utilising anti-counterfeiting technologies for counterfeit drugs: Through imaging technologies, variable data printing of unique numbers or barcodes with speciality inks, including invisible inks, and with RFID.
  • Strong regulatory framework: Strengthen and enforce regulations that ensure the safety, quality, and efficacy of generic medicines. Create a clear approval process for generic drugs to enter the market.
  • Drugs Controller General of India need to work in close association with the pharmaceutical companies and local drug control authorities to combat the menace of counterfeit drugs.
  • Research and Development Support: Provide grants or incentives to pharmaceutical companies to invest in research and development of generic versions of essential medicines.
  • Pharmacy Incentives: Reward pharmacies for promoting and dispensing generic medications.
  • API Sourcing: Ensure the sourcing of APIs from reputable and approved manufacturers, preferably those that adhere to Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) to ensure the quality of drugs. 

Nuclear option to Energy Security

Context: India is already the third-highest consumer of energy globally. Developmental aspirations of India require a manifold increase in meeting per-capita energy requirements. Further, transition to net-zero GHG emissions necessitates the rapid deployment of new nuclear energy capacity. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Nuclear Energy Production in India.

Mains: Need for Cleaner Energy Alternatives; Challenges to scaling Nuclear Energy in India.

Need for Cleaner Energy Alternatives: 

  • Increasing Energy Requirement: Total clean energy requirement to support a developed India is estimated to be around 25,000 — 30,000 TWhr/yr. This is more than four times our present energy consumption.
  • Reduce dominance of Thermal Power: Major share of India’s energy mix is thermal power, producing 73% of the electricity of India. However, coal is a non-renewable fossil fuel and leads to massive greenhouse gas emissions. 
  • Limited potential for Hydropower Expansion: India has very limited growth potential for hydropower, as scaling new projects poses concerns like- threat to biodiversity, seismological factors in fragile Himalayas, and high costs of rehabilitation and compensation to land owners.
  • Unreliability of Green Alternatives: Solar and Wind power are fairly good alternatives, but the energy generated is variable. Also, high cost is associated with Solar photovoltaic cells and storage batteries.
  • Meet Environmental Targets: India has the target to cut carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030 and achieve net-zero emission status by 2070. India needs to diversify its energy mix and increase the share of renewable clean energy like Nuclear energy. 

Brief background: Nuclear Energy Production in India:

  • Process (Nuclear fission): It involves disintegrating a heavy atom’s nucleus, such as uranium or plutonium, into two or more smaller nuclei. This process releases a substantial amount of energy, which is harnessed and converted into steam to power a turbine that generates electricity.
  • Fuel used: U-235 (low-enriched or reactor-grade uranium)
  • Utility:
    • Addressing burgeoning electricity demand 
    • Reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and help the country transition to a cleaner energy source/fuel.
  • Present Capacity: Presently, India operates 22 nuclear reactors across eight sites, with a total capacity of 6,780 MWe. Among these 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).

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Advantages of Nuclear Energy:

  • Clean Energy: Nuclear Energy does not produce greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, which contribute to climate change. Therefore, it is a cleaner source of energy compared to fossil fuels. 
  • High Energy Density: Nuclear power plants can produce a large amount of energy from a small amount of fuel.
    • For operating a plant like Kudankulam over a year — 1,000 megawatts at 90% PLF (plant load factor) —the requirement is only 25 tonnes of low-enriched uranium fuel. Low enrichment means below 5% (proportion of fissile uranium). 
    • Compared to a coal plant (of similar capacity) — approximately five million tonnes of coal is required. Furthermore, thermal power plants are polluting and coal produces ash. (Ash contains many heavy metals which are detrimental to the water source). 
  • Firm/Reliable Power: Nuclear power plants can run continuously for months or even years without needing to refuel, providing a reliable source of electricity.

General Concerns regarding Nuclear Energy: 

Resistance to nuclear energy is driven by fears about safety, nuclear proliferation, or some other concerns related to its use, including: 

  • Risk of Nuclear Accidents: Nuclear reactors are capable of catastrophic accidents, as witnessed in Fukushima and Chernobyl. A single nuclear disaster can contaminate large tracts of land with radioactive materials, rendering these areas uninhabitable for decades..
  • High Cost: Nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain and thus high cost of nuclear power can make it difficult for some countries to afford.
  • Nuclear Waste: There is no universally agreed-upon solution for the long-term storage and disposal of nuclear waste.
  • Public Perception: Due to concerns about safety and the risk of accidents, public opposition can make it difficult to build new nuclear power plants.
  • Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Spent Nuclear fuel can be enriched and Nuclear technology can be used to create nuclear weapons. There is particularly a concern in countries with less-than-transparent governments that can use nuclear power programs as a cover for the development of nuclear weapons.

Challenges to scaling Nuclear Energy in India: 

  • Availability of Fuel: India does not have large reserves of natural Uranium and must import much of its nuclear fuel from other countries. This can make it difficult to plan for and maintain a stable supply of fuel, which in turn can limit the growth of the nuclear energy industry. 
  • Limited contribution to Energy Mix: Presently, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation at seven plants, as well as eight reactors under construction. Nuclear power is around 2% of India’s installed and generated power.
  • Government Monopoly: One of the major reasons that the growth of nuclear power is hindered is due to the Government monopoly in the nuclear energy sector (all reactors are operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited). 
  • Nuclear Liability:
    • India's nuclear liability laws have also been a barrier to the growth of the nuclear energy industry. India’s strict liability laws place the burden of compensation for nuclear accidents on the plant operator, which can deter private companies from investing in nuclear power. 
    • Also, according to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, the liability can be shifted from the operator to the vendor or supplier in case the accident is due to equipment or material. This was the reason nuclear companies pulled out of India, made it difficult to attract foreign investment in the industry and limited the growth of the sector. 

E.g., Nuclear liability continues to be the major issue behind why the deal to install French European Pressurised Reactors at Jaitapur, Maharashtra has not made progress.

  • Regulatory Environment: India's regulatory environment for nuclear power is still evolving, and there is a need for clear and consistent regulations to govern the industry. This includes regulations related to safety, security, and waste management.

Way Forward:

  • Expansion of Indigenous Nuclear Reactors: 
    • Indigenous 700 MW PHWR, the first unit of which is already in commercial operation at the Kakrapar Atomic Power Project in Gujarat, should be the prime workhorse for base load electrical capacity addition. Fifteen more such units are already under construction in fleet mode. 
  • Build indigenous Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) at a large number of sites by retiring old thermal power plants.
  • Speed up Second and Third-stage Nuclear-Power Programme development to unleash thorium energy potential in accordance with the pre-existing plans for long-term sustainable energy supply.
  • Phased induction of other public sector companies like National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) to get into the Nuclear Power sector. Amendment of the Atomic Energy Act1962 to allow the private sector to set up SMRs.
    • Given the strategic importance of the sector, the government has kept the private players out of the ambit of operation and fuel management for nuclear power generation.
  • Utilising bilateral co-operation frameworks for extending cooperation in the Civil-Nuclear Energy Sector. (E.g., India-US Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, 2008)

India needs a National Programme guided by bold policy support that provides a level playing field for nuclear energy on par with renewable energy.

Evidence-based Traditional Medicine

Context: Outrightly denying traditional medical systems would be a hasty dismissal of valuable medical experience and a disservice to the scientific attitude. India needs to work on evidence-based traditional medicine. The acceptability of traditional medicines in the scientific community would increase if evaluated by the methods of modern science in a way that does not compromise with the wholeness of Ayurvedic formulations. 

Evidence-based medicine vs traditional medicine

  • Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM): EBM is based on the integration of the best available scientific evidence, clinical expertise, and patient preferences and values. It is based on empirical data rather than anecdotal evidence. 
  • Traditional Medicine: Rooted in tradition and experience, traditional medicine is based on long-standing practices passed down through generations. It may include herbal remedies, cultural rituals, and practices.
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Reasons for non-development of alternate medicine in India

  • Lack of scientific validation: Alternative medicine is often not based on scientific evidence or rigorous testing. Without proper scientific validation, it can be difficult for alternative medicine to gain acceptance in the medical community and among the general public. 
  • Limited government support: While India has a rich tradition of alternative medicine, government support for research and development in this field, in the past has been limited, which has hindered the growth of alternative medicine. E.g., Lack of dedicated funding mechanisms for research and development of alternative medicine. 
  • Competition from conventional medicine: Conventional medicine, including modern pharmaceuticals, is highly developed and widely accepted in India. This has made it difficult for alternative medicine to gain a foothold and compete in the marketplace.
  • Lack of standardisation: Unlike conventional medicine, which is highly standardised and regulated, alternative medicine often lacks standardisation. This can lead to inconsistencies in the quality and efficacy of alternative treatments, which can undermine public confidence in these therapies.
  • Scepticism among medical professionals: Some medical professionals remain sceptical about the efficacy of alternative medicine, particularly when it comes to treating serious or life-threatening conditions. 

Recent developments

  • The government has established the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) to promote the integration of traditional Indian medicine with modern medicine. 
  • In May 2023, a Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and the Ministry of AYUSH for collaboration and cooperation in health research in the field of Integrated Medicine. 
  • Integrated medicine in India refers to the practice of combining traditional Indian medicine systems, such as Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy (AYUSH), with modern medicine. 
  • Aim: To provide patients with a holistic approach to healthcare that takes into account physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of health. By combining different therapies, healthcare providers can tailor treatment plans to individual patients.
  • The Ministry of AYUSH and ICMR have joined hands to undertake quality human clinical trials to generate evidence on the benefits of using Ayurveda along with modern medicine (evidence-based medicine) in treating certain disease conditions of national importance.
    • ICMR will design and conduct these trials as it holds decades of experience in conducting human clinical trials. In the initial phase, the collaboration will be restricted to Ayurveda. 
    • Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy may be included in future and each system will be tested together with modern medicine.

Significance of the fusion of the traditional Indian medicine system with modern medicine: 

The recent COVID-19 Pandemic has underscored the importance of AYUSH thus calling for its revival and fusion with modern medicine to build a holistic health system, which provides: 

  • Comprehensive care: Traditional Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, focuses on a holistic approach to health and wellness. This means that it considers the individual as a whole, including physical, mental, and emotional factors. By combining this approach with modern medicine, patients can receive more comprehensive and personalized care.
  • Accessibility: Traditional Indian medicine is often more accessible and affordable than modern medicine. By incorporating these therapies into modern healthcare systems, it reduces out-of-pocket expenditure. 
  • Innovation: By combining traditional Indian medicine with modern medicine, new and innovative treatments can be developed, which can lead to better healthcare outcomes for patients and advances in medical research.
  • Overcome the challenge of doctors’ shortage: The existing doctor-patient ratio in India is 1:1700 and the ratio improves to around 1:800 (below the WHO’s mandate of 1:1000) with the integration of the AYUSH practitioners.
  • Help tackle multidrug-resistant diseases such as tuberculosis, lifestyle disorders and long-term diseases. It can reduce the growing burden of non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases- The WHO Report highlights that non-communicable diseases account for 63% of deaths in India. 
  • Reduces the pollution in the manufacturing and waste management of allopathic medicine. 

Steps to build a holistic health system:

  • Invest in research and development of AYUSH for integration with modern medicine.
  • Update curriculum in medical courses to integrate traditional Indian medicine system with modern medicine.
  • Introduce bridge courses for AYUSH practitioners and health professionals for interdisciplinary learning.
  • Co-locate AYUSH facilities in hospitals and primary health centres.
  • Build awareness in the Public about the benefits and limitations of integrated medicine through public health campaigns, community outreach programs, and partnerships with traditional healers and practitioners. 

Yom Kippur War: Overview

Context: In a recent development on October 7, 2023, Hamas launched an attack on Israel. This action by Hamas has shifted the spotlight back to the 'Yom Kippur War,' which took place from October 6 to October 25, 1973.

Yom Kippur War Map
  • Palestine was a territory under the Ottoman Rule.
  • Following the Sykes-Picot Accord, Palestine was given to England as a protectorate.
  • Antisemitic attitude of Hitler and ostracization of Jews in Europe, led to a decision where England and USA tried to resettle Jews in their original homeland.
  • Palestine at that time was Arab state inhabited by Muslims.
  • The incoming migrant Jews with the aid of USA and Britain, dominated the local Arab population and tried to carve out a state and marginalise Arabs in two pockets of West Bank and Gaza.
  • Thus, Arabs were made as a Stateless-refugees in their own country.
  • This created a lot of anger and resistance in other neighbouring Arab countries which wanted to restore the status of fellow Arabs in Palestine.

About Six-Day War of 1967:

  • The Six-Day War, also known as the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, was a conflict that took place between Israel and the Arab nations of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan.
  • It was triggered by Palestinian guerrilla attacks on Israel from bases in Syria, which escalated tensions between the two parties.
  • Syria, fearing an impending Israeli invasion, sought support from Egypt.
  • In response, Egypt ordered the withdrawal of UN peacekeeping forces from the Sinai Peninsula and deployed its troops there.
  • Additionally, Egypt and Jordan entered into a mutual defence treaty, heightening the atmosphere of confrontation.
  • Feeling encircled and under the perceived threat of an imminent Arab attack, Israel initiated a pre-emptive strike against the three Arab states on June 5, 1967.
  • This military action resulted in Israel gaining control of the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank of the Jordan River, Old City of Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.
  • The status of these occupied territories later became a major point of contention between the conflicting parties.

What was Yom Kippur War? 

The Yom Kippur war, also known as the October war or the Ramadan war, marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Arab-Israeli conflict. This conflict, fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, involved Israel on one side and Egypt and Syria on the other. 

Causes and Course of war: 

1.Israel's Post-1967 Ascendancy: 

  • Following its decisive victory in the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel had emerged as a dominant regional power.
  • It annexed territories, including the Golan Heights from Syria and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, setting the stage for future tensions.

2.Anwar Sadat's Diplomatic Calculus: 

  • Anwar el-Sadat became Egypt's president in 1970.
  • The country was facing economical-challenges, no longer to sustain continuous conflict with Israel. 
  • Sadat hatched a bold plan to attack Israel, hoping that even an unsuccessful assault would compel Israel to consider peace with Egypt.
  • In 1972, he took significant diplomatic steps, expelling Soviet advisers from Egypt and establishing diplomatic channels with Washington (Israel's key ally).
  • A new alliance with Syria was forged, setting the stage for a coordinated attack on Israel.

4.The Outbreak of War on Yom Kippur: 

  • The Yom Kippur war commenced on October 6, 1973 which is a significant date for Judaism. 
  • Arab coalition forces launched surprise attacks on Israeli-occupied territories. 
  • The attack, during the holy Islamic month of Ramadan, further exacerbated Israel's unpreparedness as many of its soldiers were on leave for Yom Kippur.
  • Consequently, Egypt and Syria initially made substantial gains.

5.The Course of Battle and International Involvement: 

  • Israel eventually rallied its forces and counterattacked.
  • Fighting intensified primarily in the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula.
  • U.S. President Richard Nixon issued a global nuclear alert due to heightened geopolitical tensions.
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Comparing the Yom Kippur War to the recent Operation Al-Aqsa Flood

  • Recently, Hamas initiated 'Operation Al-Aqsa Flood.' The surge of violence has been attributed to the longstanding tensions between Israel and the Palestinians, notably stemming from the dispute over the sacred Al-Aqsa Mosque compound.
  • The episode has drawn comparisons to the Yom Kippur War of 1973, marking one of the deadliest assaults on Israel since that time.
  • Despite its advanced intelligence and interception systems, Israel was caught off guard by the sudden onslaught by Hamas, echoing the Yom Kippur War, during which Israel also found itself ill-prepared due to many soldiers being on leave for Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism.

What is multimodal Artificial Intelligence?

Multimodal AI is an advanced form of Artificial Intelligence that can analyse and interpret multiple modes of data simultaneously, allowing it to generate more accurate and human-like reasoning and decision-making.

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Traditional Unimodal AI vs Multimodal AI:

The fundamental difference between multimodal AI and traditional singlemodal/unimodel AI is the use of data. 

  • Unimodal AI is generally designed to work with a single source or type of data. E.g., Unimodal AI system like ChatGPT uses natural language processing (NLP) algorithms to understand and extract meaning from text content, and the only type of output the chatbot can produce is text. That is, the unimodal AI is tailored to a specific task.
  • Multimodal AI processes data from multiple sources, including video, images, speech, sound and text, allowing more detailed and nuanced perceptions of a particular environment or situation. In doing this, multimodal AI more closely simulates human perception and enhances the accuracy of AI systems. 

E.g., SeamlessM4T, launched by Meta, is a multimodal AI translation and transcription model that is capable of performing various tasks including speech-to-text, speech-to-speech, text-to-speech, and text-to-text translations.

Advantages:

  • Improved accuracy: By leveraging information from multiple sources, multimodal AI can achieve higher accuracy compared to singlemodal AI. E.g., Any system that analyses customer feedback for a product, combining text, image, and audio data can provide more comprehensive understanding of customer sentiment.
  • Enhanced user experience: Multimodal AI can enhance user experience by providing multiple ways for users to interact with the system. E.g., Users can interact with a multimodal virtual assistant system using voice, text, or gesture, providing greater convenience and accessibility.
  • Efficient usage of resources: Multimodal AI can help to make more efficient use of computational and data resources by enabling the system to focus on the most relevant information from each modality. This would help reduce the amount of irrelevant data that needs to be processed.
  • Better interpretability: Multimodal AI can help to improve interpretability by providing multiple sources of information that can be used to explain the system's output. E.g., Any system that analyses medical images for the diagnosis, combining images with textual descriptions and other data can help to explain the reasoning behind the system's diagnosis and provide more transparency and accountability.

Applications of Multimodal AI:

  • Healthcare: Multimodal AI can help improve medical imaging analysis, disease diagnosis, personalised treatment planning and better patient outcomes. E.g., By combining medical images with patient records and genetic data, healthcare providers can gain more accurate understanding of patient’s health, enabling them to tailor treatment plans. 
  • Retail: In retail, it can be used to enhance customer experience and increase sales. By utilising user behaviour data, product images, and customer reviews, retailers can provide personalised recommendations and optimise product searches. 
  • Agriculture: Multimodal AI can help monitor crop health, predict yields, and optimise farming practices. By integrating satellite imagery, weather data, and soil sensor data, farmers can gain deep insights into crop health and optimise irrigation and fertilizer application.
  • Manufacturing: Multimodal AI can be leveraged to improve quality control, predictive maintenance, and supply chain optimisation.
  • Robotics: Multimodal AI is central to robotics development using which robots could successfully interact with real-world environments. 
  • Entertainment: Multimodal AI algorithms can be used to extract features about emotions, speech patterns, facial expressions, and actions which can create content targeted for specific demographics. 

Multimodal AI challenges:

  • Data Storage: The data sets needed to operate a multimodal AI, involve a huge variety of data (text, images, audio, video). Such data volumes are expensive to store, and costly to process. 
  • Data integration: Combining and synchronizing different types of data can be challenging because the data from multiple sources will not have the same formats. Ensuring the seamless integration of multiple modalities and maintaining consistent data quality can be difficult and time-consuming.
  • Data bias: Data bias and maintaining data integrity can be a problem in training the AI model. 

Read also: ChatGPT and Open AI

Mental Health & Its Impact on Informal Work Force and Elderly

Context: The theme of World Mental Health Day (October 10) this year is ‘mental health as a universal human right’. Informal worker and elderly are segments often overlooked when it concerns mental health is the informal worker and elderly.

Mental Health & Work Force

India has a vast informal workforce, which comprises a significant portion of the country's labor force. This informal sector includes workers in agriculture, construction, domestic work, street vending, and various small-scale enterprises. 

While these workers play a crucial role in the Indian economy, they often face unique challenges related to mental health.

  • Lack of Job Security: Informal workers often face a lack of job security, resulting in ongoing stress and anxiety regarding their income and livelihood. This instability in employment can significantly impact their mental well-being.
  • Low Wages and Poor Working Conditions: Informal workers often receive low wages and have to endure harsh working conditions. This can lead to feelings of hopelessness and frustration, contributing to mental health issues.
  • Lack of Social Safety Nets: The informal sector is often excluded from formal social safety nets, such as health insurance and retirement benefits. This lack of access to healthcare and financial security can result in increased stress and anxiety.
  • Long Working Hours: Many informal workers work long hours, sometimes even seven days a week, to make ends meet. This leaves little time for rest and relaxation, which is crucial for mental well-being.
  • Stigma Surrounding Mental Health: In India, there is still a significant stigma associated with mental health issues. Informal workers burdened with several deprivations often become more hesitant to seek help due to the fear of discrimination or societal judgment.
  • Lack of Awareness and accessibility: Many informal workers may not be aware of mental health services or may not have access to them. Further, shortages in terms of availability of specialists makes the accessibility even more strenuous. 

According to a report by the World Health Organization (WHO), There are only 0.3 psychiatrists, 0.07 psychologists and 0.07 social workers per 100,000 people in India.

All of which further undermine mental health and limit access to mental health care.

Correlation between Informal Work Force and Mental Health

The deteriorated mental health of the informal workforce in India can have significant long-term implications for the country's demographic dividend, which refers to the economic advantage that arises when the working-age population exceeds the dependent population (children and elderly). 

Here's how the poor mental health of the informal workforce can impact the demographic dividend in the long run:

  • Reduced Productivity and Economic Growth: Poor mental health can lead to decreased productivity among informal workers. This, in turn, can slow down economic growth as these workers are a substantial part of the labor force.
  • Increased Healthcare Burden: Mental health issues can result in physical health problems if left unaddressed. The healthcare burden on the country may increase as mental health-related illnesses add to the demand for medical services.
  • Higher Dependency Ratio: Workers with deteriorated mental health may become less productive or unable to work altogether, contributing to a higher dependency ratio. A higher ratio of dependents to workers can strain social welfare systems and reduce the savings rate.
  • Educational Impact: Informal workers with mental health issues may struggle to provide adequate support for their children's education and well-being. This can affect the quality of education and future employability of the next generation. The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) has consistently highlighted issues related to the quality of education in India, with a significant portion of children lacking foundational skills.
  • Inter-generational Impact: Poor mental health can be transmitted across generations. Children growing up in households with parents suffering from mental health issues may themselves face challenges in education and employment, further straining the demographic dividend. The National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5) indicates that the prevalence of mental health issues among parents can influence child development outcomes.
  • Reduced Entrepreneurship:  Many informal workers are also entrepreneurs running small businesses. Mental health issues can hinder their ability to innovate and grow their enterprises, impacting entrepreneurship and economic dynamism.
  • Social Cohesion and Crime: Poor mental health can contribute to social issues and crime rates. Social cohesion may deteriorate, affecting the overall stability of the country.
  • According to the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), unemployment and poor-quality employment have consistently been detrimental to mental health.

The Lokniti group within the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, which interviewed 9,316 youth aged between, 15 to 34 years across 18 States in India, has shown that they are highly susceptible to negative emotions. Youth unemployment is one of the highest in India which, along with stigma around unemployment, significantly impacts their mental health.

In 2021, the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported that 26% of the people who died by suicide were daily wage earners.

With this phase of demographic dividend, where half of India’s population is of working age and projected to remain so for two decades, it is pertinent to think about the quality of employment and long term social security for them.

Mental Health & Elderly:

The Census of India 2011 shows that 33 million elderly people are working postretirement in informal work.

A study, by the ILO on elderly employment in India, shows high poverty among them, in terms of economic dependency and access to financial assets.

Mental health is a critical aspect of overall well-being, and it becomes even more significant as people age. The elderly population faces unique challenges related to mental health, and addressing these issues is essential to ensuring their quality of life. Here are some key considerations and factors related to mental health in the elderly:

  • Prevalence of Mental Health Issues: Elderly individuals are prone to mental health conditions. Depression, anxiety, and cognitive disorders like dementia are common among the elderly population.
  • Cognitive Decline: Cognitive decline is a common part of the aging process. Conditions like Alzheimer's disease can significantly impact an individual's mental health and well-being.
  • Isolation and Loneliness: Many elderly individuals experience social isolation and loneliness, especially if they live alone or have limited social interactions. These feelings can contribute to depression and anxiety.
  • Physical Health Impact: Physical health issues such as chronic pain, chronic illnesses, and mobility limitations can exacerbate mental health problems in the elderly. Pain and discomfort can lead to depression and a reduced quality of life.
  • Bereavement and Loss: The loss of loved ones and friends is a significant life event for the elderly. Grief and bereavement can trigger or worsen mental health conditions.
  • Stigma and Cultural Factors: There can be a stigma associated with mental health issues, particularly in older generations. Some elderly individuals may be reluctant to seek help due to the fear of being labeled as "mentally ill."
  • Access to Healthcare: Access to mental healthcare services can be limited for the elderly, especially in rural areas. Many elderly individuals may not receive timely diagnosis and treatment.
  • Medications and Polypharmacy: Elderly individuals often take multiple medications for various health conditions. Polypharmacy can lead to interactions and side effects that affect mental health.
  • Financial Stress: Financial concerns, such as inadequate retirement savings or rising healthcare costs, can lead to anxiety and depression among the elderly.
  • Caregiver Stress: Caregivers, often family members, may experience mental health challenges themselves while caring for elderly relatives, adding to the overall burden.

The absence of proper financial and healthcare security among the working elderly can severely impact their physical and mental health, aggravating their vulnerability.

What should be done:

  • Employment guarantee programmes can indeed improve mental health outcomes. Thus, social security can be: 
    • Promotional -  aiming to augment income
    • Preventive - aiming to forestall economic distress
    • Protective - aiming to ensure relief from external shocks.
  • Increase in budgetary allocation and Diversification - As India’s budgetary allocation for mental health (currently under  1% of the total health budget) has overfocused on the digital mental health programme. 
  • As the World Mental Health Report 2022 observed, addressing mental health should involve strengthening community based care, and people centred, recovery oriented and human rights oriented care. 

There is an urgent need for proactive policies to improve mental health recognition and action. This is critical in upholding the basic human right to good health, including,  mental health, and in advancing to the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs), especially SDG 3 on ‘good health and wellbeing’ and SDG 8 on ‘decent work for all/economic growth’. 

Israel – Palestine Relations

Context: Palestinian group Hamas has launched an attack on Israel, leading to an outbreak of new war in West Asia.

Background of Israel Palestine Relations:

  • Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War – I, Britain assumed control of the region referred to as Palestine. Within this land, there was a Jewish minority and an Arab majority coexisting. Tensions between the two communities grew when the international community gave Britain the task of establishing a "national home" in Palestine for Jewish people. 
  • The relationship between these two communities became increasingly strained in 1947, when United Nations introduced Resolution 181, commonly known as the Partition Plan, which aimed to divide the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states. While the Jewish population considered this their historic homeland, Palestinian Arabs also asserted their right to the territory and resisted this development.
  • In 1948, the State of Israel was officially established, leading to the first Arab Israeli War. While Israel emerged victorious in 1949, the conflict resulted in the displacement of 750,000 Palestinians and the division of the territory into three parts: the State of Israel, the West Bank (Jordan River), and the Gaza Strip. 
  • In 1956, after the Suez Crisis and Israel's invasion of the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, Jordan, and Syria signed defense pacts in anticipation of potential Israeli mobilization. In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted when Israel preemptively attacked Egyptian and Syrian air forces. After the war, Israel gained control over the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. 
Israel – Palestine

Two Intifadas (Uprisings)

  • In 1987, the first intifada (revolt/uprising) erupted when Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip protested against Israeli rule, as the issue of Palestinian self-determination and self-governance remained unresolved.
  • In 2000, the second intifada began, partly due to Palestinian grievances, a stagnant peace process, and political events. In response, Israel constructed a barrier wall around the West Bank in 2002. 
Dimensions of ConflictExplanation
BordersThere is no clear demarcation of boundaries between the two states.
Question of JerusalemBoth Israel and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital and call it central to their religion and culture. Israel has declared Jerusalem its 'undivided capital', effectively annexing its eastern half, and has built up construction that entrenches Israeli control of the city.
RefugeesA large number of Palestinians had to flee in the 1948 War. The survivors and their descendants, mostly living in Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, claim the right to return to Israel, as supported by a 1948 UN General Assembly resolution. Israel sees the right to return as a threat to its existence as a Jewish state, and believes the refugees should go to the Palestinian state that would be created as part of a two-state solution.
Militant OrganizationsIsrael perceives Palestinian militant organizations, such as Hamas, the Islamic group in control of Gaza, as posing existential threats. Hamas has openly declared its objective to dismantle Israel and often directs suicide bombings and rocket attacks towards Israeli civilians. 
Jewish SettlementsConsistent efforts in West Bank undermines the prospects of any comprehensive peace deal with Palestinians based on two state solution. 

Peace efforts

  • The two-state solution was proposed by the Peel Commission, which was formed by Britishers in 1937. It refers to an arrangement where Israeli and Palestinian states co-exist in the region. #Prelims 2018.
  • The 1993 Oslo I Accords attempted to mediate the conflict by establishing a framework for Palestinian self-governance and mutual recognition between the Palestinian Authority and Israel. 
  • In 1995, the Oslo II Accords expanded on the initial agreement, requiring Israel's withdrawal from six cities and 450 towns in the West Bank.
  • In 2000, Camp David summit convened by U.S. President Bill Clinton to discuss borders, settlements, refugees, and Jerusalem, but talks end without an agreement. Clinton announces parameters for an independent Palestinian state living in peace with Israel.
  • In 2002, The Arab Peace Initiative was drawn up by Saudi Arabia which proposed normalization of ties between Israel and Arab nations. IT calls for a statehood deal Palestine and full Israeli withdrawal from territory captured in 1967.#Prelims 2023 
  • The Abraham Accords (2020) represent bilateral agreements for the normalization of relations between Israel and two Arab nations, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. It marked significant diplomatic milestones, as both the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain formally acknowledged Israel's sovereignty, paving the way for the establishment of full diplomatic relations.

India’s Relations with Israel and Palestine

  • India’s policy on the longest running conflict in the world has gone from being unequivocally pro-Palestine for the first four decades, to a balancing act with its three-decade-old friendly ties with Israel. 
  • In recent years, India’s position has also been perceived as pro-Israel. 
  • India was the only non-Arab state among 13 countries that voted against the UN partition plan (in 1948) of Palestine in the General Assembly that led to the creation of Israel. 
  • India’s own Partition along religious lines, its principled stand against Colonialism and its effects, solidarity with  Palestinian people, to ward of Pakistan’s plan to isolate India over Kashmir and India’s energy dependency on Arab countries. 
  • However, India formally recognised Israel in September 1950. Full diplomatic relations were established as late as 1992.
  • In 1975, India became first non-Arab country to recognise Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as sole representative of Palestinian people.
  • In 1988, when PLO declared an independent state of Palestine with its capital in East Jerusalem, India granted recognition immediately. 
  • India voted for Palestine to become a full member of UNESCO in 2011, and a year later, co-sponsored UN General Assembly resolution that enabled Palestine to become a “non-member” observer state at UN without voting rights. 

The Policy of De-hyphenation

  • India abstained from voting at UN Human Rights Council on a resolution which claimed to highlight evidence of alleged war crimes committed by Israeli forces and Hamas during the 2014 airstrikes against Gaza that killed over 2000. 
  • In 2016, India abstained again from a UNHRC resolution against Israel. 
  • In 2017, during the visit of PLO chief Mahmoud Abbas, reference to East Jerusalem was missing in the statement issued by Indian PM. 
  • Historically, India supported Palestinian state with Jerusalem as its Capital. 
  • In 2018, PM Modi became first ever Indian PM to visit Israel. At this visit, PM skipped visit to Palestinian de facto capital Ramallah. This move was seen as India pursuing a policy of de-hyphenation wherein it would deal with Israel and Palestine separately. 
  • De-hyphenation is a careful balancing act, with India shifting from one side to another as the situation demands. This was clearly visible when India had voted in favor of a resolution in the UN General Assembly opposing Trump administration’s recognition of Jerusalem as Israeli capital. 
  • At UNHRC, India voted against Israel in three resolutions – one on the right of self-determination of Palestinian people, a second on Israeli settlement policy, and a third on human rights situation in Golan Heights.