Geography & Environment & Disaster management

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Byadagi chilli

Context: In Central Karnataka, farmers rampaged through the APMC market yard due to a crash in the prices of the Byadagi chili.

About Byadagi chili

It is a variety of chilli mainly grown in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is named after the town of Byadgi which is located in the Haveri district of Karnataka.
It has the second-largest turnover among all chilli varieties of India.
It is also known for its deep red colour.
The chilli pods are harvested from January to May.
It is less spicy and is used in many food preparations. It is also used in an oil, oleoresin, extracted from these chillies is used in the preparation of nail polish and lipstick.
It has been accorded Geographical Indication (GI) in 2011.
There are two types of Byadagi chili: dabbi and kaddi.
- Byadagi dabbi, which is small and plump, is more popular for its colour, flavour and taste. Though it has more seeds, it is less spicy compared to the kaddi variety. This variety is best suited for masala preparation and oleoresin extraction.
- The kaddi type is gnarled, thin, long and has fewer seeds.

Context: There are an estimated 7,396 golden langurs in India, the latest survey of the primate has revealed. The comprehensive population estimation of the endangered primate was carried out in two phases by the Primate Research Centre NE India (PRCNE), Assam Forest Department, Bodoland Territorial Council, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), and Conservation Himalayas.

Method Used: The block count method was applied for the first time to assess the abundance, spatial distribution, and densities of the golden langur populations.

It is an Old-World monkey found in a small region of Western Assam, India and in the neighboring foothills of the Black Mountains of Bhutan.
The golden langur was first brought to the attention of the Western world by the naturalist Edward Pritchard Gee in the 1950s.

Conservation status

IUCN STATUS-Endangered
CITES – Appendix I
Schedule 1 of Wildlife Protection Act 1972.

Subspecies

There are two subspecies of this species:

Trachypithecus geei geei
Trachypithecus geei bhutanensis

Physical Description

The coat of the adult golden langur ranges from cream to golden, on its flanks and chest the hairs are darker and often rust colored while the coats of the juveniles and females are lighter, silvery white to light buff.
Gee's golden langur exhibits sexual dimorphism: Males are larger and more robust than females.

Distribution

Gee's golden langur is found in the region bounded by Brahmaputra River (South), Manas River (east), Sankosh River (west), in Assam, India, and on the north by the Black Mountains of Bhutan.
Ripu Reserve Forest hosts the highest number within the northern sub-population, while the Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary in Kokrajhar district harbors the most significant number within the southern fragmented range.
In India 93% of the population is found in forest reserves (Chirang, Manas and Ripu) and the western part of Manas National Park, and the remaining occur in several small, isolated fragments.

Behavior

The langur is confined to high trees where its long tail serves as a balancer when it leaps across branches.
Herbivores in diet.
It generally lives in troops of about 8, with a ratio of several females to each adult male.
The smallest golden langur troop was composed of four individuals, while the largest had 22, giving an average value of 8.2 individuals per troop.
The adult gender ratio was 2.3 females to every male, although the majority of groups had only one adult male.

Green Ammonia Production in India

Context: India is one of the leading producers of agricultural products and pharmaceuticals. These two sectors account for the major chunk of usage of ammonia and its derivatives. However, the present production process of ammonia based on usage of fossil fuels is highly energy intensive, thereby contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. In this light, the Government of India has brought out the National Green Hydrogen Mission and Green Ammonia Policy to increase the production of Green Ammonia and reduce the carbon footprint of the ammonia's production process.

What is Ammonia?

Ammonia (NH3) is a nitrogen and hydrogen-based chemical compound widely used in the production of fertilisers and industrial chemicals.

Types:

Grey Ammonia: Manufactured from synthesis of hydrogen and nitrogen gases. Hydrogen in turn is manufactured from fossil fuels viz natural gas, petroleum products and coal, natural gas remaining the dominant feed.
Green Ammonia: Ammonia produced from renewable energy through the process of electrolysis is called green ammonia. The production process of green ammonia uses green hydrogen as a feedstock for producing ammonia. This is also called renewable ammonia.

Convention Production process of ammonia:

Initially, processes like the Frank-Caro process, Birkeland-Eyde process were used.
But these two processes were highly inefficient and a major breakthrough in ammonia production of industrial scale came through the Haber-Bosch process.
India is the world's third-largest producer and second-largest importer of ammonia.

Schematic for Green Ammonia production process

World's first Green Ammonia plant has been set up in Bikaner, Rajasthan by a private entity.

Benefits of Green Ammonia:

Emission reductions: Green ammonia, being produced using renewable energy sources, does not emit carbon dioxide (CO₂) during its production and therefore its use will be key to reducing emissions in the so-called "hard to abate" sectors that currently use conventional ammonia produced from carbon-intensive natural gas. Thus, by replacing it with green ammonia, dependence on fossil fuels is reduced and greenhouse gas emissions are reduced, thus contributing to climate change mitigation.
Increased energy supply security: Green ammonia reduces dependence on fossil fuels in general. By using renewable energy sources, green ammonia is produced from local resources and reduces current exposure to fossil fuel price volatility (required in conventional ammonia production).
Energy vector or hydrogen carrier: While hydrogen liquefies at a temperature of -253°C, ammonia only requires cooling to -33°C. Liquefaction is necessary to transport and store these compounds. The lower cooling requirement for ammonia makes this process much more competitive and energy efficient than hydrogen transport. Thus, once the necessary infrastructure for import, storage and cracking of ammonia is developed, it will be possible to produce green hydrogen in locations with optimal conditions (competitive renewable energy) and then export it to other consuming regions.
Contribution to renewable energy deployment: Meeting future demand for green ammonia will require large amounts of new renewable electricity to meet the requirements set by the EU Delegated Acts for the definition of hydrogen and renewable derivatives.
Export benefits: Aiming at about 10% of the global market, India can potentially export about 10 MMT Green Hydrogen/Green Ammonia per annum.
Climate smart agriculture: By reducing the carbon emission intensity of ammonia, which is used for manufacturing fertilisers, carbon emission intensity of agriculture will be cut down.

Issues in developing Green Ammonia sector in India:

Government Steps for promotion of Green Ammonia in India

National Green Hydrogen Energy Mission: Launched and implemented by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Targets under the Mission are:

Green Ammonia Policy
Launched by Ministry of Power
Green Hydrogen / Ammonia manufacturers may purchase renewable power from the power exchange or set up renewable energy capacity themselves or through any other developer, anywhere.
Open access will be granted within 15 days of receipt of application.
The Green Hydrogen / Ammonia manufacturer can bank his unconsumed renewable power, up to 30 days, with a distribution company and take it back when required.
Waiver of inter-state transmission charges for a period of 25 years will be allowed to the manufacturers of Green Hydrogen and Green Ammonia for the projects commissioned before 30th June 2025.
The manufacturers of Green Hydrogen / Ammonia and the renewable energy plant shall be given connectivity to the grid on priority basis to avoid any procedural delays.
To ensure ease of doing business a single portal for carrying out all the activities including statutory clearances in a time bound manner will be set up by MNRE.
Manufacturers of Green Hydrogen / Green Ammonia shall be allowed to set up bunkers near Ports for storage of Green Ammonia for export / use by shipping. The land for the storage for this purpose shall be provided by the respective Port Authorities at applicable charges.

MethaneSAT

Context: MethaneSAT — a satellite which will track and measure methane emissions at a global scale — was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket from California, United States.

About Methane:

Methane (CH4) is a colourless, odourless, flammable gas that is the main component of natural gas.
It is a powerful greenhouse gas i.e., it traps heat in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming. It is the second largest contributor to climate change, after carbon dioxide (CO2), responsible for 30% of global heating since the Industrial Revolution.
Methane remains in the atmosphere for only about 12 years, but has a much more powerful warming impact than CO2.
- According to the United Nations Environment Programme, over a period of 20 years, Methane is 80 times more potent at warming than CO2.
- Over a 100 year timescale, Methane is about 21 times more potent than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere. This means that one tonne of methane emitted into the atmosphere has the same warming effect as 21 tonnes of CO2.
Methane also contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone — a colourless highly irritating gas and a harmful environmental pollutant that forms just above the Earth’s surface.
- According to a 2022 report, exposure to ground-level ozone could be contributing to one million premature deaths every year.
- Ground-level ozone can cause various other health issues, including- Respiratory problems like asthma and bronchitis, Reduced lung function and Cardiovascular issues.

Note: Global Warming Potential (GWP) describes how much impact a gas will have on atmospheric warming over a period of time compared to carbon dioxide. Each greenhouse gas has a different atmospheric warming impact, and some gases remain in the atmosphere for longer than others. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has the lowest warming potential, is the most abundant and lasts for thousands of years, so it is used as the baseline.

Methane Emission Sources

There has been a steady increase of methane in the atmosphere, with concentrations currently over two-and-a-half times greater than pre-industrial levels.
- Around 50-65% of total methane emissions globally are attributed to human activities, also known as anthropogenic emissions.
- The remaining 35-50% comes from natural sources, with wetlands being the largest contributor within this category.

Anthropogenic Sources

Agriculture: Agriculture is the biggest emitter, responsible for roughly a quarter of emissions. Most of that is from livestock (cows and sheep release methane during digestion and in their manure) and rice cultivation, where flooded fields create ideal conditions for methane-emitting bacteria.
Energy sector: Coal, oil, and gas is the second largest source of human caused Methane emissions. Methane leaks from energy infrastructure, such as gas pipelines, and from deliberate releases during maintenance.
Discarded household waste also releases large quantities of Methane when it decomposes, if left to rot in landfills.

About MethaneSAT

MethaneSAT is a small Earth observation satellite with the goal of monitoring and studying global methane emissions in order to combat climate change.
Developed by: Environmental Defense Fund in partnership with the New Zealand Space Agency, Harvard University among others.
MethaneSAT will orbit the Earth 15 times a day, and monitor the oil and gas sector. It will create a large amount of data, which will tell how much methane is coming from where, who’s responsible, and are those emissions going up or down over time. (Fossil fuel operations account for about 40% of all human-caused methane emissions)
- MethaneSat will be used in the future to track methane from coal mines, landfills and farming (the other main sources of human-caused emissions).
The challenge: Tracking the source of methane emissions and measuring them has been quite challenging.
- While some satellites can provide high-resolution data, they can only scan specific, pre-targeted sites. Others can examine larger areas and detect large emitting events, but cannot scan smaller sources that account for the majority of emissions in many, if not most, regions.
- Due to this discrepancy, according to an International Energy Agency (IEA) report, global methane emissions are about 70% higher than levels reported by national governments.
MethaneSAT is expected to fix the issue. It is equipped with a high-resolution infrared sensor and a spectrometer, the satellite will fill critical data gaps. It can track differences in methane concentrations as small as three parts per billion in the atmosphere, which enables it to pick up smaller emissions sources than the previous satellites.
MethaneSAT also has a wide-camera view — of about 200 km by 200 km — allowing it to identify larger emitters so-called “super emitters”. The collected data will be analysed using cloud-computing and AI technology developed by Google and the data will be made public through Google’s Earth Engine platform.

Significance

MethaneSAT will be a tool to track the implementation of more stringent methane management policies and help meet these targets.
- For instance, more than 150 countries signed the Global Methane Pledge in 2021, to cut their collective methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030.
- At COP-28, more than 50 companies committed to virtually eliminating methane emissions and routine flaring.
The data collected by the satellite would be publicly available which can be accessed by anyone in the world. It would usher in a new era of transparency in meeting methane commitments made by governments and corporations.

Petroleum traps & Sedimentary basins

Context: Mumbai high turns 50. This makes one wonder, why no other discovery has earned such repute — despite discoveries being announced by various players.

What are the issues involved?

What ere the unique properties of Mumbai High which increased its prospects?

Mumbai High is a large anticlinal structural — that is, an arch-like fold in the rock that has its oldest beds at its core.
Structural traps of hydrocarbon deposits were considered easy oil as these are easily interpreted.
Such structural features have been discovered in other basins also, but the size has not been comparable to Mumbai High.
In the deeper parts of the basins, stratigraphic traps are more likely to be present with significant hydrocarbon (oil + gas) deposits. However, these are difficult to identify on classical seismic interpretation as well as difficulty in drilling deeper wells with high temperature-high pressure conditions.

Understanding the petroleum traps:

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Petroleum trap is an underground rock formation that blocks the movement of petroleum and causes it to accumulate in a reservoir that can be exploited.
The oil is accompanied always by water and often by natural gas; all are confined in a porous and permeable reservoir rock, which is usually composed of sedimentary rock such as sandstones, arkoses, and fissured limestones and dolomites.
The natural gas, being lightest, occupies the top of the trap and is underlain by the oil and then the water.
A layer of impermeable rock, called the cap rock, prevents the upward or lateral escape of the petroleum.
That part of the trap actually occupied by the oil and gas is called the petroleum reservoir.

Many systems have been proposed for the classification of traps; one simple system divides them into structural traps and stratigraphic traps.

Structural traps are formed by tectonic events, such as folding or faulting of rock units. It forms as a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface. These changes block the upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead to the formation of a petroleum reservoir.
The most common type of structural trap is formed by an anticline, a structure with a concave (as viewed from below) roof caused by the local deformation of the reservoir rock and the impermeable cap rock.

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Stratigraphic traps are related to sediment deposition or erosion and is bounded on one or more sides by zones of low permeability.

Note: Structural trap is formed by the tectonic processes AFTER deposition of the reservoir beds involved while stratigraphic traps are formed during the depositions of the reservoir beds.

Sedimentary basins in India:

There are 26 sedimentary basins in India, covering a total area of 3.4 million square kilometer. The area is spread across onland, shallow water up to 400 meter water depth and deepwater farther up to Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Of the total sedimentary area, 49% of total area is located onland, 12% in shallow water and 39% in the deepwater area. There are 16 onland basins, 7 located both onland and offshore and 3 completely offshore.

These basins are divided into three categories based on maturity of hydrocarbon resources as under:

Category-I (30% of total basinal area): Basins, which have reserves and already producing.
Category-II (23% of total basinal area): Basins, which have contingent resources pending commercial production
Category-III (47% of total basinal area) Basins, which have prospective resources awaiting discovery

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Yellowstone National Park

Context: Yellowstone National Park, located in the western United States, is a natural wonder that spans across the northwest corner of Wyoming, extending into Montana and Idaho.

World’s First National Park: On March 1872, Yellowstone became the first national park in the world. It was established by the 42nd U.S Congress with the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act.

Geothermal Marvels: Within Yellowstone’s vast 2.2 million acres, visitors can witness unique hydrothermal and geologic features. These include approximately half of the world’s active geysers, such as the famous Old Faithful, and mesmerizing geothermal areas. The park is home to the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River, a breathtaking geological wonder.

Grand Canyon, immense canyon cut by the Colorado River in the high plateau region of northwestern Arizona, U.S. The Grand Canyon lies in the southwestern portion of the Colorado Plateau, which occupies a large area of the southwestern United States and consists essentially of horizontal layered rocks and lava flows.

Wildlife Haven: Yellowstone offers unparalleled opportunities to observe wildlife in their natural habitat. The intact ecosystem allows visitors to encounter animals like bison, elk, wolves, grizzly bears, and more.

Winter Magic: Despite the cold, winter is a magical time to explore Yellowstone. You can traverse the snowy landscape on skis, snowshoes, snowmobiles, or snow coaches.

UNESCO World Heritage Site: Yellowstone’s significance extends beyond national borders—it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978.

Recent Finding

In a hot spring there, a mat of algae is founded and named Fusarium strain flavlolapis, trademarked ‘Fy’.
The waters were so hot and acidic that algae would normally not thrive.
The microbe is ‘extremophilic’, capable of thriving under harsh conditions, a trait that enables it to breakdown a variety of materials and convert them into food.
It is source of high protein food—a tray of the stuff has proteins equal to 35 chickens.

The mysterious ‘star dunes’

Context: Scientist unveiled the first in depth study of star dune, revealing the internal structure of these geological features and showing how long it took for one of them to form.

Sand Dunes

Sand dunes: deposition occurs due to obstruction to the winds caused by various factors. Depending upon their shape and alignment with respect to wind direction they are classified as:

Barchans: - crescent-shaped sand dune produced by the action of wind predominately from one direction.

One of the most common types of dunes, it occurs in sandy deserts all over the world.
Barchans are convex facing the wind, with the horns of the crescent pointing downwind and marking the lateral advancement of the sand.
These dunes are markedly asymmetrical in cross section, with a gentle slope facing toward the wind and a much steeper slope, known as the slip face, facing away from the wind.

Parabolic dunes: - They are similar to crescentic dunes.

Their shapes are roughly the same, but the slip face of a parabolic dune is on its inward side.
Parabolic dunes are also called blowouts, because winds blow out the center of the dune, leaving just a rim on the outside.

Transverse dunes: - Barchan dunes can become aligned together along a plane perpendicular to the wind. If the line becomes somewhat straight, dune scientists refer to these forward marching ridges as transverse dunes.

They progress forward as their leeward slip faces release sand one avalanche at a time.

Star Dunes

Star dunes are massive sand dunes that owe their name to arms that spread from a central peak.
These sand pyramids, which look like stars when viewed from above, are widespread in modern deserts including sand seas in Africa, Arabia, China, and North America.
Star Dunes are formed in areas with complex wind regime which means wind are blowing from different direction and net sand accumulation, points within the desert where big piles of sand can be blown around to form giant dunes.
It makes up just under 10% of the dunes in Earth’s deserts and are tallest, surpassing other type such as crescent shaped barchan dunes and straight and lengthy linear dunes.

Study Reveals

The study focused upon a star dune in eastern Morocco called Lala Lallia, situated within the Sahara Desert.
The researchers used ground penetrating radar and employed luminescence dating to determine how long Lala Lallia has taken to form, a method based on the energy trapped inside the grains of sand.
It took about 900 years, accumulating roughly 6,400 metric tons annually as wind blows sand through the desert.

The Advanced Oxidation Technology or TADOX®

Context: The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, has developed a technology called The Advanced Oxidation Technology or TADOX® that will ensure affordable and sustainable Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) compliance set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) in industrial clusters.

The Advanced Oxidation Technology or TADOX®

TADOX utilises UV-Photocatalysis as an Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) during the secondary treatment stage of wastewater treatment leading to oxidative degradation and mineralisation of targeted pollutants.
- At Secondary Treatment Stage, the wastewater has already undergone some initial treatment, typically involving biological processes that remove organic matter.
UV-Photocatalysis:
- UV Light: TADOX® introduces ultraviolet (UV) light to the wastewater, which has high energy and sanitation potential.
- Catalyst: The water also contains a catalyst, most commonly titanium dioxide (TiO2), which helps the UV light to trigger the chemical reaction.
- Oxidative Degradation: When UV light hits the catalyst, it energises the TiO2 particles. These energised particles then react with water molecules (H2O) to create highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (OH•). These hydroxyl radicals are very powerful oxidisers, meaning they readily attack and break down a wide range of pollutants in wastewater, including organic matter, colour, and micropollutants.
- Mineralisation: The breakdown process by hydroxyl radicals does not just break down the pollutants into smaller pieces. It completely mineralises pollutants, often converting them into simple molecules like carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
TADOX® could be integrated and retrofittable in existing treatment systems making it a viable option as a novel Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Technology (DWTT) applicable in upcoming and existing infrastructural projects, townships, commercial complexes, green buildings, and smart cities.

Significance:

It reduces dependence and load on biological and tertiary treatment systems to achieve Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD).
It reduces the production of sludge to 0.5 kg per metre cube (as compared to standard treatments which produce around 30-40 kg per cubic metre, since a lot of chemicals are used in the wastewater treatment). Further, the sludge produced in the process is non-toxic.
It can bring down capital expenditure on ZLD by 25-30% and operating expense by 30-40% for industrial wastewater treatment.
It can reduce Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), dissolved organics, pathogens, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), and Micropollutants.
It improves biodegradability, thereby preventing biofouling of membranes and enhancing life span and efficiency of RO systems as also overall load on evaporators like Multiple Effect Evaporators and Mechanical vapour recompression (MVR).

Status of Leopards in India

Context: Status of Leopards India report released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MOEFCC).

Brief About Survey

The survey covered 20 States of India and focused on about 70% of the animals’ expected habitat, which are India’s tiger reserves and protected forest areas.
Camera traps method was deployed.

Report Highlights

India’s leopard numbers rose by 8% from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874 in 2022.
Highest number of leopards were reported in Madhya Pradesh (3,907).
Three other States reported over 1,000 animals each — Maharashtra (1,985), Karnataka (1,879) and Tamil Nadu (1,070).
Uttarakhand reported a 22% decline in the Leopard Population.
Odisha has witnessed a sharp decline in its leopard population — approximately one-fourth lost — primarily due to poaching between 2018 and 2022.
- Leopard densities from both the tiger reserves (Similipal and Satkosia tiger reserves) in the State have increased significantly.
Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains recorded a 3.4% yearly decline.
Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats and hills of the northeast, and Brahmaputra flood plains recorded growth of 1.5%, 1%, and 1.3% per annum respectively.
About 65% of leopard population is present outside protected areas in Shivalik landscape.
In Uttar Pradesh, both leopard and tiger numbers have increased.

Causes for Decline

According to the report, the biggest threats to the dwindling leopard population are poaching of prey for bush meat, targeted poaching for tiger and leopard skins and body parts.
- Habitat loss due to mining and other human activities.
- Road accidents are also a significant cause of leopard fatalities.

Need for State Action

The State should step up efforts towards effective patrolling, prey recovery, and habitat management outside tiger reserves.

Indian Leopard

Indian leopard is a leopard subspecies widely distributed on the Indian subcontinent.
A leopard does not have any stripes.
It has spots peppered on its body.
A leopard can kill for the pleasure of killing by pouncing continuously on its prey.
The species Panthera pardus is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List
Leopards have survived outside protected areas in many parts of India since historical times.

Cheetahs	Leopards
They prefer to hunt in the day	They usually hunt in nights
Cheetahs are the fastest land animals. They can reach speeds of up to 120 km/h (75 mph) and can accelerate from 0 to 103 km/h (64 mph) in three seconds.	Leopards, on the other hand, only reach a top speed of about 58 km/h (37 mph) but they are super climbers (as they have retractable claws) and good swimmers.
Cheetah is much lighter and taller	Leopards are the shortest of the big cats, although they are strong and bulky – strong enough to pull their prey up trees in order to protect their meal.
IUCN – Vulnerable	IUCN – Vulnerable

Leap year: Everything you need to know about Feb. 29

What is a leap year?

A leap year has 366 days in a year as opposed to the regular 365 days. The extra day is added to February, the shortest month of the year, as February 29.

Why was a leap year introduced?

One year in a solar calendar reflects one revolution of the Earth around the Sun which generally we take to be 365 days.
But in actual the Earth takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds to revolve around the Sun.
Now this extra time of about 6 hours is to be adjusted.
Hence at the interval of four years (6*4=24 hrs) one extra day is added in the shortest month i.e. February.
However, even this method was not error-free, because the six hours used for calculation are still different from the actual 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, making the calendar year slightly longer than the solar year.

Does leap year come every four year?

No. Because even the above method was not error-free, because the six hours used for calculation are still different from the actual 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, making the calendar year slightly longer than the solar year.
Thus, it was decided that some leap years — about one leap year every century — would be dropped to manage the extra day. The years chosen for this were those ending with 00.
However, dropping the leap year from all years ending with 00 would again throw the calculation out of whack. Finally, in the Gregorian calendar, the 00 years that were divisible by 400 ended up as leap years. Thus, 1900 was not a leap year, but 2000 was.

Use dictionary meaning of forest: SC

Context: The Supreme Court, in a significant order, directed that the expression ‘forest’ will continue to have a “broad and all-encompassing” meaning for the time being, and include 1.97 lakh square km of undeclared forest lands.

Definition of forest

Under Forest Conservation Amendment Act 2023

The following land shall be covered under the provisions of this Act, namely: —
- the land that has been declared or notified as a forest in accordance with the provisions of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or under any other law for the time being in force.
- the land that is not covered under clause (a), but has been recorded in Government record as forest, as on or after the 25th of October 1980:
Provided that the provisions of this clause shall not apply to such land, which has been changed from forest use to use for non-forest purpose on or before the 12th of December 1996 in pursuance of an order, issued by any authority authorized by a State Government or a Union territory Administration in that behalf.
Explanation. —For the purposes of this sub-section, the expression
"Government record" means record held by Revenue Department or Forest Department of the State Government or Union territory Administration, or any authority, local body, community, or council recognized by the State Government or Union territory Administration.

The following categories of land shall not be covered under the provisions of this Act, namely: —

such forest land situated alongside a rail line, or a public road maintained by the Government, which provides access to a habitation, or to a rail, and roadside amenity up to a maximum size of 0.10 hectare in each case.
such tree, tree plantation or reafforestation raised on lands that are not specified in clause (a) or clause (b) of sub-section (1); and
such forest land, —
- as is situated within a distance of one hundred kilometers along international borders or Line of Control or Line of Actual Control, as the case may be, proposed to be used for construction of strategic linear project of national importance and concerning national security; or
- up to ten hectares, proposed to be used for construction of security related infrastructure; or
- as is proposed to be used for construction of defense related project or a camp for paramilitary forces or public utility projects, as may be specified by the Central Government, the extent of which does not exceed five hectares in a Left-Wing Extremism affected area as may be notified by the Central Government.

The exemption provided under sub-section (2) shall be subject to such terms and conditions, including the conditions of planting trees to compensate felling of trees undertaken on the lands, as the Central Government may, by guidelines, specify.’

Godavarman case

The Supreme Court judgment in TN. Godavarman Thirumulpad v Union of India (1996) case expanded the scope of such protection.
Under it, areas conforming to the ‘dictionary’ meaning of forests were protected even if it is not notified by government or in historical records.

Recent judgement

The petitions had argued that Section 1A introduced through the amended Act had “circumscribed or substantially diluted” the definition of forest to two categories — declared forests and lands recorded as forests in ‘government records’ after 1980.
The Centre, however, denied any attempt to trim the extent of forest coverage. It pointed to the ‘explanation’ to Section 1A, which expanded the term ‘government records’ contained in the provision to include lands recognised as forest by any State or Union Territory, local body, council, or recognised communities.
However, the court directed the government to revert to the “dictionary meaning” of ‘forest’ as upheld by it in a 1996 decision in the T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad case.
The Bench said that the same dictionary meaning would continue to hold field till the States and Union Territories prepare a “consolidated record” of all the lands recorded as ‘forest’ in government records, including forest-like areas, unclassed and community forest lands.

Similipal seeks more female tigers from other regions

Context: Odisha govt. writes to NTCA over the high number of melanistic tigers in the reserve forest, flags inbreeding concerns

About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)

It is a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in Odisha.It is part of Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas—Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees (Semul trees) growing in the area. Simlipal Tiger Reserve is famous for wide variety of wild orchids, which adds to its beauty.
The park is home to Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, and chausingha.

Tribal communities in the region: According to the 2011 census, about 59% of the population of Mayurbhanj district is Scheduled Tribes. Some tribal communities found in and around Simlipal Tiger Reserve are Kolha, Santhal, Bhumija, Gond & Ho.

Some Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) found in the region are Khadia, Mankidia and Lodhas.

It is Asia’s second largest biosphere reserve and the country’s only wild habitat for Melanistic Royal Bengal Tigers.
This protected area has been part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.

About Melanistic Tigers

Melanism is a genetic condition in which an increased production of melanin, a substance in the skin that produces hair, eye, and skin pigmentation, results in black (or nearly black) skin, feathers, or hair in an animal.
Many royal Bengal tigers of Similipal belong to a unique lineage with higher-than-normal levels of melanin, which gives them black and yellow interspersed stripes on their coats.
These tigers are not entirely black and are therefore more accurately described as being pseudo-melanistic.
According to a study conducted by multiple authors, approximately 37% of the tigers in STR are pseudo-melanistic — a condition characterised by wide, merged stripes.
Similipal’s tigers are also found to move within an isolated habitat, although it has one of the largest tracts of contiguous forest.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

Satkosia Tiger Reserve is a tiger reserve located in the border of Angul and Nayagarh district of Odisha, India covering an area of 988.30 km².
Satkosia Tiger Reserve was designated in 2007 and comprises the Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacent Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary.
It is located where the Mahanadi River passes through a 22 km long gorge in the Eastern Ghats mountains.
The tiger reserve is located in the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion.

About Byadagi chili

Conservation status

Subspecies

Distribution

Behavior

What is Ammonia?

Types:

Convention Production process of ammonia:

Benefits of Green Ammonia:

Government Steps for promotion of Green Ammonia in India

About Methane:

Methane Emission Sources

Anthropogenic Sources

About MethaneSAT

Significance

What are the issues involved?

Sedimentary basins in India:

Sand Dunes

Star Dunes

Study Reveals

The Advanced Oxidation Technology or TADOX®

Significance:

Causes for Decline

Need for State Action

Indian Leopard

What is a leap year?

Why was a leap year introduced?

Does leap year come every four year?

Definition of forest

Recent judgement

About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)

About Melanistic Tigers

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

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