Geography & Environment & Disaster management

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Bioplastics and Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024

Context: Plastic is the third most commonly used petroleum derivative in the world; each year 200 million tons of plastic are consumed on the planet. It comes from a non-renewable source (petroleum), it is contaminating and non-biodegradable (it can take more than 1000 years to decompose). In this context India has come out with rules to regulate the Plastic Waste Management rules, with its latest version in 2024, seeking to incentivize bioplastics.

Issues highlighted in the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024:

Biodegradable Plastics are those plastics which do not leave any micro plastics on degradation.
But the rules don't specify any chemical tests to test the absence of microplastics. This makes it harder for makers of disposable plastic ware to label such products as biodegradable.

About: Bioplastics

Biodegradable material that come from renewable sources.
These are 100% degradable, equally resistant, and versatile, already used in agriculture, textile industry, medicine and, overall, in the container and packaging market
PHA as bioplastic- These are polyesters produced by fermenting raw vegetable materials with a series of bacterial strains. For example, PHAs can be used for injection moulding to build automobile parts and for many other uses. Specifically, PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) is extracted from bacteria such as pseudomonas. In its natural form, it is similar to transparent kitchen film, with the difference that it is an authentic bioplastic.

Advantages of bioplastics

They reduce carbon footprint
They are providing energy savings in production.
They do not involve the consumption of non-renewable raw materials
Their production reduces non-biodegradable waste that contaminates the environment
They do not contain additives that are harmful to health, such as phthalates or bisphenol A
They do not change the flavour or scent of the food contained.

Uses of Bioplastics

It is expanding its use in various sectors:

medical (prostheses)
in food (catering products, disposable containers ...),
toys, and even in the
world of fashion (Versace has a clothing line Ingeo, made from corn) and, of course, biodegradable bags.

Salient Features of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024

Biodegradable plastics have been defined as any plastics, other than compostable plastics, which undergoes degradation by biological processes in specific environment such as soil, landfill, sewage sludge, fresh water, marine, without leaving any micro plastics or visible or distinguishable or toxic residue, which has adverse environment impact.
The definition of “importer” has been made specific and now includes the imports of any plastic packaging/ commodity with plastic packaging/ carry bags/ plastic sheets/ plastic raw material, including in the form of resin/ pellets/ intermediate material used for manufacturing plastic packaging/ films/ preforms, for commercial use.

Note: Earlier, “importer” meant a person who imports plastic packaging or products with plastic packaging or carry bags or multi-layered packaging or plastic sheets or like.

Earlier, “Manufacturer” meant and included a person/ unit/ agency engaged in production of plastic raw material to be used as raw material by the producer.

Now, it includes a person engaged in production of plastic raw material/ compostable plastics/ biodegradable plastics.

Earlier, the ambit of the definition of “Producer” was limited to people engaged in manufacturing of plastic packaging. Now, it also includes persons engaged in: Manufacturing of intermediate material that is used for manufacturing plastic packaging; Contract manufacturing of products using plastic packaging or through other similar arrangements for a brand owner.
Definition of “seller” has been inserted which means any person who sells plastic raw material for producing plastic packaging is a seller.
Only the producers registered under these rules can get raw materials from the manufacturer.
The manufacturers of compostable plastic/ biodegradable plastic carry bags or commodities permitted under the rules, will have to obtain a certificate from the Central Pollution Control Board (‘CPCB’) before marketing or selling. The manufacturer of compostable plastic/ biodegradable plastic will have to inform the CPCB, the quantity of such commodities introduced in the market and the pre-consumer waste generated by it.
Enables the local body to assess: The plastic waste generated; Plastic waste management infrastructure available for collection/ segregation/ processing and send a report to the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee by 30th June of each year; measures to prevent stocking, distribution, sale, and usage of prohibited single use plastic items in their jurisdiction.
The Annual report will include plastic waste management infrastructure available for collection, segregation, processing; projection of plastic waste to be generated; status on framing and implementation on byelaws; Action taken to prevent stocking, distribution, sale, and usage of prohibited Single Use Plastic items.
“Responsibility of Panchayat at District level” has been inserted which lays down similar responsibilities the local body has to assess.
Another provision in the Protocols for compostable and biodegradable plastic materials has been inserted which says that the BIS should specify separate colour/ marking for plastic packaging and commodities made from compostable plastics/ biodegradable plastics.
New provisions relating to “Marking or labelling”: The commodity made from compostable plastic will have to bear a label “compostable only under industrial composting” and shall conform to the Indian Standard. The commodity made from biodegradable plastic will have to bear the label —Biodegradable

Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh

Context: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has achieved a major milestone by establishing connectivity on the 298-km Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh.

About Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

It connected the strategically important all-weather 298-km long road from Manali to Leh through Darcha and Nimmu on the Kargil–Leh Highway.
It connects Nimmu in the Indus Valley to Padum, the capital of Zanskar, to Darcha village in Lahul and Spiti.
This road will become the third axis to the strategically important region, complementing the existing Manali-Leh and Srinagar-Leh routes.
It has strategic importance due to its shorter distance and the crossing of only one pass, Shinkun La.
Once the tunnel is operational, this axis will have all-weather connectivity, significantly boosting defence preparedness along the northern borders with China.
It will not only strengthen defence preparedness but also provide a significant boost to economic development in the Zanskar valley.

Shinkun La

It is a mountain pass in India, on the state boundary between Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. It connects the Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh with the Zanskar region of Ladakh.

Important passes of India

Black Carbon

What Is a Black Carbon?

Black Carbon is produced both naturally and by human activities as a result of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass.
It is black in colour as its particles strongly absorb sunlight and give soot its black colour.
Primary sources include emissions from diesel engines, cook stoves, wood burning and forest fires.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CARBON DIOXIDE AND BLACK CARBON

Reducing CO2 emissions is essential to avert the worst impacts of future climate change, but CO2 has such a long atmospheric lifetime that it will take several decades for CO2 concentrations to begin to stabilize after emissions reductions begin.
In contrast, BC remains in the atmosphere for only a few weeks, so cutting its emissions would immediately reduce the rate of warming, particularly in those areas which have witnessed fast changes in the level of Black Carbon.

Impact of Black Carbon

Black carbon warms the atmosphere because it is very effective at absorbing light. It exacerbates warming of the air and surfaces in regions where it is concentrated, altering weather patterns and ecosystem cycles.
Black carbon, like all particles in the atmosphere, also affects the reflectivity, stability and duration of clouds and alters precipitation.
Depending on how much soot is in the air and where black carbon sits in the atmosphere, it has different effects.
- If it absorbs heat at the level where clouds are forming, they will evaporate.
- When it lies above lower stratocumulus clouds that block the sun, it stabilizes them and thus has a cooling effect.
- Because black carbon interacts with other components of particulate matter, such as sulfates and nitrates that reflect sunlight and cool the atmosphere, scientists do not know exactly how much black carbon itself directly contributes to global warming.

Black carbon lasts only days to weeks in the atmosphere but has significant direct and indirect impacts on the climate, snow and ice, agriculture, and human health.
Studies have found a direct link between exposure to black carbon and a higher risk of heart disease, birth complications, and premature death.

India and Black Carbon

Sources

According to a 2016 study, Sectors responsible for India’s total black carbon emissions.

The residential sector contributes- 47%.
Industries contribute - 22%.
Diesel vehicles - 17%.
Open burning - 12%,
Other sources - 2%.

Did Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) helped?

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) would provide free liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) connections to households below the poverty line.
The primary objective was to make clean cooking fuel available to rural and poor households and reduce their dependence on traditional cooking fuels.
The PMUY has established infrastructure to go with LPG connections, including free gas stoves, deposits for LPG cylinders, and a distribution network.
The programme has thus, been able to play a vital role in reducing black carbon emissions, as it offers a cleaner alternative to traditional fuel consumption.
The programme has provided connections to over 10 crore households as of January 2024.

STATUS

In 2022-2023, 25% of all PMUY beneficiaries — 2.69 crore people — availed either zero LPG refill or only one LPG refill, according to RTI data, meaning they still relied entirely on traditional biomass for cooking.
The Hindu found in August 2023 that the average PMUY beneficiary household consumes only 3.5-4 LPG cylinders per year instead of the six or seven a regular non-PMUY household uses.
This means up to half of all the energy needs of a PMUY beneficiary household are still met by traditional fuels, which have high black carbon emissions.
A shortage of LPG and higher usage of traditional fuels also affect women and children disproportionately.
They are more prone to higher levels of indoor air pollution, causing many health issues and leading to premature deaths.

World Meteorological Organisation

Context: In line with observations by climate agencies, World Meteorological Organisation has officially confirmed 2023 to be the hottest year on record.

State of Global Climate Report

“The State of Global Climate Report” (released by WMO) stated that the global average near-surface temperature was 1.45 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial baseline.
It was the warmest 10-year period on record.
The previous, joint warmest years were 2016 at 1.29 Celsius above the 1850–1900 average and 2020 at 1.27 degree Celsius.

About World Meteorological Organisation

As a specialized agency of the United Nations, WMO is dedicated to international cooperation and coordination on the state and behaviour of the Earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with the land and oceans, the weather and climate it produces, and the resulting distribution of water resources.
WMO facilitates and promotes:
- Establishment of an integrated Earth System observation network to provide weather, climate, and water-related data.
- Establishment and maintenance of data management centers and telecommunication systems for the provision and rapid exchange of weather, climate, and water-related data.
- Creation of standards for observation and monitoring to ensure adequate uniformity in the practices and procedures employed worldwide and, thereby, ascertain the homogeneity of data and statistics.
- Provision of weather, climate, and water-related services - through the application of science and technology in operational meteorology and hydrology - to reduce disaster risks and contribute to climate change adaptation, as well as for sectors such as transport (aviation, maritime and land-based), water resource management, agriculture, health, energy, and other areas.
- Activities in operational hydrology as well as closer cooperation between National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in states and territories where they are separate.
- Coordination of research and training in meteorology and related fields.
WMO Strategic Plan
- Disaster risk reduction
- The Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS)
- The WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS)
- Aviation meteorological services
- Polar and high mountain regions
- Capacity development
- Governance
Publications/Reports by WMO
- Atlas of Mortality and Economic Losses from Weather, Climate and Water-related Hazards
- Global Status of Multi- Hazard Early Warning Systems
- Greenhouse Gas Bulletin
- Provisional State of the Global Climate
- State of Climate Services
- State of Global Water Resources
- State of the Climate in Africa
- State of the Climate in Asia
- State of the Climate in Europe
- State of the Climate in Latin America and the Caribbean
- State of the Climate in the South-West Pacific
- State of the Global Climate
- The State of the Global Climate Decadal Reports
- United in Science
- WMO Air Quality and Climate Bulletin
- WMO Airborne Dust Bulletin
- WMO Co-led Reports

Nickel crashes on 2.5x rise in Indonesian output

Context: Four years ago, Indonesia implemented a permanent ban on nickel ore exports to stimulate foreign investments and promote domestic processing, aiming to bolster downstream industries. This ban attracted significant investment, particularly from China, leading to the construction of smelters and a remarkable 250% increase in Indonesia's nickel production since 2021.

However, this surge in production has resulted in nickel prices plummeting to near three-year lows.

Nickel (Ni)

Nickel is a metallic element with a silvery-white, shiny appearance.
It is the fifth-most common element on earth and occurs extensively in the earth’s crust and core.
Nickel, along with iron, is also a common element in meteorites.
Nickel occurs naturally in soil and water. It is also an essential nutrient for plants.
Ferromagnetic properties of Nickel: Nickel is one of the four elements known to have the property to display ferromagnetism i.e., the ability to form permanent magnets. The others being Iron, Cobalt and Gadolinium.
Production process of Nickel: Nickel does not occur in its native state. Pure Nickel is obtained by reduction of its oxides or by the Mond process which consists of the formation of volatile nickel carbonyl produced by passing carbon monoxide over heated Nickel oxide. This results in the dissociation of Nickel Oxide into Nickel and Carbon Monoxide, which can be used again.
Physical properties of Nickel: Nickel has a high melting point of 1,453 degree Celsius, relatively low thermal and electrical conductivity, high resistance to corrosion & oxidation, excellent strength and toughness at high temperatures and capable of being magnetised.
Chemical properties of Nickel: Pure Nickel is chemically reactive but large pieces are slow to react to a passive layer of Nickel Oxide formed over it.

Minerals of Nickel

Nickel is derived from two types of ore deposits:

Laterites: Principal ore in this class are nickeliferous limonite and garneirite. (Accounting for 54% global Nickel reserves)
Magmatic sulphide nickel deposits: Principal ore in this class is Pentlandite. (Accounting for 35% global reserves)
Hydrothermal systems such as iron-nickel alloy, sedimentary-hosted polymetallic, and volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, as well as seafloor manganese crusts and nodules. (Accounting for 10% global reserves)

In some cases, Nickel is associated with the Platinum group of elements and copper, which increases the value of nickel ore deposits.

Uses of Nickel

Primarily, world nickel demand is for the production of stainless steel where about 65% nickel is consumed.
Nickel resists corrosion and is used to plate other metals to protect them. It is, however, mainly used in making alloys such as stainless steel. It resists corrosion, even when red hot, so is used in toasters and electric ovens.
A copper-nickel alloy is commonly used in desalination plants, which convert seawater into fresh water. Nickel steel is used for armour plating.
Nickel is used in batteries, including rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles.
Nickel has a long history of being used in coins.

Global Production and exports

World Reserves of Nickel: World reserves of Nickel are estimated at 100 million tonnes with Indonesia and Australia having the highest reserves followed by Brazil and Russia.
World Nickel Mineral Production: The main producers of Nickel mineral in the world are Indonesia (42%), followed by Philippines (14%) and Russia, New Caledonia, Canada & Australia.
Production – Indonesia is the largest producer followed by Philippines and Russia.

Status of Nickel in India

Nickel is not produced from primary sources in the country and the entire demand is met through imports.
Nickel occurs principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates in India.
Important occurrence is nickeliferous limonite in Sukinda Valley, Jajpur district, Odisha.
In addition, nickel is found associated with uranium deposits at Jaduguda, Jharkhand and a process is being developed for its recovery.
The State of Odisha is endowed with the largest share of resources of nickel ore in the country at 175 million tonnes (93%) followed by Jharkhand & Nagaland.
ODISHA - Jajpur (140 million tonnes), Mayurbhanj (27 million tonnes) and Keonjhar (8 million tonnes).
Jharkhand - 9 million tonnes (5%) resources most of which are in Singhbhum (East) district associated with Uranium deposits.
Nagaland - 5 million tonnes (3%) resources which predominantly are in Kiphire district

India will have no option but to depend on imports for this metal till a technology to recover nickel from the overburden of chromite ore in Odisha is established on a commercial scale.

Small Scale LNG

Context: Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas has dedicated to the nation India’s first small scale liquified natural gas (SSLNG) unit at GAIL (India) Ltd.’s Vijaipur complex in Madhya Pradesh.

Need for Small Scale LNG

Government Ambition: Government aims to increase the share of Natural gas in its primary energy mix to 15% by 2030 from a little more than 6% at present.
Reduction in Pollution: Natural gas is far less polluting than conventional hydrocarbons like coal and oil.
Reduce import burden: Natural gas is cheaper than oil (85% of oil requirement comes from imports). Replacing a major chunk of diesel consumption by LNG could lead to substantial foreign exchange savings.
Transition fuel: Natural gas is seen as a key transition fuel in India’s journey towards green energy and future fuels.
For scaling up consumption: Large scale pipeline projects that are in the works will take years to be completed; even so, last mile delivery challenges may persist in many parts of the country.
More mileage: LNG offers a slightly longer range to vehicles with similar sized fuel tanks.

What is Small Scale LNG?

It refers to the liquefaction of natural gas and its transportation using unconventional means in a significantly smaller scale operation than the usual large-scale liquefaction, regasification, and the transportation infrastructure and processes.
Simply put, LNG-gas in its liquid and super chilled form is supplied in specialized trucks and small vessels to industrial and commercial consumers in regions that are not connected by pipelines.
In a relatively traditional use case, such as supplying compressed natural gas (CNG) for vehicles and piped gas for households and manufacturing units, the buyer would regasify the LNG using small vaporizers and then supply to end users.
Where the fuel is to be used directly in its liquid form, it would be supplied to end users without regasification.
The SSLNG chain can start from a large-scale LNG import terminal from where the LNG, instead of being regasified and supplied through pipelines, can be transported to consumers by cryogenic road tankers or small vessels.
The chain can also start at locations with ample natural gas supply or production, where small liquefaction plants can be set up.

Working of SSLNG

There are two treatment skids:
- Zeolite pre-treatment skids: It is used to process natural gas at a pressure of 15 bar to remove non desirable components such as nitrogen, water, Sulphur, and Carbon di oxide.
- Liquefaction skids: known as cryo box for converting natural gas to LNG at pressure of around 260 bar.
  - The gas is cooled by a propane based external refrigeration system to minus 60-70 degrees Celsius, and then subjected to expansion, such that the temperature falls below minus 140 degrees Celsius allowing it to liquify.
  - The LNG will then be dispatched by cryogenic tankers to nearby areas for use in city gas distribution networks as CNG and piped gas, and in LPG filling stations for medium and heavy vehicles.
  - The SSLNG unit is controlled by an automated, web based supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, a mechanism that is typically used to monitor large industrial devices and processes.

Challenges for India

Lack of easy availability of LNG powered vehicles.
High initial cost of LNG based vehicles as compared to diesel and petroleum-based vehicles.
Absence of an LNG vehicle financing system.
The nonexistence of LNG retail network.

Efforts taken

Petronet has collaborated with commercial vehicle manufacturers and other public sector oil and gas companies for trials and pilot projects for LNG- fueled trucks and buses.
Petronet has established a few LNG dispensing stations along highways.
GAIL is looking to build LNG dispensing stations along major highways.

Arboriculture

Context: Greater focus on forest and forest like areas in Urban settings have increased interest in Arboriculture.

About Arboriculture

Arboriculture is a branch of horticulture involved in cultivating and managing and maintaining trees, shrubs and other woody plants in urban and suburban settings.
Arboriculture differs from urban forestry in the sense that urban forestry deals with the management of forests as systems (or groups of trees) in an urban setting.
Arboriculture deals with the planting of trees, management through mulching, thinning and tending, ‘training’, fertilizer application, irrigation, pruning, and disease and pest management.
Arboriculture also means assessing existing trees and vegetation to ensure protection to the valued in this category. Valuable trees within an urban area cannot be lost. Very often older trees may need careful pruning and tending to.
Amenity Trees: The main focus of Arboriculture is on so-called ‘Amenity Trees’. Amenity trees are maintained primarily for landscape purposes for the benefit of human beings Amenity Trees are found those found in private gardens, public parks and open spaces, schools, churchyards, playgrounds, urban woodlands and nature reserves and alongside roads, railway lines and routes for utilities like electricity pylons.

Significance of Arboriculture

Environment

Trees and shrubs are very effective in urban settings, for sequestering carbon and accumulating it in the form of biomass in the soil.
Healthy trees and shrubs act as a hedge against disproportionate heating of the urban landscape (Heat Island).

Preserving Habitats

Trees are home to a host of species. Trees and plants offer shelter and food to insects, birds, squirrels and more.

Aesthetics

An urban landscape dotted with healthy plants and shrubs adds to the aesthetics of the locality. It also acts as a catalyst for overall wellbeing of the residents.

Challenges

According to present-day thinking, planting trees cannot be an unplanned activity to meet green targets.

Planting wrong trees at the wrong place can affect the soil, water flows, biodiversity, and air quality.
Valuable trees within an urban area cannot be lost. Very often older trees may need careful pruning and tending too. However more focus is given to new plantation.

Star-rating for state environment bodies not operational yet, Ministry tells NGT

Context: The plan of the Environment Ministry for introducing a star-rating system for states on the basis of their promptness in granting environmental clearances to industrial or infrastructure projects has not been operationalised yet.

More about the news:

MOEFCC had introduced the star-rating system in January 2022 but it was challenged in the NGT by a Tamil Nadu-based organisation working for the rights of fishermen.
- Argument against the star rating system: It was arbitrary and would result in a dilution of scrutiny during the environmental impact assessment process and Ministry’s order was contrary to Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) notification of 2006 which mandates detailed scrutiny of all the impact of all projects.
- Argument by the Ministry: The order was purely administrative in nature and that the rating criteria does not seek to change any process or timelines as provided in the EIA notification, 2006.
The 2022 order introduced a system for ranking the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAAs) using a star-rating system based on efficiency and timelines in granting environmental clearances.
- The SEIAA would get points on a scale of 0 to 7.
- A SEIAA would get two points for granting a clearance in less than 80 days, one point for clearing a project between 80 and 105 days and 0.5 points if the clearance was granted between 105 and 120 days.
- Zero points would be given to a SEIAA if it takes more than 120 days for granting environmental clearance.

EIA Notification, 2006:

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is mandatory under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, for developmental activities involving investments of Rs.50 crores and above.
The EIA Notification makes prior Environmental Clearance (EC) compulsory for:
- All new projects and activities
- Expansion/modernization of existing projects
- Activities listed in the Schedule to the Notification

Authorities having power to issue Environmental Clearance (EC):

The EIA Notification mandates two Regulatory Authorities:
- Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
- State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA)
For bigger projects, which fall under Category A in the Schedule, the MoEFCC issues the EC.
For smaller projects- Category B, the SEIAA which is a Central Government authority operating in each state, issues the clearance.
Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) and State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) recommend the issue of Environmental Clearance to the authorities.
MoEFCC will issue EC, for projects being evaluated by it, based on the recommendations of the EAC. And the SEIAA will issue EC based on the recommendations of the SEAC.

About State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAAs):

The SEIAA is a Central Government Authority that is constituted by the State Government but acts on behalf and reports to the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change.
Composition and working of SEIAAs:
- It has three members:
  - Member-Secretary: a serving officer of the respective State Government/ Union territory.
  - Chairperson – an expert in EIA process with a term of 3 years
  - Non-officio Member: an expert in EIA process with a term of 3 years
If an SEIAA has not been constituted in a state, then all projects requiring an EC will be considered by the Environment Ministry.
All decisions of the SEIAA should be taken in a meeting and must, as far as possible be, unanimous.
If a majority decision is taken, then the details of the opinions for and against it should be clearly recorded and a copy of the minutes sent to the Environment Ministry.

Rising temperature of Oceans

Context: The report by Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) indicates that average sea -surface temperature has reached a new high in February 2024. This unusual warming of oceans is gradually acquiring a usual color, thereby posing grave threat for ocean ecosystem and biodiversity in particular and the Earth in general.

Reasons for warming of oceans:

Increasing absorption of greenhouse gases emissions: The average global temperature has risen by at least 1.2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times on account of high levels of GHGs emissions. Consequently, oceans have absorbed around 90% of the extra heat trapped by the GHGs, thereby leading to the excess warming of oceans.
Impact of El-Nino: This phenomenon results in temperature rise in eastern equatorial pacific ocean.
Saharan impact on Atlantic: The blowing of dust from Sahara desert acted as a giant umbrella to shade the Atlantic water and reduces ocean temperatures. But now this dust umbrella has partially folded, resulting in the increased heating of the Atlantic ocean.
Impact of Sulphate aerosols: Sulphate aerosols on account of SO2 emissions act like a cloud, preventing solar radiation from reaching the ocean surface. But the decline in SO2 emissions on account of decline in Sulphur in marine fuels has negated this favorable impact.
Weakening of Ocean Current: Weakening of ocean currents has impacted the heat regulation in oceans.

Impact of Warming of oceans:

Ocean Stratification: Warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification i.e. the natural separation of ocean water into horizontal layers by density with warmer, lighter, less salty and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
Impacting the Ocean biodiversity: Due to ocean stratification, nutrients are not able to travel up to the surface of the ocean and so there is no intermixing. This threatens the population of the phytoplankton that thrive on the ocean surface and are base of several marine food webs.
Rising sea levels: Warming of oceans leads to thermal expansion of water and also melting of glaciers in the polar areas. This leads to coastal inundation of low lying areas and also saline intrusion in groundwater reservoirs.
Rising frequency of Marine Heat Waves (MHWs): MHWs are the abrupt rise in the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea by around 3 to 4 degrees Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days. Ex: Between 1982 and 2016, MHWs have doubled in frequency and have become more intense (IPCC report).
Coral bleaching: Excessive warming of oceans has led to the discharge of zooxanthellae algae by Corals, thereby bleaching them to white color. This coral bleaching reduces the productivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable to life-threatening diseases like white band disease and black band disease.
Loss of marine life: MHW events have also contributed to the sudden and unexpected death of many fish and other aquatic animals over a short period of time.
Impact on migration of marine species: Warming of oceans has impacted the migratory patterns like early migration of heat loving marine species northwards, shifting of mangroves such as in Atlantic northwards towards moderately warmer areas.
Intensification of the cyclones: The excessive warming of oceans has contributed to higher rate of evaporation and in turn more latent heat of evaporation as fuel for intensifying the cyclonic wind.

Way Forward:

WMO in its State of Global Climate report has highlighted that there is 66 percent chance that at least one of the years between 2023 and 2027 would cross the threshold of 1.5 degree Celsius (Paris target)
In this regard, it is important to achieve the goals set out in programs like Mangroves for Future
Limiting greenhouse gas emissions: There is an urgent need to achieve the mitigation targets set by the Paris Agreement on climate change and hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. This will help prevent the massive and irreversible impacts of growing temperatures on ocean ecosystems and their services.
Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems: Well-managed protected areas can help conserve and protect ecologically and biologically significant marine habitats. This will regulate human activities in these habitats and prevent environmental degradation.
Restoring marine and coastal ecosystems: Elements of ecosystems that have already experienced damage can be restored. This can include building artificial structures such as rock pools that act as surrogate habitats for organisms or boosting the resilience of species to warmer temperatures through assisted breeding techniques.
Improving human adaptation: Governments can introduce policies to keep fisheries production within sustainable limits, for example by setting precautionary catch limits and eliminating subsidies to prevent overfishing. Coastal setback zones which prohibit all or certain types of development along the shoreline can minimise the damage from coastal flooding and erosion. New monitoring tools can be developed to forecast and control marine disease outbreaks.
Strengthening scientific research: Governments can increase investments in scientific research to measure and monitor ocean warming and its effects. This will provide more precise data on the scale, nature and impacts of ocean warming, making it possible to design and implement adequate and appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Why is Coal Power still relevant for India’s energy security?

Context: The stand of India against phasing out of coal and coal based energy generation in UNFCCC COPs has been criticised by several environmentalists. But India has rightly highlighted its achievement of climate goal targets and also the need to tackle energy poverty in India in the light of SDG-7.

Present installed capacity of power generation is around 4,26,132 MW. India’s installed non-fossil fuel capacity has increased 396% in the last 8.5 years and stands at more than 179.57 GW (including large Hydro and nuclear), about 42% of the country’s total capacity.
Coal based thermal power plants accounts for 50% of India’s installed power capacity. However, considering the intermediacy of renewable energy generation, the share of coal based thermal power is much more in actual electricity generation.
According to the Central Electricity Authority, Coal based thermal power still accounts for more than 70% of total electricity generated in the country as of 2021-22.

Many critics of coal based power generation continue to argue for phasing out of coal based power plants as coal power is one of the biggest sources of greenhouse gas emissions.
Also, due to technological advancement the prices of renewable energy such as solar and wind have declined to levels which are equal or less than thermal power generation.

But, still the coal power is here to stay for following reasons:

Benefits of Coal based power generation in India:
- Large indigenous availability of coal in India
- Coal based power generation is essential to provide base-load power to supplement renewable energy sources.
Energy poverty in India: India's energy consumption is just one-third of global average. Also, Economic Survey 2018-19 has highlighted that India's per-capita energy production needs to increase by four times to tackle energy poverty in India.
Issues with renewable energy in India:
- Renewable solar projects require at least 12-13 months to get on its feet.
- Location specificity of renewable energy
- Renewable power has the inherent challenges of intermittency, which poses risks to energy grid stability.
- High import dependency in Solar PVs required for solar energy generation.
Increasing production:
- Record coal production target of 1 billion tonne in financial year 2024. For last three years, production has been increasing at brisk pace.
- Total anticipated thermal capacity addition by 2031-32 of around 93,380 MW of which coal power capacity addition to be around 80 GW.
Achievement of NDC targets:
- India has achieved its Paris NDCs targets of 40% non-fossil capacity and set new target of 50% to be achieved by 2030
- This achievement reinforces India's stand that utilisation of coal power in India has not impacted its gradual transition towards green energy.
Lack of alternatives: India does not have adequate natural gas resources and imported LNG from nations like Qatar are not cost competitive. So, coal remains the major source of energy production in India.
Longer transition time: India has set 2070 as the target year for becoming a net zero emitter, which is 20 years more than the 2050-year target of several nations. So, this gives India more time to phase down the coal power in India.
Less emission: In the last six decades, India has contributed to only around 4% of global cumulative CO2 emissions vis-a-vis 17% emission by China, 20% by Europe and 25% by North America. So, anyhow the coal energy production in India has not contributed much to global emissions.
Just Transition: India’s coal sector employs millions of people in the poorest parts of the country. Any decision to phase out of coal should take into account the human cost involved:

Way Forward

Promotion of Clean coal technologies: Government should promote cleaner alternatives of using its vast coal reserves such as Coal Gasification, Coal Bed Methane extraction and usage of such gas and Incentivisation of Coal Washing.
Making thermal power plants environmentally friendly by mandating installation of CCUS units, Flue Gas Desulphurisation of units etc.
Building railway lines and other policy reforms such as captive mining, FDI and better technology in the coal sector.

Conclusion:

In this regard, for India, even as it goes on adding renewable capacity, coal will continue to be a dominant fuel in India’s energy mix in the foreseeable future till other viable alternatives emerge. Besides, coal is not just used in the power sector. The way out is to invest more in technology for improving efficiency while reducing dependence on thermal power. There is no either or, India needs both for now.

Dog-bite menace in India

Context: In recent times, there have many incidents of violence by pet dogs and people living around them, even to the extent of death in some cases.

These incidents reflect the growing menace of stray and pet dogs in India and therefor necessitate its imminent redressal. In this context, an expert committee had been constituted by Department of Animal Welfare and Husbandry, which has recommended that certain breeds of “ferocious dogs” be prohibited from being kept as pets.

Extent of Dog menace in India:

India has about 62 million stray dogs, according to the State of Pet Homelessness Index 2021 by Mars Petcare, the global pet health and nutrition company.
Cases of deaths caused by stray dog bites are shockingly high in India. Every year, over 55,000 people are killed by dog attacks globally. India accounts for 36% of the global deaths due to rabies and 65% of the deaths in the South-Asia region, according to World Health Organisation (WHO).
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare reported that incidents of dog bites in India have seen a 26.5% year-on-year increase, from 2.18 million incidents in 2022 to 2.75 million incidents in 2023.
MOHFW ministry stated that Kerala, Jharkhand, Delhi, Assam, and UT of Chandigarh saw the highest year on year percentage rise in the incidents of stray dog bites this year.
Kerala witnessed the highest percentage increase in cases of dog bites. The southern state saw 15 times rise to 63,458 incidents in 2023 as compared to 4,000 incidents recorded in 2022.
In terms of the absolute number of cases, Maharashtra topped the list with 435,136 incidents in 2023. This was followed by Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
The states witnessing the least number of dog bite incidents were Nagaland (569), Mizoram, Ladakh, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Reasons for rise of dog-bite menace in India:

Issues with Municipalities: Supreme Court in 2001 clearly stated that it is the responsibility of the civic agencies to control the population of stray dogs by spaying them. Due to lack of will and resources, most of the civic agencies fail to effectively launch vaccination and spaying drives.
Aggressive dogs: This is the most controversial issue and needs to be addressed practically. Not all stray dogs are aggressive. Most do not bother any human around them. However, an aggressive dog can disturb harmony. One such dog can form a pack of two, three or more dogs as it becomes the alpha of a pack.
Rising number of stray dogs: India has the largest number of stray dogs globally. The rise in the number of packs leads to a scarcity of resources for each dog. This is one of the key reasons for aggressive behaviour in dogs and incidents of attack on humans and other animals.
Animal Birth Control Rules, 2001: Stray dogs may not be killed but only sterilized. But inefficiency on the part of civic bodies in sterilizing and vaccinating the dogs aggravates the issue. Animal Birth Control Rules,
Protest by dog lovers: (Kerala case) Government faced opposition when they decided to cull the aggressive dogs.

Way Forward:

Certain breeds of “ferocious dogs” should be prohibited from being kept as pets.
List of pets recommended to prohibited:
- Pit bull terrier, tosa inu, American Stafford- shire terrier, fila brasileiro, dogo argentino, American bulldog, boerboel, kangal, central Asian shepherd dog, caucasian shepherd dog, south mastiffs, rottweiler, terrier, rhodesian ridgeback, wolf dogs, canario, akbash dog, Moscow guard dog, Cane corso and dogs commonly classified as bandog.
- Dogs that have already been kept as pets must be sterilised to ensure that further breeding does not happen.
- Animal Birth Control (Dog) Rules, 2001, which has now been replaced by Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023, with the aim of controlling stray dogs through sterilisation and vaccination should be efficiently implemented by local bodies.
Implementing the WHO guidelines and various policy guidelines like- Enforcement of pet control laws, neutering and vaccinating pets, spaying and neutering stray dogs to reduce the street dog population, and rehabilitating stray dogs in dog sanctuaries and shelters. Dog lovers can come and visit them, bring food, or donate money to the sanctuary.

About Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI)
AWBI is a statutory body created to advice government on Animal Welfare Laws and promotion of animal welfare in India.

Established under Prevention of Cruelty Act, 1960.
This body was created under the stewardship of Rukmini Devi Arundale (famous for salvaging Bharatnatyam dance and foundation of Kalaksheta foundation in Chennai).

Functions of AWBI

Advices centrals/state governments on issues pertaining to animal welfare.
Provides financial assistance for construction and maintenance of animal shelters and water troughs, purchase of veterinary medicines and medical equipment.
Provides animal ambulances to Gaushalas and AWOs.
Facilitating implementation of Animal Birth Control program for controlling rabies and over population of stray of dogs.
Rescue and relief grants to animals affected by Natural Calamities to its recognised AWOs, Gaushalas/Panjrapoles/Local Bodies to carry out animal welfare activities so that the animal do not suffer any cruelties.

Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

Context: After 4,000 trekkers climbed the Kumara Parvatha peak in the ecologically fragile Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary on the Republic Day weekend, an alarmed Karnataka government temporarily banned trekking in the State.

Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

This sanctuary is located in Kodagu district of Karnataka and is part of Western ghats.
The Kadamakkal reserve forest is a part of the sanctuary.
Pushpagiri (Kumara Parvatha) is the highest peak in it (2^nd highest in Karnataka).
The sanctuary adjoins Bisle reserve forest to the north and Kukke Subramanya forest range to the west.
Mandalpatti peak, Kote betta and Makkalagudi betta are mountains that fall in the sanctuary.
Mallalli falls and Kote abbe waterfalls (also called Mukkodlu falls) are located inside the sanctuary.

Fauna

A few of the popular animal species are Spotted Deer, Wild Pig, Giant Squirrel, Gaur, Sambar, Asian Elephant.
Orange Flycatcher, Nilgiri Flycatcher, Grey-Breasted Laughing Thrush.
King Cobra, rat, and other variants of snakes can also be found here.
The Nilgiri Pigeon is the most beautiful attraction here.

Issues highlighted in the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024:

About: Bioplastics

Advantages of bioplastics

Uses of Bioplastics

Salient Features of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2024

About Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

Shinkun La

Important passes of India

What Is a Black Carbon?

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CARBON DIOXIDE AND BLACK CARBON

India and Black Carbon

About World Meteorological Organisation

Nickel (Ni)

Minerals of Nickel

Uses of Nickel

Global Production and exports

Status of Nickel in India

What is Small Scale LNG?

Working of SSLNG

Challenges for India

Efforts taken

About Arboriculture

EIA Notification, 2006:

Authorities having power to issue Environmental Clearance (EC):

About State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAAs):

Reasons for warming of oceans:

Way Forward:

Way Forward

Conclusion:

Extent of Dog menace in India:

Reasons for rise of dog-bite menace in India:

Way Forward:

Functions of AWBI

Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

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