Context: The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi visited Arichal Munai, the starting point of the Ram Setu.
About Ram Setu
Adam's Bridge also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu, is a chain of natural limestone shoals between Pamban Island (Rameswaram Island) of Tamil Nadu, and Mannar Island of Sri Lanka.
The feature is 48 km long and separates the Gulf of Mannar from the Palk.
Some regions of the bridge are dry, and the sea in the area rarely exceeds 1 meter in depth, making it quite difficult for boats to pass over it.
Etymology
The ancient Sanskrit epic Ramayana (8th century BCE–3rd century CE) mentions a bridge constructed by the god Rama to reach the island Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from Ravana.
In popular belief, Lanka is equated to present-day Sri Lanka and the bridge is described as "Rama's Setu".
Geological Evolution
The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of the uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge.
It mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks.
The Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Applications Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs.
One study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift.
Transport Corridor
Due to shallow waters, Adam's Bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait.
In 2005, the government of India approved a multi-million-dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project.
This project aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanush Kodi.
The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off the voyage around the island of Sri Lanka.
This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge.
Various organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds.
Some organizations oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project.
Panama Canal is a man made waterway in Panama connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
It is 82 km long and has been constructed by digging up the Isthmus of Panama connecting North America and South America continents.
The Panama Canal is not dug at sea level but above sea level to save on the drilling cost. Panama Canal is made up of a system of locks that raises the ship to the level of Gatun Lake (26 meters above sea level). In addition, the water that feeds our Canal is fresh, because it comes mainly from this lake, and this determines the draft along its channel.
The Canal locks at each end lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial freshwater lake 26 m above sea level created by damming up the Chagres River and Lake Alajuela to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, and then lower the ships at the other end. An average of 200,000,000 litres of fresh water are used in a single passing of a ship.
Note: Suez Canal has been dug at Sea level. Thus, the Suez Canal never faces the risk of drying up as it is fed by ocean water that moves in the Suez Canal at sea level.
Panama Canal is a key conduit for international maritime trade. It has been a major thoroughfare for international trade for over 100 years, connecting nearly 2,000 ports in 170 countries.
Drought in Panama: Since the start of 2023, traffic through the canal has slowed down due to a prolonged drought that has diminished the amount of available water used to fill the canal locks, which require 101,000 cubic metres of water to fill. The water is drawn from the nearby lakes.
Context - Based on the input from wheat researchers and the weather bureau, the Karnal-based Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research (IIWBR) has appealed to the farmers to remain vigilant against yellow rust, a pest used to appear a few years ago in some districts of Haryana during this period.
Key facts about yellow rust:
Yellow Rust disease appears as yellow stripes of powder or dust on leaves and leaf sheaths of the wheat crop. This yellow powder comes out on clothing or fingers when touched.
Rust colonies in the leaves drain the carbohydrates from the plant and reduce the green leaf area.
The main economic loss from yellow rust is in wheat.
The disease does occur in barley but it is rare due to effective varietal resistance.
Areas that have cool, damp summers and mild winters are prone to yellow rust infections, for example, coastal regions or regions around rivers or estuaries.
Epidemics of yellow rust often start as individual plants, usually in the autumn.
Symptoms develop slowly over winter and are often missed until the early spring when small patches or foci of infected plants can be seen in fields.
These patches usually spread in the direction of prevailing wind.
In India, yellow rust is a major disease in the Northern Hill Zone and the North-Western Plain Zone and spreads easily during the onset of cool weather.
A new variety of wheat called HD-3226 or Pusa Yashasvi was released by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, which had higher levels of resistance against major rust fungi such as the yellow/stripe, brown/leaf and black/stem. According to the IIWBR advisory, if farmers observe yellow rust in patches in their wheat fields, they should spray fungicides.
Context: Himalayan Wolf has been assessed for the first time in the IUCN's Red List as Vulnerable.
About Himalayan Wolf
Himalayan Wolf (scientific name: Canis lupus chanco) is a prominent lupine predator found across the Himalayas.
It is well adapted to cold environment and is found in alpine steppe and tundra habitats above 3,900 m on the Tibetan Plateau and Himalayas.
Himalayan Wolf possesses genetic adaptations to cope with hypoxic conditions in their high-altitude habitats.
They are sympatric with snow leopards in large parts of their range. Both Wolves and Snow Leopards are apex predators in the high-altitude habitats with some degree of competition for prey resources.
Himalayan Wolf feeds on ungulates (Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan argali, blue sheep) and small mammals (Himalayan Marmot, Pika, Wolly hare) and livestock such as domestic yaks and goat.
The population size of Himalayan Wolf has been estimated to be 2,275-3,792 individuals by researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India. Of this, India has 277-378 individuals in its part of Himalayas.
Found in Tibet, Nepal and Indian Himalayas.
Locations where it is found in India: Ladakh (Ut of Ladakh), Spiti Valley (Himachal Pradesh), Uttarakhand and Sikkim.
IUCN Status: Vulnerable
Threats to Himalayan Wolf
Depredation conflict (Man-Animal Conflict)
Habitat modification and encroachment
Depletion of wild prey populations
Hybridisation with dogs
Illegal hunting for fur and body parts including paws, tongues, heads and other parts.
Distinction from Indian Wolf
Earlier the Himalayan Wold and Indian Wolf were considered to be the same species. However, in 2018 researchers confirmed that Himalayan or Woolly Wolf was a genetically unique clade/lineage/race of wolves.
Indian/Common/Peninsular Wolf is found in the plains and the Deccan Plateau.
Context: National Green Tribunal has asked the MoEFCC to ensure that all coastal states/UTs prepare the Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) or Island Coastal Regulation Zone Plan (ICRZP) as per Coastal Regulation Zone notification, 2019.
Shale deposits along coasts of Gujarat, TN and Andhra Pradesh
Rich Methane Hydrate deposits along the KG Basin. (Not yet harnessed).
Renewable Energy Potential:
Significant wind energy potential (665 GW) along with offshore wind.
Tropical coasts of India have vast solar energy potential.
Tidal energy and OTEC
Mineral Resources
Monazite sands and critical minerals important for India’s nuclear energy security.
Placer deposits rich in titanium and gold along coasts
Salt production and export principally in Gujarat.
Sand and construction material from coasts.
Food Resources
Rich in fisheries and aquaculture – Rich source of protein and exports.
Seaweeds for food and fertilisers.
Other important factors
Coastal cities and beautiful beaches are rich sources for tourism and water adventure sports.
Pearl fisheries and ornaments
Blue carbon: Coastal blue carbon focuses on rooted vegetation in coastal zone, such as tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. These ecosystems have high carbon burial rates on a per unit area basis and accumulate carbon in their soils and sediments.
Challenges to Coastal Ecosystems
Natural challenges
Cyclones
Increased wave activity leading to erosion of the beaches.
Sea level rise: Sea level rise due to global warming is a key threat to coastal ecosystems and large populations living on the coasts.
Intrusion of seawater in the groundwater making normal groundwater saline. This happens due to excess withdrawal of groundwater.
Anthropogenic factors for coastal degradation
Sand mining and dredging
Construction of river dams upstream
Destruction of mangroves
Oil spills
Plastic waste disposal in coastal waters harming coastal biodiversity
Excessive fertilizer usage and spill-off leading to eutrophication.
Overdevelopment and population pressure in coastal areas
Steps taken to protect coastal ecosystem in India.
Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2018: MoEFCC has notified Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2018 under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986 to conserve and protect the unique environment of coastal and marine areas, protect livelihoods of fishermen and other coastal communities and promote sustainable Cdevelopment on scientific principles taking into account the dangers of natural hazards, sea level rise due to global warming.
Application of Coastal Regulation Zone:
Land area from High Tide Line to 500 metres on the landward side along the sea front.
The intertidal zone means land area between HTL and Low Tide Line.
Water and bed area between Low Tide Line to the territorial water limit in case of sea and water.
Classification of CRZs
CRZ-I: Areas environmentally most critical. It is further classified as:
CRZ-I A: They constitute ecologically sensitive areas and geomorphological features which play a role in maintaining the integrity of the coast like: Mangroves, Corals and coral reefs, Sand dunes, Biologically active mudflats, protected areas (National Parks, WLS etc.), Salt marshes, Nesting grounds of turtles and birds, Horse shoe crab habitats, sea grass beds, heritage sites.
CRZ-I B: Intertidal zone i.e., area between Low tide line and High Tide Line.
CRZ-II: Developed land areas up to or close to shoreline, within existing municipal limits or in other existing designated urban areas.
CRZ-III: Land areas that are relatively undisturbed (rural areas etc.) and those which do not fall under CRZ-II. It is further classified into:
CRZ-III A: CRZ-III area with population density more than 2161 per sq. km. as per census 2011. In these areas, area up to 50 metres from the HTL on the landward side shall be earmarked as No development Zone.
CRZ-III B: All other CRZ-III areas (population density less than 2161 per sq. km.). In these areas, area up to 200 metres from HTL on the landward side will be No Development Zone.
CRZ-IV: CRZ constitutes the water area. It is further classified into:
CRZ-IV A: Water area and sea bed area between LTL up to 12 nautical miles on the seaward side.
CRZ-IV B: Includes water area and bed area between LTL and bank of the tidal influenced water body to the LTL on the opposite side of the bank, extending from the mouth of the waterbody at the sea up to the influence of tide.
Coastal area accorded special consideration for protecting critical coastal environment:
Critically Vulnerable Coastal Area (CVCA): Following areas will be treated as CVCA and managed with involvement of coastal communities:
Sundarban region in West Bengal,
Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutchh in Gujarat,
Malvan and Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
Karwar and Coondapur in Karnataka, Vembanad in Kerala,
Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu,
Bhitarkanika in Odisha,
Coringa, East Godavari and Krishna in Andhra Pradesh
Inland Backwater islands and islands along mainland coast
Municipal limits of Greater Mumbai.
Activities prohibited with CRZ:
Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, operations or processes.
Manufacture or handling of oil, storage or disposal of hazardous substances.
Land reclamation, bunding or disturbing the natural course of seawater except for activities permitted.
Discharge of untreated waste and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other human settlements.
Dumping of city or town wastes
Port and harbour projects in high eroding stretches of coast.
Mining of sand, rocks and other sub-strata materials.
Dressing or altering of active sand dunes.
Disposal of plastic into the coastal waters is prohibited
Blue Flag Certification of Beaches: Blue Flag Certification standards have been established in 1985 by Copenhagen-based Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), a not-for-profit, non-governmental organisation. Ten Indian beaches have Blue Flag Certification:
Shivrajpur in Gujarat
Kovalam in Tamil Nadu
Ghoghla in Diu
Eden in Puducherry
Kasarkod, in Karnataka
Padubidri in Karnataka
Kappad in Kerala
Rushikonda in Andhra Pradesh
Golden in Odisha
Radhanagar in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Regeneration of Mangroves in the coastal areas. Central Government has notified MISHTI scheme for regeneration of Mangroves in Coastal areas.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan: Focuses on prevention of soil erosion, shelterbelt plantation, mangrove plantation, strengthening requirements for ecosystem monitoring, biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood of coastal communities.
Way forward/Suggestions
Conducting a nationwide island and coastal areas vulnerability assessment for understanding vulnerability of coastal areas.
Installation of GPS/GNSS based station with respect to each tide gauge across islands to estimate vertical land motion which can accurately quantify the future sea-level rise over India’s coasts and islands.
Conducting field based topographic surveys to map the accurate inundation of islands and coasts under different climate change scenarios.
Nature-based growth and development of blue economy based on marine and coastal fronts.
Nature-based restoration of environment and ecology on India’s coasts and islands.
Mainstreaming Climate-resilient activities for livelihood.
Protection of coral reefs and mangroves and monitoring of coral bleaching and mangrove regeneration.
Monitoring shoreline change rate to identify hotspot zones.
Construction of coastal structures for protection of highly eroded shoreline zones.
Context: MoEF&CC has submitted three nominations from India for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) of Indore (Madhya Pradesh), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) & Udaipur (Rajasthan) under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Wetland City Accreditation under Ramsar Convention
It is a voluntary accreditation system established under Ramsar Convention during Conference of Parties -12 (COP-12) held in 2015.
It recognizes cities which have taken exceptional steps to safeguard their urban wetlands.
It aims to further promote the conservation and wise use of urban and peri-urban wetlands, as well as sustainable socio-economic benefits for local populations.
It seeks to encourage cities that are close to and dependent on wetlands, primarily Wetlands of International Importance, but also wetlands with other conservation category status, to develop and strengthen a positive relationship with these valuable ecosystems.
This voluntary scheme provides an opportunity for cities that value their natural or human-made wetlands to gain international recognition and positive branding opportunities for their efforts in demonstrating strong positive relationships with wetlands.
To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation should satisfy the standards used to implement each of the six international criteria mentioned Operational Guidance for WCA of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Criteria for a city or a human settlement to be accredited as Wetland City Accrediation:
Criterion 1: It has one or more Ramsar Sites, or other wetland conservation sites fully or partly situated within its jurisdiction, which provide(s) a range of ecosystem services to the city;
Criterion 2: It has adopted measures for conservation of wetlands and their ecosystem services;
Criterion 3: It has implemented wetland restoration and/or management measures;
Criterion 4: It considers the challenges and opportunities of integrated spatial/land-use planning for wetlands under its jurisdiction;
Criterion 5: It has raised public awareness about the values of wetlands by delivering locally adapted information, and enabled participation of local stakeholders in decision making processes;
Criterion 6: It has established a local committee with appropriate knowledge and experience on wetlands and representation of and engagement with stakeholders to support the preparation work to apply for the Wetland City Accreditation of the Ramsar Convention and the implementation of proper measures to maintain the city’s qualifications for the accreditation.
Cities accredited as Wetland Cities Accreditation under Ramsar Conventions
Nominated Sites by India
These are the first three Indian cities for which nominations have been submitted for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA). These three cities have been selected by MoEFCC based on proposals submitted by State Wetlands Authorities in collaboration with Municipal Corporations.
Indore: Founded by Holkars, Indore is the cleanest city in India and the recipient of India’s Smart City Award 2023 for its best sanitation, water, and urban environment.
Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar Site in the city, has been recognised as an important site for water bird congregation and is being developed as a Bird Sanctuary.
Yashwant Sagar is a Ramsar site located close to Indore.
A strong network of more than 200 wetland mitras is engaged in bird conservation and sensitising local community to protect Sarus Crane.
Bhopal:Bhoj Wetland, Ramsar Site is the city’s lifeline, equipped with the world-class wetland’s interpretation centre, Jal Tarang.
Additionally, the Bhopal Municipal Corporation has a dedicated Lake Conservation Cell.
A network of more than 300 wetland mitras is engaged in wetland management and conservation of Sarus Crane.
Udaipur: Located in Rajasthan, the city is surrounded by five major wetlands, namely, Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and Doodh Talai.
These wetlands are an integral part of the city’s culture and identity, help maintain the city’s microclimate, and provide a buffer from extreme events.
Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the overarching scheme Promoting Research in Earth Systems Science, Technology, & Human Resource Development “PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)”.
About PRITHVI Scheme:
Launched in: 2021
Till: 2026
Type of scheme: Central Sector Scheme
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences
Outlay: Rs. 4,797 crore.
Aim: To enhance the understanding of the Earth and its vital signs.
Scheme subsumed:
Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS): It addresses different aspects of weather and climate services, which includes warnings for cyclone, storm surges, heat waves, thunderstorms etc.
Ocean Services, Modelling Application, Resources and Technology (O-SMART): For promoting ocean research and setting up early warning weather systems.
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER): To improve the understanding of Polar Science and cryosphere systems.
Seismology and Geosciences (SAGE): To strengthen earthquake monitoring and research on the Earth’s solid components
Research, Education, Training and Outreach (REACHOUT): To fosters talent development and ensures effective translation of research into services directly benefiting society
Objective of PRITHVI Scheme
Augmentation and sustenance of long-term observations of the atmosphere, ocean, geosphere, cryosphere, and solid earth to record the vital signs of the Earth System and change.
It is also intended for the development of modelling systems for understanding and predicting weather, ocean, and climate hazards and understanding the science of climate change.
Exploration of polar and high seas regions of the Earth towards discovery of new phenomena and resources.
Development of technology for exploration and sustainable harnessing of oceanic resources for societal applications.
Translation of knowledge and insights from Earth systems science into services for societal, environmental and economic benefit.
Significance:
The scheme emphasises a holistic and integrated approach to Earth system science.
It allows for collaborative research across disciplines, tackling complex challenges in areas like extreme weather, oceanic resources, and cryosphere changes.
The scheme paves the way for innovative programs and solutions that address pressing environmental and societal concerns.
It will nurture a skilled workforce of Earth system scientists for the future.
The scheme marks a significant leap forward in India’s commitment to understanding and managing the complex dynamics of the Earth.
Context: PM inaugurated the country’s longest bridge over the sea, the 22km Mumbai Trans Harbour link, officially the Atal Setu Nhava Sheva Sea Link.
Atal Setu (Atal Setu Nhava Sheva Sea Link)
It is the longest sea bridge in India.
It is a 22km long twin carriage way six lane bridge over the Thane Creek in the Arabian Sea.
It is a 16.5-km-long sea bridge, and a 5.5-km-long elevated road on land.
It will connect Sewri in the island city of Mumbai to Chirle in Raigad district on the mainland.
The project is collaboration between MMRDA (Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), which agreed to fund 80 per cent of the project cost, with the rest being borne by the state and central governments.
Significance of Atal Setu
Bring down the average travel time between Sewri and Chirle from 61 minutes currently to less than 16 minutes.
Facilitate greater economic integration of Navi Mumbai with Mumbai with benefits extended to adjoining areas and also address the limits of growth of the Greater Mumbai Area.
Significantly improve connectivity between South Mumbai and the under-construction Navi Mumbai International Airport, the Mumbai Pune Expressway, the Mumbai-Goa Highway, and the main hinterland in general.
A consistent increase in business opportunities and economic growth will be one of the positive outcomes of the Atal Setu.
Concern with Atul Setu Project
Traditional fishing communities will have to pay a heavy price for all the development projects being carried out in fishing zones without their consent.
The deposition of sediments in these zones has wreaked havoc on the ecology of these areas, leading to hundreds of hectares of rich fishing zones being transformed into thick mangrove cover, which impacts biodiversity as well as the thousands of traditional fishers.
Way Ahead
Government agencies should consult the fishing community before announcing such projects that have an impact on their livelihood.
Context: A team from Stanford University and a Nepal Based NGO is attempting to develop a low-cost decentralised and environmentally sustainable method of producing sanitary napkins from Sisal leaves. The objective is to meet the growing demand for low-cost and environmentally friendly menstrual hygiene products.
About Sisal
Sisal is a xerophytic succulent plant, known for its ability to store water and thrive in drought-prone areas.
Sisal has thick sword-like leaves that grow up to 2 m long which are covered with a waxy layer.
The lifespan of a sisal plant is about 7-10 years, during which it produces 200-250 usable leaves.
Each leaf has about a thousand fibres that can be used to make ropes, paper, cloth, and highly absorbent material.
Sisal plant is a native of Mexico.
Sisal is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions of India. It grows mainly in Odisha, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Western West Bengal and some parts of Bihar and many southern states where annual rainfall varies between 60-125 cm and temperature 40-45 degree celsius.
Global production: Brazil is world’s largest producer of sisal fibre followed by Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, China, Mexico and Haiti.
Current uses of Sisal:
Sisal leaves have been used for making paper, twine, cloth and carpet.
Mezcal: Sisal plant is used to make Mezcal which is a distilled alcoholic beverage.
Researchers have reported that sisal leaves are highly absorbent and retentive. Absorption capacity of sisal leaves is higher than those found in commercially available menstrual pads.
Benefits of Sisal in Making Sanitary Napkins
Water Efficiency: Sisal cultivation requires less water compared to cotton industries, contributing to water conservation.
Environmental Impact: Sisal is less environmentally damaging than cotton, making it a more sustainable choice for sanitary napkin production.
Substitute for Cotton-CMP: Replacing cotton-CMP (Chemical Pulp) with sisal fluff pulp could enhance the environmental sustainability of sanitary napkin production in the long term.
Timber Alternative: While timber could be an alternative to cotton, it is viable only in regions with an "endless supply of sustainably harvested forests."
Distributed Manufacturing: The concept of "distributed manufacturing" supports the environmentally sustainable production of sanitary napkins, allowing for a more widespread and eco-friendly manufacturing process.
Addressing Access Issues: Utilising sisal in sanitary napkin production contributes to addressing the lack of access to menstrual products, fostering an "open-source framework" for menstrual hygiene solutions.
Process of Making Sustainable Absorbent Material from Sisal
The process begins by feeding sisal leaves into a decorticator, a machine that mechanically separates the fibres.
In the next step, a process known as delignification dissolves lignin, a water-repelling polymer in plant cell walls, leaving behind highly absorbent cellulose fibres, substituting the traditional wood-to-wood pulp process known as the Kraft process.
While effective, the Kraft process generates volatile and toxic by-products, causing air and water pollution.
In the environment, researchers identified two organisms proficient in converting wood to wood pulp: termites and wood-rot fungi.
The termite guts house an incredible consortium of organisms, including microbes of various shapes and sizes, which delignify wood through a process not completely understood by scientists.
Peroxyformic acid, an important compound in this process, selectively removes lignin while preserving the structure of cellulose microfibers.
Treatment with peroxyformic acid allows for the compound's reuse over several cycles, and it decomposes into water and carbon dioxide at the end of the process, requiring no neutralising chemicals and minimising environmental damage.
The amount of CO2 released during the breakdown of peroxyformic acid is minuscule compared to the total CO2 in the overall analysis.
After treating the sisal fibres with peroxyformic acid, the process proceeds by washing them first with a solution of dilute sodium hydroxide and then water.
The result is a wet pulp that is then dried and mechanically blended to obtain a dry mass called fluff pup. This fluff can be used in place of cotton in sanitary napkins.
Increasing Demand and Lack of Access of Sanitary Pads
Increasing Use: There has been a significant rise in the number of people using hygienic methods, such as sanitary napkins, tampons, and menstrual cups, to manage menstruation in India.
Limited Access: Despite promising growth, access to menstrual hygiene products remains limited for around 500 million people worldwide. For example, in rural India, only 42% of adolescent women exclusively use hygienic methods to manage their periods.
Rising Cost: A key barrier to making menstrual hygiene products, like sanitary napkins, accessible is the rising cost of raw materials and distribution.
Problem of Safe Disposal and Unsustainable Use of Sanitary Pads
Increasing Waste: According to a United Nations Population Fund report from 2022, Patna alone discards 9.8 billion sanitary napkins every year. Another estimate from a 2022 study placed the monthly quantity of discarded sanitary napkins in Chennai at 27 million.
Problem of Dioxin: Single-use sanitary napkins contain dioxin, a persistent environmental pollutant and a carcinogen, putting users at risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies dioxin as a “known human carcinogen.”
About Dioxins
Belong to the so-called “dirty dozen” - a group of dangerous chemicals known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), covered by the Stockholm Convention.
Found throughout the world in the environment, they accumulate in the food chain, mainly in the fatty tissue of animals (Bioaccumulate).
Mainly by-products of combustion and industrial processes but can also result from natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
These are unwanted by-products of a wide range of manufacturing processes including smelting, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp and the manufacturing of some herbicides and pesticides.
More than 90% of human exposure is through food, mainly meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish.
Has been associated with a range of toxic effects, including chloracne; reproductive, developmental and neurodevelopmental effects; immunotoxicity; and effects on thyroid hormones, liver and tooth development. They are also carcinogenic.
Potential Alternatives
The absorbent material in sanitary napkins currently comprises a combination of wood pulp and synthetic superabsorbent polymers (SAPs). To address environmental and health concerns, efforts are underway to reduce the use of SAPs and substitute them with cellulose-based nanofibers.
Additionally, plant fibres, such as those derived from banana plants, have been employed to synthesise absorbent materials. However, banana plants are highly sensitive to drought, making them less sustainable for producing sanitary napkins in arid or semi-arid and drought-prone regions. Access to hygienic menstruation is particularly critical in countries located in the tropics, which often face drought-related challenges.
Context: Darjeeling zoo started a conservation breeding programme nearly four decades ago.; it now has the largest number of snow leopards in captivity in the world.
Snow Leopard
Scientific name of Snow Leopard is Panthera uncia
They are also called the 'ghosts of the mountains'.
The snow leopard is the state animal of Himachal Pradesh.
The snow leopard's fur is white to brown and has black spots around its head and neck.
It preys on Himalayan Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahr, Tibetan Argali and Himalayan Ibex etc.
Snow leopards are sparsely distributed in 12 countries of Central Asia, from southern Russia to the Tibetan Plateau, including Mongolia, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Nepal.
In India, it is found in Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh.
Accommodation Type: Forests, shrubs, grasslands, rocky areas
National and International Efforts for the Protection of Snow Leopards: -
Indian Efforts:
Project Snow Leopard (PSL): The project was launched in 2009 to promote an inclusive and participatory approach to the conservation of snow leopards and their habitat.
International Efforts: -
On the Bishkek Declaration for the conservation of snow leopards by 12 'Snow Leopard' Range Countries (Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) in 2013
During this, the 'Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection' (GSLEP) program was also launched. India is a signatory to the programme.
About Darjeeling Zoo
Official name of Darjeeling Zoo is Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park (PNHZ).
It is located in the town of Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal.
The first ex-situ conservation breeding program started in 1986 as a Snow Leopard conservation breeding project.
The Red Panda project was started in 1990. In 2003-04 the park released 4 female Red Pandas into the Singalila National Park. This was the first reintroduction programme for the species in the world and was immensely successful.
The park also includes 3 conservation breeding centers, Old Conservation Breeding Center, Conservation Breeding Center at Topkeydara, Satellite Zoo at Dowhill.
The zoo has been a part of the World Association of Zoos and Aquarium (WAZA) and Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) since 2009.
The zoo was awarded the “Royal Bank of Scotland Earth Hero Award” as recognition for its efforts towards in-situ and ex-situ conservation, in 2014.
In the year 2022, the Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) ranked PNHZ Park First in all categories among all zoos in the country.
World Association of Zoos and Aquarium
WAZA is the global alliance of regional associations, national federations, zoos, and aquariums, dedicated to the care and conservation of animals and their habitats around the world.
WAZA has formed partnerships with leading international conservation organizations, committing its members to tackle global issues such as the illegal wildlife trade, coral‑reef restoration, marine litter, sustainable palm oil and climate change.
It was founded in 1935.
Central Zoo Authority of India
It was established as a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment & Forest in the year 1992.
It was established under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
The main objective is to complement and strengthen the national efforts in conservation of the rich biodiversity of India, particularly the fauna as per the National Zoo Policy of 1988.
Enforcing the minimum standards and norms for upkeep and healthcare of animals in Indian Zoos and to control the mushrooming of unplanned and ill-conceived zoos.
Context: The Centre’s ambitious attempt to improve air quality in some of India’s most polluted cities suggests that a majority of Indian cities are far from making significant progress.
National Clean Air Programme
It was launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change in 2019.
It is a long term, time bound, national level strategy to tackle air pollution problems across the country in a comprehensive manner.
The aim is to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and million plus cities) in 24 states/UTs by engaging all stakeholders.
Targets: Initially the target is to achieve a 20% to 30% reduction of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations by the year 2024, keeping base year as 2017 for comparison of concentrations.
The new target is to achieve reductions of PM10 concentration up to 40% or achievement of National Ambient Air Quality standards for PM10 by 2025-2026 (Base year 2017).
Objective of NCAP:
To ensure stringent implementation of mitigation measures for prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution.
Effective and proficient ambient air quality monitoring network across the country for ensuring a comprehensive and reliable database.
To augment public awareness and capacity-building measures for inclusive public participation and for ensuring trained manpower and infrastructure on air pollution.
Portal for monitoring
PRANA” – Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in non-attainment cities, is a portal for monitoring of implementation of National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
It will support tracking of physical as well as financial status of city air action plan implementation.
It will disseminate information on air quality management efforts under NCAP to the public.
Status of implementation
Delhi has seen an average annual decline of PM 2.5 levels by 5.9%.
Navi Mumbai has seen a 46% rise in PM 2.5 levels.
Varanasi witnessed 72% average reduction in PM 2.5 levels and 69% reduction in PM 10 levels.
Respirer Living Sciences and Climate Trends, analysed 49 cities whose data are available for 5 years shows that,
Context: A concerning development for India is the European Union (EU)’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The policy, which intends to tax carbon-intensive products coming into the EU from 2026, is divided into two phases, with the first phase (transitional phase) kicking in from October 1, 2023.
What is a carbon border adjustment tax?
A carbon border adjustment tax is a duty on imports based on the amount of carbon emissions resulting from the production of the product in question.
It is aimed putting a fair price on the carbon emitted during the production of carbon intensive goods that are entering the EU, and to encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
The gradual introduction of the CBAM is aligned with the phase-out of the allocation of free allowances under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) to support the decarbonisation of EU industry.
EU Emissions Trading System:· The EU ETS works on the ‘cap and trade’ principle. A cap is a limit set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by the installations and aircraft operators covered by the system. The cap is reduced annually in line with the EU’s climate target, ensuring that emissions decrease overtime.· Within the cap, companies primarily buy allowances on the EU carbon market, but they also receive some allowances for free. Companies can also trade allowances with each other as needed. If an installation or operator reduce their emissions, they can either keep the spare allowances to use in the future or sell them.· Hence it makes polluters pay for their greenhouse gas emissions, helps bring emissions down and generates revenues to finance the EU's green transition, operates in all EU countries plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway (EEA-EFTA states).
Note: This EU-ETS works for the companies located within the EU borders. CBAM is for those companies which are located outside the E.U.
How the CBAM will work?
The CBAM putsan emissions tariff on imports of goods with a high risk of carbon leakage from countries which are not members of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
Companies importing goods into the EU will have to purchase CBAM certificates and then surrender the required amount to cover the corresponding emissions each year.
There are no limits on the number of CBAM certificates an importer may purchase so as to avoid imposing restrictions on trade.
Unlike ETS allowances, CBAM certificates are not tradeable nor bankable.
Merits of CBAM (Viewpoint of E.U):
Preventing Carbon leakage: It refers to a phenomenon where a EU manufacturer moves carbon intensive production to countries outside the region with less stringent climate policies and hence it does not reduces the actually carbon emissions, it just shifts the source to other regions. CBAM will try to bring stringency for those industries also.
Protecting Domestic industries: CBAM will charge the carbon intensive products coming from non-EU countries hence it will ensure level playing field to the domestic companies who by virtue of EU-ETS are already following stringent norms.
In line with E.U’s green targets: According to the European Commission’s proposal, CBAM would contribute to the achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. This will also help them to reduce GHG emissions by 55% by 2030. It comes under the EU’s Green Deal to.
Issue with CBAM (Viewpoints of India, China & other developing countries):
Hurting industrial interests: This might hurt Industrial interests in the developing countries as their exports will be charged by EU. For e.g. In FY22, India exported Steel and aluminum related products to E.U to the tune of $10B.
Violative of CBDR: As CBAM is equally applicable to all the countries outside EU, it violates the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’ as was agreed under Paris agreement.
Green protectionism: This can be misused by EU to unnecessarily levy the import duties on imports. Experts have said that CBAM charge can be around 20-35% but the average levy of EU on the companies within EU is around 2-3%.
Valuation of carbon embedded: There are huge differences between how the actual carbon content embedded is calculated and valued in other jurisdictions.
Historical contribution by developing worldin climate change is also very low therefore they cannot be charged for their developmental activities.
FTA agreement and zero duties: It is still not clear that whether CBAM will be applicable in the FTA or not. For e.g If India enters into FTA with EU, then there are chances that EU will impose CBAM making Indian products costly. But India might not reciprocate it leading to zero duties and flooding of Indian markets by EU products.
Other factors for Industrial location: Just the stringent environmental norms do not govern the shift of industries from EU to Asia & Africa. There are other factors also like cheap labour, availability of land, huge markets, government policies etc. So, the E.U’s argument that Industries shift to other areas just to avoid stringent policies is not completely acceptable.
Compliance with WTO: Developing countries have also criticised this legislation on account of violative of WTO’s special and differential treatment provisions.
What can be done?
Funds to developing countries: Experts have suggested that EU could collect the tax and return the funds to such countries to invest in their green technologies.
Own legislations: India can also come up with their own legislations in this regard.
What is Carbon Intensive?
Carbon intensity is a measure of how clean our production is. For e.g in case of electricity, it refers to how many grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released to produce a kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
Electricity that’s generated using fossil fuels is more carbon intensive, as the process by which it’s generated creates CO2 emissions.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind, hydro or solar power, produce less CO2 emissions, so their carbon intensity value is much lower.
