Indian Geography

India’s Deep Sea Challenge

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Deep Ocean Mission, Samudraya Project,Matsya 6000, Exclusive Economic zone.

Mains: Challenges in deep sea explorations. 

Deep Sea and Blue Economy

Oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface and about 95% of them remain unexplored. In recent years, India is increasing its focus on deep-sea exploration to boost India’s blue economy. 

  • Economic importance: Deep sea is a storehouse of untapped natural resources including:
    • Minerals and gas hydrates (poly-metallic nodules, gas hydrates and rare earth elements)
    • Oil and natural gas. 
  • Ecological importance: Deep sea hosts enormous marine biodiversity. Deep-sea exploration can enhance meteorological understanding and support climate change research.
  • Strategic importance:
    • Deep-sea infrastructure like undersea cables facilitate over 95% of global internet traffic, and must be safeguarded from potential threats, especially as countries like China advance their deep-sea military capability.
    • Deep-sea development is also crucial for asserting rights within India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under UNCLOS. 

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE: 

  • The concept of an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) was established through the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 
  • EEZ is a maritime zone that extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from a country's coastline, where the nation has special rights over ocean resources. 

Within EEZ, a nation has:

  • Sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources of the seabed, subsoil, and waters above it.
  • Jurisdiction with regard to the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations, and structures; marine scientific research.
  • Responsibility for the protection and preservation of the marine environment.
  • Other rights and duties provided for under the international law.
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India’s Initiatives for Deep Sea Exploration

Deep Sea Mission: 

  • An ambitious initiative spearheaded by the Ministry of Earth Sciences.  
  • Aim: To explore and harness the vast resources of the deep sea. 
  • It focuses on the sustainable utilisation of ocean resources for economic growth and scientific research. 

Key Initiatives Under DOM:

  • Development of 'Matsya 6000’: This crewed submersible is designed to reach depths of up to 6,000 meters. It successfully completed wet testing, with a 500-meter depth demonstration planned by the end of 2025. 
  • Exploration of Polymetallic Nodules: India has been allocated a site in the Central Indian Ocean Basin for exploring polymetallic nodules, estimated to contain about 380 million tonnes of these valuable resources.
  • Acquisition of an Advanced Research Vessel: The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) is procuring a new ocean research vessel with all-weather capabilities, capable of carrying 34 scientists, to support deep-sea exploration activities. ​
  • Samudrayan Program: As part of DOM, the Samudrayaan mission aims to send three individuals to a depth of 6,000 meters in the Matsya 6000 submersible, marking India's entry into crewed deep-sea exploration. 

Challenges in developing Deep Sea capabilities: 

  • High-pressure conditions: The pressure underwater increases by approximately 1 atmosphere (atm) for every 10 meters of depth. In India's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the pressure at the ocean bed can exceed 380 atm, requiring specialised materials and engineering to ensure the safety and functionality of submersibles. Designing submersibles and underwater equipment that can withstand such immense pressure without structural failure is technically challenging.
    • E.g., The OceanGate Titan submersible disaster (June 2023) highlighted the risks associated with inadequate material strength at great depth. 
  • Sound propagation underwater is complex, influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and salinity, making underwater communication and navigation challenging. Very Low Frequency (VLF) and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) sound technologies are essential but costly to develop.
  • Lack of indigenous technology for deep-sea exploration, coupled with inadequate financial investment and the absence of advanced research infrastructure, further complicates India's ability to harness deep-sea resources. 
  • Strategic challenge posed by other nations like China, which already has advanced deep-sea capabilities, including equipment capable of damaging undersea communication cables. India risks lagging behind in both economic and security dimensions. 

What must India do ?

To develop its deep-sea capabilities, India must adopt a multi-pronged strategy:

  • Invest significantly in indigenous technology development for deep-sea submersibles, pressure-resistant materials, and underwater communication systems, while also fostering collaborations with technologically advanced nations.
  • Establish specialised research institutions and training programs will build a skilled workforce equipped to handle deep-sea exploration.
  • Creating a dedicated Ministry for ocean development would streamline efforts and ensure accountability.
  • Increase funding for the Deep Ocean Mission and encourage public-private partnerships to boost research and innovation.
  • Strengthening underwater infrastructure, including undersea cables and mining systems, is essential to enhance connectivity and resource extraction. 
  • Develop surveillance and defence mechanisms to safeguard its underwater assets and counter potential threats from hostile nations. 

A mission-mode, targeted approach is needed to establish India's presence in the international maritime space, develop its deep-sea capabilities and advance the blue economy. 

Translocation of African Cheetahs: Neither Ecologically Sustainable nor Ethical

Context: A new study by the Centre for Wildlife Studies (which examines the ethical, ecological and welfare challenges associated with the translocation of African cheetahs to India) has expressed concern over the translocation of the animals.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Cheetah; Project Cheetah 

Mains: Conservation of keystone species: Significance and challenges. 

Major Highlights: 

  • The study highlights that the translocation of African cheetahs to India has resulted in significant challenges:
    • High mortality rate of 40%-50% in the first phase of the project, far below the expected survival rate of 85%.
    • High levels of stress for Cheetahs with over 90 chemical immobilisations and regular veterinary interventions, raises concerns about their physical and mental health.
    • Reliance on a continuous supply of cheetahs from southern Africa, is neither ecologically sustainable nor ethical. African cheetah populations are already under pressure with only around 6,500 mature individuals remaining in the wild.
  • This raises concerns about the scientific rationale and the long-term viability of the Cheetah translocation project (Project Cheetah) in India. 

Project Cheetah (Cheetah Reintroduction in India)

  • Project Cheetah is an initiative to reintroduce cheetahs into the wild after their extinction in the country in 1952. 
  • Initiative of: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) provides technical assistance, coordinating the reintroduction project. 
  • Under Project Cheetah, so far 20 adult African cheetahs, eight from Namibia in September 2022 and 12 from South Africa in February 2023, were introduced into the Kuno National Park (KNP) in Madhya Pradesh.
  • As of February 2025, 26 Cheetahs survive (including 12 Adults and 14 cubs), and other adult Cheetahs died. There were various causes of their death including starvation and bacterial infection (blood poisoning/septicaemia) due to wounds caused by the tracking radio collar.
  • Under the Cheetah Action Plan, the government is planning to relocate a new batch of Cheetahs from Africa to the Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

About Cheetah

  • The cheetah is a large cat and the world’s fastest land animal.
  • Characteristics:
    • They have a slender body with long legs, a small round head, and distinctive black spots on their tan fur.
    • They are carnivorous animals and hunt mainly small to medium-sized antelopes such as gazelles and impalas.
    • They inhabit diverse scrub forests, dry grasslands, savannas and other arid and semi-arid open habitats.
About Cheetah

Distribution of Cheetahs:

  • Historically, Asiatic Cheetahs had a very wide distribution in India (from Punjab to southern Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan to Bengal). In 1952, the cheetah was declared officially extinct in India.
  • Today, four subspecies of Cheetahs are recognised that are native to Africa and Central Iran. (present in fragmented habitats in Iran, Sahara Desert, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa etc.) 

Threats and Conservation status: 

  • Threats: Habitat loss, conflict with humans, poaching and high susceptibility to diseases. 
  • Protection Status: 
    • IUCN Status: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule II
  • Cheetah Conservation Fund (1990): An international non-profit organization headquartered in Namibia, founded in 1990 for the conservation of cheetahs and their ecosystems.

Significance of conserving Keystone Species:  

  • Cheetahs, a keystone species, have been reintroduced in India owing to their ecological and economic significance.
    • A keystone species helps to keep an ecosystem together and functioning by shaping it in various ways, from being apex predators to ecosystem engineers.
    • Without them, their ecosystems would be dramatically different or even cease to exist. A keystone species is often, but not always, a predator. E.g., Cheetah, Wolf, Sea otters etc.
  • The significance of key stone species conservation includes:
    • Restores degraded ecosystem: Many Keystone species are at the top of the food chain and naturally control the prey base population, thus reducing the pressure on ecosystems. E.g., Cheetahs can restore open forest and grassland ecosystems.
    • Bio-diversity: Keystone species prevent species at lower trophic levels from monopolising critical resources, such as competition for space or key producer food sources, thereby enabling multiple species to survive. E.g., Abundance of sea otters controls sea urchin population, thereby reducing pressure on kelp forest which support diverse fish species.
    • Ecosystem services: Conservation of these species are economically beneficial as they ensure the ecosystems to deliver crucial ecosystem services. E.g., According to the IIFM report, every rupee spent on tiger conservation will yield returns of ₹ 2500 through ecosystem services of tiger reserves such as water provisioning, soil conservation, gene pool protection, tourism etc. 

By revisiting India’s conservation ethos, Project Cheetah aims to revive the lost splendor of the cheetah, contributing to the country’s rich biodiversity and ecological balance.

Teesta Dam and Climate Change

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has approved the proposal for rebuilding the Teesta-III dam, despite concerns over its design and stability. The new structure will be a 118.64-metre-tall concrete gravity dam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Questions based on rivers, tributaries and dams associated.

About Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam

  • In October 2023, the original 1,200 MW Teesta-III Chungthang hydroelectric dam was destroyed in a flash flood. 
  • The flood was triggered by a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) from the South Lhonak Lake, which washed away the 60-metre-tall concrete dam, claiming 40 lives.
  • Reason for failure of dam: Moraine on the South Lohank lake’s flank suffered a slope failure, weakening the terminus. The failure sent rocks tumbling into the lake generating strong ripple, the event also set off multiple landslides about 30 to 40 kilometers downstream.
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Links between dam failure and global warming: 

  • Reducing albedo: Particulate matter, especially black carbon, also known as soot, reduces the albedo of ice and leads to absorption of solar insolation.
  • Accelerating melting of ice: Global warming and rise in the global average temperature accelerates the melting of ice and glaciers, this leads to the rise in the water levels. (E.g., South Lhonak lake itself was formed in the early 1960s and grew to 167 hectares by 2023)
  • High rate of glacial retreat: Glacial retreat has also been known to destabilise extant geological formations and create new sources of risks.
  • Rise in glacial lakes: As per the Central Water commission, the number of glacial lakes in Himalayan region grew by 10.8% from 2011 to 2024.

Concerns in the construction of Teesta-3 2.0 Dam: 

  • The dam’s design and structural aspects are still pending approval from the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Geological Survey of India, and the Central Soil and Materials Research Station.
  • Reports on the risk assessment fail to account the erosion, sediment transport and riverbank collapse that have a significant impact on the flood behaviour.
  • Local communities and environmental groups like affected citizens of Teesta have highlighted potential risks like Glacial lake outburst floods during project planning stages.

Measures Undertaken

  • Enhanced spillway design: 
    • The dam design is altered from a concrete face rockfill dam (a commonly used structure worldwide) to a concrete gravity dam, a design that relies on its own weight to bear loads. 
    • The company claims that the complete concrete design will lead to a rise in the spillway capacity from 7000 cubic metres per second (cumecs) to 19946 cumecs. This enhancement will offer greater resilience to flash floods and GLOFs.

Suggested Measures: 

  • Development and implementation of a robust Early Warning System (EWS) for flood alerts in the river catchment.
  • Conduct thorough environmental impact assessments (EIA) that incorporate climate change projections, glacial behaviour and potential GLOF risks to inform project design and location decisions.

About South Lhonka Lake

  • South Lhonak lake is a glacial lake in North Sikkim.
  • Formation: The proglacial lake formed due to the retreat of Lhonak Glacier.
  • The National Remote Sensing Center showed a 40% increase in its size over the past three decades.

About Teesta River

  • Origin: Teesta river originates from the Tso Lhamo (lake) in North Sikkim.
  • Course: Flows through Sikkim and West Bengal in India and then enters Bangladesh. Here it merges with Brahmaputra river (known as Jamuna in Bangladesh). The total length is 414 km. 
  • Tributaries: Ranget, Lachung, Lachen and Dikchu rivers.
  • Hydropower project: Teesta-III, Teesta-IV and Teesta-V dams in Sikkim.
  • Water dispute: Teesta water sharing treaty with Bangladesh, a key bilateral agreement that has been pending between the two countries for over a decade.
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Crocodile Species in India

Context: Recently, the two-day long census to count the number of marsh crocodiles in Vishwamitri river has concluded and the data is being analysed.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about crocodile species in India. 

About Vishwamitri River

  • The Vishwamitri originates from the Pavagadh hills in Panchmahal district, Gujarat.
  • Primarily it is a rain-fed river. It flows around 80 kms, merges with Dhadhar river and eventually drains into the Gulf of Khambhat, Arabian Sea. 
  • The Vadodara-stretch of the Vishwamitri is home to a large population of mugger or marsh crocodiles. 
  • The river is highly polluted as it receives a large amount of sewage and industrial pollutants.

Crocodiles in India

  • India is home to three crocodile species – Gharial, Mugger, and Saltwater Crocodiles. 
  • Usually spotted on banks of the aquatic systems, crocodiles are cold-blooded animals.
  • Crocodiles are apex predators. These reptiles play a critical role in the ecosystem by maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance: they control the population of other aquatic animals. 
  • India launched the Crocodile Conservation Project in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park in 1975, with the aid from the United Nations Development Programme.
  • All three crocodile species in India are placed under the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. 

1. Mugger: 

  • They have a broad-snouted nose.
  • They are also known as Marsh crocodiles. They are found in freshwaters like rivers and also in estuaries and marshy areas. 
  • Mugger has a diverse and broad diet. They are known to dig burrows or holes for nesting purposes.
  • Muggers have stronger legs which allow them to bask mainly on river banks choosing steeper slopes and elevated platforms.
  • Their tough keratin scales are known to be sensitive to even the slightest motion in the water and this helps them detect prey easily. 
  • IUCN status: Vulnerable
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2. Gharials:

  • They are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. 
  • They are shy-natured and the most aquatic of all the species. 
  • They are the longest living crocodile species, native to northern India and are distinguished by their long, narrow snouts.
  • The gharials are predominantly a fish-eater.
  • Gharials prefer to bask on mid-river sand islands on gentle slopes as they have weaker legs and can only crawl. 
  • Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
  • IUCN status: Critically Endangered
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Note: Both the species are freshwater and have overlapping habitats in the northern rivers (Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga and Girwa) and eastern (Mahanadi) river systems of India. They have shown systematic resource partitioning in their aquatic environments.
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3. Saltwater crocodiles:

  • Largest crocodile species, also recognised as man eater. Largest reptile in the world. 
  • Also known as estuarine crocodiles. Its habitat includes regions such as Odisha’s Bhitarkanika National Park, West Bengal’s Sundarbans, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • IUCN status: Least concern. 

INSV Tarini crosses Point Nemo

Context: Two female officers from the Indian Navy touched a new milestone as they crossed Point Nemo - the most remote location on Earth - aboard the Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Point Nemo, Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini.  

Major Highlights: 

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  • INSV Tarini's passage through Point Nemo was achieved entirely under sail. This event marks a significant milestone in the Navika Sagar Parikrama II mission.
  • The water samples were collected from the point, which will be analysed by the National Institute of Oceanography. 
  • Significance: Analysis of water samples is expected to provide valuable data on oceanic conditions, including marine biodiversity and the chemical composition of the water, contributing to ongoing oceanographic research.

Navika Sagar Parikrama II

  • Navika Sagar Parikrama II is a circumnavigation journey around the world, being undertaken by the two officers of the Indian Navy, as part of India's naval exploration initiative.
  • Objectives: To support scientific exploration and collaboration. 
  • The mission onboard INSV Tarini from Goa began on October 2, 2024, and would last for 8 months (May 2025).
    • It comprises destinations- Goa → Lyttelton Port in New Zealand → Point Nemo → Port Stanley in Falkland Islands → Goa. 
  • Note: Navika Sagar Parikrama I was an expedition for circumnavigation of the globe on INSV Tarini by a six-member team of Indian Navy's Women Naval Officers, in 2017-18. 

Point Nemo: Earth's Most Remote Location

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  • Point Nemo is known as the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility.
  • Location: South Pacific Ocean. 
  • It is the most remote location on Earth, situated approximately 2,688 kilometres from the nearest landmass.
    • Due to its isolation, it is often considered the farthest point from any human habitation.
    • The closest human presence to Point Nemo is the International Space Station, which orbits above the region.
  • Decommissioned Spacecraft Cemetery: Point Nemo is a designated area where space agencies intentionally guide decommissioned spacecraft, including satellites and space stations, to re-enter Earth's atmosphere and fall into the ocean to avoid harm to populated areas.

About INSV Tarini

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  • Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV) Tarini is a 56 foot sailing vessel.
  • Built by: Aquarius Shipyard Ltd., Goa (under Make in India initiative)
  • It was inducted in the Indian Navy in February 2017.
  • It is fitted with advanced features such as satellite communication system, Raymarine navigation suite, emergency steering, and is capable of sailing in extreme conditions. 

Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

Context: India and China have decided to resume the Kailash-Mansarovar yatra in June 2025. Since 2020, the yatra was suspended due to COVID-19 pandemic and following military stand-off along the LAC, including the Galwan incident. Resuming the yatra is considered a significant step in improving relations between the two nations.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Kailash Mansarovar Yatra; Mount Kailash.

About Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

  • The yatra includes visits to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
  • The Ministry of External Affairs, India organises the Yatra during June to September through two different routes:
    • Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand)
    • Nathu La Pass (Sikkim).
  • It is open to eligible Indian citizens holding valid Indian passports.
  • The Yatra is organised with the support from state governments of Uttarakhand, Delhi, and Sikkim; and cooperation of Indo Tibetan Border Police.
  • MEA does not provide any subsidy or financial assistance to Yatris.
Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

Location

  • Mount Kailash is located in the Kailash Range (forms part of the Transhimalaya) in Tibet.
  • Lake Manasarovar is a high altitude freshwater lake near Mount Kailash in Tibet.
  • Four rivers emerge from the Kailash-Mansaorovar region: Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Indus and Kamali (Karnali).

Religious Significance

  • Hindus believe Mount Kailash is the abode of Lord Shiva. Mansarovar lake is said to be one of Goddess Sati’s 51 Shaktipeeths.
  • Tibetans, Buddhists and Jains revere it as the ‘Stairway to heaven’.
  • Jains hold that Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankar (Jains’ spiritual preacher), found enlightenment at Mount Kailash. 
  • The Mount is referred to in Jain literature as “Ashtapada,” or “the eight steps,” which can pave the way to enlightenment and spiritual advancement.

Clouded Leopard

Context: A new study addresses critical gaps in understanding the Clouded Leopard’s habitat suitability, fragmentation, and connectivity across its historical and current ranges, offering a conservation roadmap.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Clouded Leopard. 

About Clouded Leopard

Clouded Leopard
  • It is the world’s smallest big cat. It uses its tail for balancing when moving in trees and is able to climb down vertical tree trunks head first.
  • Distribution: Himalayan foothills from India, South-East Asia and South China. 
  • Habitat: grassland, shrubs, subtropical and dense tropical forest.
  • Physical characteristics:
    • Many distinguishing features set clouded leopards apart from other cat species, such as their visually striking coat pattern with cloud-like large spots. 
    • Clouded leopards possess the largest canines in proportion to skull size among all cat species. 
    • It has exceptional arboreal abilities, including climbing and navigating treetops.
  • Threats: Wildfires, habitat fragmentation, illegal poaching, deforestation and climate change.
  • Conservation status:
    • IUCN Status: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
    • Listed as species under India’s Recovery Programme for Critically Endangered Species.
  • Misc facts:
    • State animal of Meghalaya. 
    • Clouded leopard National Park: Tripura

Niche Partitioning

  • Niche partitioning is an important aspect of species survival in the wild with subordinate predators adjusting their behaviour to avoid overlapping space and time with dominant carnivores. 
  • A study from Manas Tiger Reserve finds that- Clouded leopards have developed nuanced co-existence strategies to survive in the wild. The forest of Manas National Park supports a diverse carnivore community of five large carnivores — tiger, common leopard, clouded leopard, dhole and Asiatic black bear.
  • The strategy is having a peak activity time that does not overlap with other carnivores and by potentially playing “hide-and-seek” in spaces they share with stronger & larger competitors.
  • Although clouded leopards and other carnivores shared overlapping activity times, each species had distinct peak activity times. This indicates that they may avoid direct conflicts or competition during their most active periods.
  • The study found that there was temporal overlap but no spatial overlap between clouded leopards and other carnivores, which is a nuanced coexistence strategy for survival.
  • Path to conservation: 
    • Comprehensive species management plan
    • Transboundary monitoring to maintain corridor connectivity, 
    • Detailed ground assessments of suitable habitats
    • Robust public awareness campaigns. 
    • Additionally, conducting phylogeographic studies across the species’ range is crucial to understanding genetic diversity.
      • The study will help identify distinct populations suitable for breeding programmes, thereby enhancing genetic diversity and ensuring population viability.

Note:

  • IUCN has repeatedly revised the clouded leopard’s range, categorising it into four distinct statuses: extant (areas where the species is known or likely to exist), possibly extant (where survival is uncertain), possibly extinct, and extinct. 
  • The extant range includes much of Bhutan, north-east India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malay Peninsula, with small, fragmented populations in Nepal and southern Bangladesh. 
  • China — despite encompassing the largest historical range — is no longer part of the extant range. 

Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project

Context: The Detailed Project Report (DRP) on Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project submitted by Rajasthan will be analysed by various Central agencies.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project; key facts about important locations. 

About Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project

  • PKC-ERCP is a river interlinking project aimed at addressing the water scarcity challenges in the eastern region of Rajasthan.
  • The project will cover 13 districts of Rajasthan and a population of approximately 2.5 crore people.
  • Key details:
    • Water source: ERCP plans to utilise the surplus water from the Chambal basin (particularly Kalisindh, Parvati and Chambal rivers) and redirect it to water-deficient sub-basins such as Banas, Gambhiri, Banganga, and Parbati.
    • Proposed infrastructure: Infrastructure will include a canal, Doongri Dam and associated reservoir.
  • Significance of ERCP: 
    • Water availability: Rajasthan is an arid and semi-arid region facing significant water shortages. ERCP is intended to improve availability in water scarce regions to reduce dependence on erratic rainfall.
    • Irrigation management: The project aims to boost irrigation facilities in 2 lakh hectares in the region, thereby increasing agricultural productivity and supporting the livelihood of farmers.
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Challenges and concerns related to the project

  • Environmental impact: The project involves construction of the Doongri dam and reservoir which will lead to the submergence of regions of the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve. 
  • Restrain biodiversity movement- The reservoir will divide North Ranthambore and south Ranthambore leading the barrier in the migration corridor of species in reserve.
  • Interstate dispute: Neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh have raised the sharing of Chambal water, this may lead to potential legal and political disputes regarding water sharing.
  • Delays in implementation: The project is witnessing delays as it does not have National project status. Further, environmental activism and poor political will is also delaying the project.
image 123

Way Forward

  • Securing National Project status: Intensifying dialogue with the central government to recognize ERCP as a national project may accelerate the development
  • Dialogue with neighbours: Rajasthan government should have proper dialogue with Madhya Pradesh government to build consensus over water sharing agreement of Chambal.
  • Alternate green corridor: Detailed Environmental Impact Assessment should be conducted to find an alternate green corridor for migration of the species in Ranthambore Tiger reserve.
  • Using technology: A proper planning of identifying water resources and long term impact should be predicted by using geo-spacial satellites and hydraulic modeling.
  • Community participation: ERCP will impact tribals like Van Gujjars of Ranthambore Tiger reserve region. These communities should be considered under planning of the project to evaluate the alternate livelihood for them. 
  • Focus on micro-irrigation: ERCP will only provide water but the focus should be on effective utilisation of the water. Therefore, micro-irrigation projects like sprinkler and drip should be promoted in the region.

About Tiger Reserves in Rajasthan

  • Ranthambore Tiger Reserve: 
    • Located in Sawai Madhopur region of Rajasthan.
    • It is nestled between Aravali in the West and Vindhya ranges in the East side.
    • Banas river flows through the reserve. Banas is a tributary of Chambal river.
  • Sariska Tiger Reserve (Alwar): Situated in the Aravalli Hills, Sariska is known for its efforts in tiger relocation and conservation. It also houses historical ruins like the Kankwari Fort.
  • Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve (Kota): A newer reserve established in 2013, it spans the Mukundra Hills and aims to expand tiger habitats in Rajasthan.
  • Ramgarh Vishdhari: It is the fourth Tiger reserve of Rajasthan and 52nd Tiger reserve of the nation declared in 2022. Mej river, a tributary of Chambal flows through this region. Famous for Monitor Lizards.

River Interlinking: Merits & Challenges 

Context: On December 25, 2024, the Prime Minister of India laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa River Link Project, which aims to solve the water scarcity in the Bundelkhand region that covers parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Interlinking of rivers is necessary to overcome the anomaly of uneven temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall in the country. It is also necessary to remove the regional imbalances in the country. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: River interlinking: Concept, Merits & Challenges 

Evolution of the concept

  • The concept of inter-basin transfer was proposed 130 years ago by Sir Arthur Cotton, who designed irrigation dams in the Godavari and Krishna river valleys. 
  • M. Visvesvaraya, an early icon among Indian engineers, further refined this idea. 
  • K.L. Rao and Captain Dinshaw J. Dastur subsequently expanded the scope of this concept in 1970 and 1980. 
  • Initially termed the ‘National Water Grid’, this concept re-emerged as the ‘River-Interlinking Project’ (ILR) from the Ministry of Water Resources to transfer surplus waters from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra to water-deficient regions in Central and Southern India.
  • Following this, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was established in 1982 to conduct surveys and investigations, and to prepare feasibility reports for links under the National Perspective Plan. The NWDA identified 30 links for feasibility studies, divided into 14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular river links.
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Merits of River Interlinking

  1. Water Resource Management:
    • Helps in transferring surplus water from water-rich basins to water-deficient regions, ensuring equitable distribution of water.
  2. Agricultural Productivity:
    • Enhances irrigation potential in drought-prone areas, potentially boosting agricultural output and ensuring food security.
  3. Flood and Drought Mitigation:
    • Reduces the frequency and intensity of floods in surplus regions and mitigates drought in deficit areas.
  4. Hydropower Generation:
    • Provides opportunities for hydropower development, contributing to renewable energy and reducing dependency on fossil fuels.
  5. Inland Navigation:
    • Facilitates the development of waterways for transportation, reducing the burden on road and rail networks.
  6. Socio-economic Benefits:
    • Promotes rural development, creates job opportunities, and improves livelihoods through better water availability.
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Issues and Concerns Related to River Interlinking

  1. Environmental Impact:
    • Alters natural river ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, wetlands, and forests.
    • Low flow of fresh water to the seas and Oceans can impact salinity levels, water chemistry and related impacts.
    • Regime change of rivers and consequential changes in physical and chemical composition of sediment, river morphology and shape of delta. 
    • Submergence of land leading to deforestation and soil erosion. 
    • Dams result in diversion of forest areas, increased methane emissions from reservoirs, reservoir induced seismicity. 
    • There can be waterlogging and salinity intrusion related issues. 
    • Changes in surface water distribution could alter groundwater recharge patterns, potentially causing overextraction in certain areas.
  2. Displacement of Communities:
    • Large-scale projects require land acquisition, leading to displacement of people, particularly tribal communities.
  3. High Cost and Financial Burden:
    • Projects require massive investments, which may strain public finances and lead to delays in execution.
  4. Interstate Water Disputes:
    • Sharing and transferring water across states could exacerbate existing water-sharing disputes.
  5. Climate Change Uncertainty:
    • Changing rainfall patterns and unpredictable water availability may render some projects ineffective or unsustainable.
  6. Siltation and Maintenance Issues:
    • Interlinking projects may face challenges like siltation in canals and reservoirs, increasing maintenance costs.

Also, the water surplus in most river basins of India is during the same period of monsoons. After the monsoon season even the so-called water surplus states such as Punjab, UP, Uttarakhand face water deficits. Hence, during this period there will be no surplus left to transfer to peninsular states.

Some Examples & Case Studies:

  • Channelisation of the Kissimmee river in the State of Florida, authorised by the U.S. Congress in 1954 to mitigate flooding, is an environmental disaster, resulting in the loss of wetlands. Massive resources are being spent to revive its original configuration. 
  • The current state of the Aral Sea — one of the world’s largest lakes — is another example of how geoengineering projects destroy natural systems. The lake has now become a howling desert after the rivers that sustained it were diverted by irrigation projects implemented during the heady days of the Soviet Union.
  • The Indus Delta offers a crucial lesson. Alice Albinia, in her book, Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River (2008), narrates how a delta system at the mouth of the Indus — which was once “the richest in all Pakistan” — became impoverished when the British started barrage construction, which Pakistan continued after 1947.

Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project: 

image 9

Background: 

  • The project is a tripartite agreement between Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and the Central Government. 
  • This project includes transfer of surplus water from the Ken basin in Madhya Pradesh to the deficit Betwa basin in Uttar Pradesh. 
  • This project is part of the National river linking project to connect 14 Himalayan and 16 peninsular rivers. 
  • The central government will contribute 90% of the project. It is India’s first river linking project.

Benefits of the project as per the government: 

  • It will enhance the irrigation potential of the water starved Bundelkhand region in UP and MP. It will also facilitate ground water recharge and reduce the occurrence of floods. 

Concerns associated with the project: 

  • About 12,500 hectares of land is going to get submerged. This includes 9,000 hectares of forest and also Penna Tiger Reserve. 
  • Damage to the forest might create issues with rainfall patterns in the region. 
  • Ken river is not perennial hence could not meet the surplus demand of water.
  • About 30% of the 103 MW of energy would be spent on lifting the water as Betwa is higher than Ken.
  • The Central Empowered Committee of the Supreme Court has already raised concerns about the project.
  • The cost-benefit calculations of the project also do not take into consideration the environmental and social costs.

Read More: Ken-Betwa Link Project 

Way Forward

  • In interlinking proposals, a provision of the minimum lean season flow should be safeguarded to maintain the ecology and the river regime
  • Cumulative impact assessment for the entire project should be done and not on component-by-component basis.
  • Rehabilitation and Resettlement should be done prior to undertaking the projects.
  • First projects should be identified which has least opposition. Ken Betwa Linkage is the first Inter-linkage proposal to be taken up; it should be completed as the lighthouse of the project.
  • Focus should be on reforming the water governance (as per Mihir Shah Committee Report), focus on water use efficiency, participatory water governance and reforms in water usage in the agricultural sector.

World’s largest Hydropower Dam in Tibet

Context: China has approved the construction of what will be the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Brahmaputra River in Tibet, close to the Indian Border. This announcement has raised concerns in lower riparian states of India and Bangladesh. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key locations in the article; Facts about Brahmaputra river. 

Salient Features: 

  • Location:
    • It will be built at the lower reaches of Yarlung Zangbo river (Tibetan name of the Brahmaputra).
    • The dam is to be built at a huge gorge in the Himalayan reaches where the Brahmaputra river makes a huge ‘U turn’ to flow into Arunachal Pradesh and then to Bangladesh.

Cost & Scale:

  • Total investment in the dam could exceed one trillion yuan (roughly equal to 137 billion U.S. Dollars), which is largest in terms of investment for any other single infrastructure project in the world.
  • The project could produce 300 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually. That would be more than triple the 88.2 billion kWh designed capacity of the Three Gorges Dam, currently the world’s largest, in central China.
  • Significance for China:
    • China’s Official statement states that “The project will play a major role in meeting China’s carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals, stimulate related industries such as engineering, and create jobs in Tibet.”
  • Concerns for India: 
    • The dam empowers China to control the water flow in lower riparian reaches in India. Further, the project has potential in altering not only the local ecology but also the flow and course of the river downstream.
    • The size and scale of it could also enable China to release large amounts of water flooding border areas in times of hostilities.
image 183

Brahmaputra River System:

  • Brahmaputra originates as Tsangpo in the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake, in Tibet.
  • ​​It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak and enters Arunachal Pradesh as Siang (or Dihang). 
  • ​​Brahmaputra River: Formed by the confluence of Siang, Lohit, and Dibang rivers in Assam.
  • Sub-basin: Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri, Kameng, and Bhareli rivers), Assam (Manas, Kopili, Sankosh, and Dikhow rivers), Nagaland (Doyang), Meghalaya (Umngot and Kynshi rivers), West Bengal and Sikkim (Teesta). 
  • River Teesta joins Jumna (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) as a right bank tributary. 
image 184
Left bank Tributaries of BrahmaputraRight bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
DibangSubansari
LohitKameng
Burhi DihangManas
DhansariSankosh
Kelang

Ken-Betwa Link Project

Context: The Prime Minister of India laid the foundation stone for the Ken-Betwa river linking project in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ken-Betwa link project; Ken river; Betwa river. 

Ken-Betwa link project

  • The Ken-Betwa link project envisages transferring of surplus water from Ken basin to water short areas of Betwa basin by substitution. Both rivers are tributaries of the Yamuna. 
Ken-Betwa link project
  • The Ken-Betwa link project will be implemented in two phases.
    • Phase I: involves construction of 77 m high Daudhan dam across river Ken.
    • Phase II: involves construction of Lower Orr dam, Kotha Barrage and Bina Complex.
  • The estimated cost of the project is around ₹45,000 crore.

Ken River:

  • It is an interstate river between Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
  • It is a tributary of the Yamuna.
  • It originates from the north-west slopes of the Kaimur hills in the Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
  • The river joins the Yamuna river near village Chilla (Banda district), near Fatehpur in Uttar Pradesh.
  • The river is the last tributary of Yamuna before the Yamuna joins the Ganga.
  • The important tributaries of Ken are - Alona, Bearma, Sonar, Mirhasan, Shyamari, Banne, Kutri, Urmil, Kail and Chandrawal.

Betwa River:

  • The Betwa river originates in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh south-west of Bhopal.
  • It is an interstate river between the two states viz. Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. 
  • It flows in a northeasterly direction through Madhya Pradesh and enters into Uttar Pradesh near village Bangawan of Jhansi district.
  • The river joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur in Uttar Pradesh.
  • Important tributaries of Betwa are - Bina, Jamini, Dhasan, Birma, Kaliasote, Halali, Bah, Saga, Narain and Kaithan.

Background:

  • Ken-Betwa Link is the first project under the National Perspective Plan for interlinking of rivers, which was prepared in 1980.
  • A major breakthrough came in the year 2005 when a tripartite memorandum of understanding for preparation of a detailed project report (DPR) was signed among the Central government, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
  • In 2008, the Centre declared the Ken Betwa Link Project (KBLP) a National Project. Later, it was included as part of the Prime Minister’s package for the development of the drought-prone Bundelkhand region.

Significance:

  • The project is expected to provide annual irrigation to 10.62 lakh hectares (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) of land, and supply drinking water to about 62 lakh people.
    • It is aimed at solving the water woes of the Bundelkhand region, spread across parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. 
    • It will benefit the water-starved region, especially the districts of Panna, Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Sagar, Damoh, Datia, Vidisha, Shivpuri and Raisen of Madhya Pradesh, and Banda, Mahoba, Jhansi and Lalitpur districts of Uttar Pradesh.
  • It aims to generate more than 100 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar energy.

Challenges and Criticism: 

1. Environmental: 

  • The project will involve large-scale deforestation inside the heart of the Panna National Park and Tiger Reserve.
    • Experts have raised serious concerns about submergence of around 98 sq km of Panna national park, and felling of about two to three million trees.
    • The Supreme Court’s Central Empowered Committee (CEC) has pointed out that the project will undo the successful tiger reintroduction that helped the tiger population bounce back from local extinction in 2009.
  • CEC also noted that in its downstream side, Daudhan dam is likely to affect the Gharial population in the Ken Gharial sanctuary along with vulture nesting sites.
  • A study published by IIT Bombay highlighted that moving large quantities of water as part of river linking projects can affect land-atmosphere interplay and feedback and lead to a mean rainfall deficit by up to 12 per cent.

2. Economic: 

  • The Supreme Court’s Central Empowered Committee (CEC) had raised questions on the economic viability of the project. It suggested that the first focus should be on  exhausting other irrigation options in the upper Ken basin before taking up any such large scale project.

3. Social:

  • Since its inception the project has witnessed severe protest over the issue of inadequate compensation and rehabilitation plans. The dam will displace 5,228 families in Chhatarpur district and 1,400 families in Panna district due to submergence and project-related acquisition. 

As per the Ministry of Jal Shakti the project will pave the way for more river interlinking projects to ensure that scarcity of water does not become an inhibitor for development in the country.

India State of Forest Report 2023

Context: Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has released the ‘India State of Forest Report 2023’ (ISFR 2023). The report shows a marginal gain of 156 sq. km in forest cover, and a sizable increase of 1,289 sq km in tree cover since 2021.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the India State of Forest Report (ISFR). 

What is the India State of Forest Report?

  • The India State of Forest Report is a biennial report published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organisation of the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change.
    • FSI monitors India's forest and tree resources through periodic assessments and presents the findings in its biennial report.
  • The first State of Forest report was brought out in 1987. The current report, ISFR 2023 is 18th in the series. 

Key Terms:

  • Tree cover: It is defined as all tree patches of size less than one hectare occurring outside the recorded forest area. This covers trees in all formations, including scattered trees.
  • Forest area: It denotes the legal status of the land as per the government records, whereas the term 'forest cover' indicates the presence of trees over any land.
  • Forest carbon stock: The amount of carbon that has been sequestered from the atmosphere and is now stored within the forest ecosystem, mainly within living biomass and soil, and to a lesser extent also in dead wood and litter.
  • National Forest Inventory: A systematic approach to generate national level estimates on growing stock, forest area and other forest resources parameters by doing regular inventory in selected sample districts in a cycle of two years.
image 161

Key Findings of ISFR 2023: 

  • The Forest and Tree cover of India is 8,27,357 sq km which is 25.17% of the geographical area of the country, consisting of:
    • 7,15,343 sq km (21.76%) as forest cover.
    • 1,12,014 sq km (3.41%) as tree cover.

For the first time, India’s green cover has exceeded the 25% threshold. Of this, 49.57% (4,10,175 sq km) is classified as dense forests.

  • Increase in tree cover and forest cover:
    • Sharpest growth ( 0.5%) in tree cover (from 2.91% in 2021 to 3.41% in 2023)
    • Marginal growth in forest cover (0.05%) since 2021.
      • Between 2003 and 2013, forest cover increased by 0.61%, from 20.62% to 21.23%. 
      • In the next 10 years, it grew by only 0.53% to 21.76%.
  • Total mangrove cover is 4,992 sq km in the country.
  • Total bamboo bearing area is 1,54,670 sq km. (an increase from 2021).
  • Total carbon stock in the country's forest is estimated to be 7,285.5 million tonnes (an increase of 81.5 million tonnes as compared to 2021).
  • India’s carbon stock has reached 30.43 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent; which indicates that as compared to the base year of 2005, India has already reached 2.29 billion tonnes of additional carbon sink as against the target of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes by 2030.

Rankings of States & UTs:

  • Top four states showing maximum increase in forest and tree cover: Chhattisgarh (684 sq km) > Uttar Pradesh (559 sq km) > Odisha > Rajasthan.
  • Top three states showing maximum increase in forest cover: Mizoram (242 sq km) > Gujarat > Odisha.
  • Area wise top three states having largest forest and tree cover: Madhya Pradesh (85,724 sq km) > Arunachal Pradesh > Maharashtra.
  • Area wise top three states having largest forest cover: Madhya Pradesh (77,073 sq km) > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh.
  • In terms of percentage forest cover with respect to total geographical area: Lakshadweep (91.3 %) > Mizoram (85.3 %) > Andaman & Nicobar Island.
  • 19 states/UTs have above 33% of the geographical area under forest cover.
    • According to the National Forest Policy of 1988, 33% of India’s geographical area is required to be forests.
  • 8 states/UTs: Mizoram, Lakshadweep, A & N Island, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Manipur have forest cover above 75%.
image 162

Types of Forests:

  • Forests: Irrespective of land use or ownership, tree patches measuring 1 hectare or more with a minimum canopy cover of 10% are counted as forests in India. 
  • Dense forests: Areas with a canopy density of 40% and above are considered dense forests
  • Open forests: Areas with canopy density of 10-40% are open forests (OF). 
  • Very dense forests: Since 2003, areas with at least 70% canopy density have been classified as very dense forests (VDF).

**Canopy density: It is the percentage of an area that is covered by the crowns of trees. It's also known as forest canopy density (FCD) or crown cover. Canopy density is a key indicator of a forest's health and is used to assess the forest's condition and potential management actions.

Concerning findings of the Report: 

  • ISFR-2023 shows that 3,913 sq km of dense forests (an area larger than Goa) have disappeared in India in just two years since 2021.
  • India has witnessed the complete destruction of 24,651 sq km (more than 6.3%) of its dense forests in the two decades since 2003. 
  • The bulk of this loss has been offset by the rapid transformation of 15,530 sq km of non-forested or scantly forested land to dense or even very dense forests (during 2003-2023).
  • However, this offset has been accomplished through Plantations, because natural forests do not grow this fast.
image 163

Conundrum of Dense forests:

  • Areas under plantations-as-dense-forests are expanding as the disappearance of natural dense forests becomes routine.
  • Large swaths of Open forest (OFs) become Moderately dense forest (MDFs) in the last decade owing to better management. At the same time, plantations are supplementing these natural gains to keep the extent of India’s dense forest cover stable.
  • Though, India’s dense forest cover has grown by 6% during 2003-2023. Experts question such an increase as they were brought through a series of unexplained revisions of data presented in ISFR adding a total of 20,232 sq km of dense forest to the inventory.

Plantations as Natural Forest – Issues and Implications:

  • Plantations usually have trees of the same age (and often the same species), are vulnerable to fire, pests and epidemics.
  • Plantations often act as a barrier to the regeneration of natural forests which are more biodiverse, perform a wider range of ecological functions, and support numerous species.
  • Old natural forests stock a lot more carbon in their frame and in the soil. In 2018, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) flagged India’s assumption that plantations reach the carbon stock level of existing forests in just eight years.
  • Plantations are frequently promoted for their rapid growth which can achieve carbon targets faster. However, plantations are often harvested more readily, defeating climate goals in the long term.

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