Indian Architecture

Tughlaqabad Fort

Context: The Tughlaqabad Fort in Southeast Delhi has been made free of encroachments due to the efforts of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Tughlaqabad Fort was built in 1321 by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty and ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. The fort was abandoned in 1327, just six years after its construction.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tughlaqabad Fort; Tughlaq Dynasty.

About Tughalqabad fort

Tughlaqabad fort is a ruined fort in Delhi, built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Tughlaqabad is considered to be the third extant city of Delhi, after Lal Kot (built in mid-eleventh century by the Tomars) and Siri (built by the second ruler of the Khalji Dynasty, Alauddin Khalji).

Architecture

Fortification: Tughalqabad consists of massive stone fortifications surrounding the ground plan of the city. The sloping rubble-filled city walls are a typical feature of monuments of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Divided into three parts:
- Wider city area with houses built along a rectangular grid.
- Citadel with a tower at its highest point known as ‘Bijai-Mandal’.
- Adjacent palace area containing the royal residences.
Among the major architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty, the tomb of Ghiyasuddin is almost perfectly preserved.

The Ghiyas-ud-Din's tomb is in the form of a self-contained fortress in miniature with the sloping walls of circular bastions. It may also have been intended as a fortified central tower.
The tomb-building is constructed diagonally at its widest part resembling it into the correct orientation with Mecca.
The major portion of the tomb-building is made with red sandstone, including the dome, made of white marble.
The architecture of the tomb's exterior portion resembles that of the structure of the Alai Darwaza constructed earlier. The similarity lies in the treatment of the pointed arches also.
Tudor arch: The horse-shoe shaped tomb has been customized into a "Tudor" outline with a slight decorative double curve at the crown.
The typical style of combining of the arch and the beam in the tomb was used for the first time in the architecture during the Tughlaq dynasty.
The tomb signifies the beginning of the phase of a regal style of architecture.
Adilabad Fort: Situated southeast of Ghiyasuddin Tomb. It was built by Muhammad Tughlaq (1325–1351) and shares the main characteristics of construction with Tughlaqabad fort.
Nai ka kot: Situated south-east of Adilabad. It is believed to have been built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a private residence before he built Adilabad.

Tughlaq Dynasty

Third Dynasty of Delhi sultanate: The Tughlaq dynasty took over from the Khaljis in 1320. Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
The Tughlaqs were able to maintain their rule for a long time because they had strong allies such as Turks, Afghans, and South Asian Muslim warriors.
The dynasty reached its pinnacle between 1330 and 1335 AD, during a military campaign led by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
The dynasty ended in 1413.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320-1325 AD)

Fortified the North-Western frontiers to defend the sultanate against Mongol invasions.
Muhammad Jauna Khan, son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq defeated Prataparudra-Deva II, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal.
Established the city of Tughlaqabad.
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur's rebellion in Bengal was suppressed during his rule.

Architecture during Tughlaqs

Elements of Indo-Islamic style dominated the architectural developments during Tughlaq dynasty. The amalgamation of Islamic architecture as well as Hindu style has come to be known as the Indo-Islamic style of architecture.
The buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety, probably indicating less financial resources as well as puritanical tests.
There was more emphasis on vastness in place of decoration of the buildings of the Khilji period.
Dark appearance characterised the buildings.
The constructions combined both arch and lintel method of entrance design.
Introduced a style of construction known as “batter” which was characterised by sloping walls to give more strength to the building.
During the reign of three important rulers, the architecture of the dynasty flourished:
- Founder of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320 to 1325)
- Mohammed Shah Tughlaq (1325 to 1351)
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 to 1388)

During the reign of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq

He had an important role in the development of architectures during Tughlaq dynasty.
Major contributions: Fourth city of Delhi with fortified walls named Jahan-Pannah or the World Refuge, a double storied bridge of seven spans named Sath Pul, Bijai Mandal, the presumably part of a "Palace of a Thousand Columns”.
The city was deserted and desolate during the year 1340 due to the unpredictable policy of Muhammad Tughlaq to change the capital from Delhi to the city of Daulatabad.

During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq:

Successor of Muhammad Tughlaq, he constructed Delhi as the capital.
Revived the Islamic style of architecture:
- Architectural characters of this period were different from its predecessors as it had the reflection of the conditions that prevailed at the seat of the government.
- It represented the suppression of the indigenous impulse.
Major creations: Ferozshah Kotla, the fifth city of Delhi, and three other fortress cities named as Jaunpur, Fathabad, and Hissar.

Khirki Masjid at Jahanpanah: Khirki Masjid is a great example of Islamic architecture. It is a small quadrangle-shaped mosque and is covered entirely by a roof, which is an unusual thing for building of mosques. The presence of several domes on the roof along with the wonderful latticework or jali on the windows represents the typical Islamic style of architecture.

Odisha style temple Architecture

Context: All four gates of the Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha were opened for devotees. The temple was closed during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown. The main entrance was opened last year in December but the other gates remained closed.

About Jagannath temple:

(Jagannath temple)

An important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu.
Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India).
Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra are deities worshipped at the temple.
The temple is sacred to all Hindus, and especially in those of the Vaishnava traditions and is one of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of the Vaishnavite tradition.
Many great Vaishnava saints, such as Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated with the temple.
- Ramanuja established the Emar Matha in the south-eastern corner of the temple.
- Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, which is the seat of one of the four Shankaracharyas.
It is also of particular significance to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, was attracted to the deity, Jagannath.
The worship is performed by the Bhil Sabar tribal priests, as well as priests of other communities in the temple.
Unlike the stone and metal icons found in most Hindu temples, the image of Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
The temple is one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites, the other being Rameshwaram, Badrinath and Dwarka.
The four gates of the temple:
- The four gates of the Jagannath temple are located on the mid-points of its boundary wall, and face the four cardinal directions.
- The main east-facing entrance is the Singhadwara (Lion's Gate), and has two stone sculptures of lions standing guard. It is believed that those who enter through this gate attain moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth-rebirth.
- The northern, southern, and western entrances are known as Hastidwara (Elephant Gate), Aswadwara (Horse Gate), and Vyaghradwara (Tiger Gate) respectively.
The Jagannath Temple is a monumental example of Nagara-style Hindu temple architecture. It is one of the finest preserved specimens of Kalinga architecture (Odisha temple architecture).

(Figure: Basic structure of a temple in Kalinga school)

Odisha school/Kalinga school of temple architecture:

The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within the Nagara style of temple architecture.
The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deul, Pidha Deul and Khakhara Deul.
- Rekha Deul and Pidha Deul are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while Khakhara Deul is mainly associated with Chamunda and Durga temples.
In general, the shikhara, called Deul in Odisha, is vertical until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
Deuls are preceded by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
The main temple's floor plan is usually square. As the temple structure rises, it becomes circular.
The walls of both the deul and the Jagmohan are intricately sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures.
Temples were surrounded by a boundary wall as in Dravidian style of temple architecture.
Examples: Sun Temple at Konark (also known as Black Pagoda as the first rays of the Sun entered the garbhagriha through the sea-facing pagoda), Jagannath temple at Puri, Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar, etc.

Virupaksha Temple

Context: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to commence restoration work on the collapsed ‘Saalu Mandapa or Pavilion’, of the Virupaksha temple in Hampi (Karnataka).

About Virupaksha Temple:

Virupaksha Temple is an integral part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi.
Dedicated to Sri Virupaksha (Lord Shiva) the temple was originally constructed by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Hampi, situated along the banks of the Tungabhadra River, served as the capital of this empire.
Pampadevi, associated with the Tungabhadra River is also worshipped.
The temple's history dates back to the 7th century CE, with inscriptions referring to Shiva found from the 9th and 10th centuries.
Initially a modest shrine, it expanded under Vijayanagar rule.
While additions during the late Chalukyan and Hoysala periods are evident, most of the existing structures are attributed to the Vijayanagara era.
Despite the city's destruction in 1565 (by the Bahmani Sultanate) the religious significance of the Virupaksha-Pampa sect remained, maintaining continuous worship at the temple.

Structure of the temple:

The main temple complex comprises a sanctum, a pillared hall, and an open pillared hall, all decorated with intricately carved pillars.
Surrounding the central structure are entrance gateways, courtyards, and smaller shrines.
The eastern gateway stands as the largest entrance.
Kanakagiri Gopura is another gateway leading to a small enclosure with subsidiary shrines and to the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
Krishnadevaraya, played a pivotal role as a patron of the temple.
- His contributions include the central pillared hall and the gateway tower leading to the inner courtyard.
- Inscriptions next to the pillared hall commemorate his commissioning of these structures in 1510 AD to mark his accession.

Vijayanagar Architectural features:

Blended influences from the Hoysala, Chola, and Chalukya dynasties.
Primarily granite was used for its durability and soapstone for intricate sculptures.
Influences from Dravidian architectural traditions are more pronounced.
- During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the empire saw a resurgence in Dravida style, influencing the construction of South Indian temples for centuries.
Unique elements introduced in the Vijayanagar period: fortified enclosures, elaborately pillared Kalyana Mandapas (marriage halls), towering Raya Gopurams (entrance towers), and life-size statues of deities.
In addition to temple architecture, Vijayanagara's secular buildings featured Islamic influences like arches, domes, and vaults, constructed with mortar and stone shards.
Significant features:
- Raya Gopurams: Monumental entrance gates adorned with intricate carvings.
- Pillared Pavilions: Open structures with sculpted pillars depicting motifs like horses and monolithic statues of deities.
- Kalyana Mandapa: Decorated marriage halls with elaborately carved pillars, central to temple complexes.
- Amman Shrines: Additional shrines dedicated to the consorts of the main deity.

Tughlaq-era Dam structure - Satpula

Context: Satpula is located east of the Khirki Masjid, that is integral to the compound wall of the medieval fourth city of the Jahanpanah in Delhi.

About Satpula:

Built in 1340 by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351) of the Tughlaq dynasty, the dam served two purposes:
- Providing a reliable source of water for irrigation, and acting as a defence against possible intruders (such as Mongol invasions).
- Served as a boundary wall for Jahapanah, the fourth city of Delhi.
The dam got its name from the seven arches through which water used to flow from a canal originating from the Aravalli.
During British rule, the stream over which the dam was built was diverted, which reduced the water body to a mere drain flowing on one side.
Spiritual significance:
- Sufi saint Nasiruddin Mahmud (popularly known as Chirag Dehlavi/Chirag-e-Dilli) used to live nearby.
- People used to believe that the canal water had healing properties.
- For centuries, the area used to host a Diwali mela.
Why was the dam built?
- During the rule of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, the economic conditions of the Delhi Sultanate was in distress:
  - Due to very high expenses incurred on the war campaign in Deccan.
  - Also, due to the Sultan establishing his southern capital at Daulatabad (in 1329).
  - Between 1334 and 1344, repeated droughts caused famines, adding to the suffering of the people.
- Urgent solutions had to be found.
  - One of the viable options planned was of building the Satpula, the seven arches bridge or gate-controlled dam, to tap the water resources of the local stream feeding the Yamuna River.
  - This brought large areas of land under controlled irrigated agriculture to grow food crops.
Structure:
- Built using quartz (stone found in the Aravalli).
- It has been constructed in stone masonry.
- The eleven bays consist of eleven water tunnels and these are located at different levels, with seven main bays at the lowest level.
- When built, wooden vertical gates made of heavy boards were operated by a rope and pulley arrangement to control flow of water.
It connected four principal cities: the Qila Rai Pithora, Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Jahanpanah.

About Khirki Masjid:

Built by Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, the prime minister of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388).
It is constructed in Jahanpanah city.
There are no specific inscriptions on the Mosque on its construction date. The name of the builder is inscribed on the eastern gate of the Mosque as 'Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah'.
Structure:
- There are four open courtyards encircled by arcades.
- The main gate, leading to the qibla on the western wall, has a projecting mihrab.
  - Qibla wall is the wall in a mosque that faces Mecca.
  - Mihrab is a niche in the qibla wall indicating the direction of Mecca
- Arch windows with perforated screens or jalis known as ‘Khirkis’, are seen on the second floor.
- The mosque's walls are of rubble masonry construction with plastered surface on the outside.

Seven Cities of Delhi:

Indraprastha:
- As per the mythology, the city of Indraprastha, which is believed to be around the Purana Qila area, was founded by the Pandavas from the epic Mahabharata.
- Mentioned in ancient texts like the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
- Buddhist texts mention Indraprastha as Indapatta.
Qila Rai Pithora:
- Anangpal Tomar founded Delhi of Lal Kot in 1052.
- Chauhan kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.
Siri:
- It was built by Alauddin Khilji and expanded by subsequent rulers.
- He constructed Siri between 1297 and 1307 to defend India and Delhi against Mongol raids.
- Structures inside the Siri fort: Hauz Khas reservoir; Hazar Sultan palace.
- Subsequent rulers expanded the city with other urban centres like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, and Firozabad.
Tughlaqabad:
- Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the fortified city of Tughlaqabad in the 14th century.
- Walled city included seven rainwater tanks.
Jahanpanah:
- The fourth city of Delhi established in 1326–1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- To address the constant threat of the Mongols, the Sultan, built the fortified city of Jahanpanah, which subsumed the Adilabad fort and also all the establishments lying between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri Fort.
- Partially surviving structures: Bijay Mandal, Begumpur Mosque, Serai Shaji Mahal, Lal Gumbad, Baradari.
- The accounts of Ibn Battuta’s mention that, Lal Kot (Qutb complex) was then the urban area and Siri was the military cantonment.
Firozabad:
- Built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, near the Yamuna River.
- Included Firoz Shah Kotla.
Sher-garh or Purana Qila:
- Humayun built the city of Dinpanah.
- But he was ousted by the Suri Dynasty in the Battle of Chausa and the Battle of Kannauj.
- Sher Shah Suri demolished it and renamed it Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shahi.
- It is known as Purana Qila now.
Shahjahanabad:
- Shahjahanabad was founded by Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century.
- Famous monuments: Red Fort and the Jama Masjid.

For more information, follow the links:

Tughlaqabad Fort

Tughlaq Dynasty

Khooni Bhandara in Burhanpur added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

Context: Khooni Bhandara, built in the historic city of Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, has been included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Architecture of Khooni Bhandara:

It is an ingenious network of 103 well-like structures called Kundis (aqueducts). As the entire system was essentially based on the law of gravity, it ensured a smooth course of water from the first to the last Kundi.
The water recharging system devised for the canal is based on the principle of intercepting the run-off in the subsoil groundwater level through underground channels and collecting it in structures, partly underground and partly above ground, called ‘Bhandaras’.
An underground water management system which is built on Persian qanat approach, in 1615 CE. Out of eight sets of these subterraneous channels, six are still intact.
The groundwater is collected from the underground springs flowing from the adjacent Satpura hills towards the Tapti.
The water coming from the reservoirs: Mool-bhandara, Chintaharan, and Sookha bhandara, are collected at a common point to flow towards Khooni-bhandara from where it was transported to Jali Karanj or Jal bhandara.
Water stored here was then distributed through pipelines to the entire city.
Khooni bhandara provided water to the entire city for as long as 300 years before it collapsed in 1977.
The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, gave it the name khooni (bloody).
It has been declared as a state protected structure by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Archives and Museums.

(Khandesh Sultanate 1526, with neighbouring polities)

History of Khooni Bhandara

Commencement of Mughal rule in late 16th century:
- Burhanpur became the centre of military activities and commerce as well as the base for the expansion of Mughals in South India.
- Abdul-Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the Governor of the Subah of Khandesh during the reign of Jahangir. His capital was Burhanpur.
- He planned to excavate an underground canal in the vicinity of Burhanpur, to augment the potable water supply of the city.
- The canal was constructed under the supervision of Tabaqat-al-Ardh or the Department of Earth (sciences), which looked after such constructions.
- A Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz, was invited to investigate the valley in the Tapti plains. After the investigation, he devised a system.
  - This was based on the ancient water supply system that in Arabic is called Qanat (originated 3000 years ago in Persia).
- Qanat or Kariz system: It is built for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct.
Need of an underground water management system:
- Burhanpur was situated on the river banks of the Tapti and Utavali, but its banks were so high that it was difficult and expensive to service water to different parts of Burhanpur city.
- Huge Mughal armies camped here for a prolonged period and caravans engaged in transportation of goods often stopped here.
- Some alternative was urgently needed to overcome the problem of water shortage.
- Since the area also received a fair amount of rainfall, the real issue was to devise a system to effectively tap these sources for an adequate supply of clean water.

About history city of Burhanpur:

Situated: North Bank of Tapti River.

Pre-Mughal period:

Important town under the Rashtrakuta Dynasty from 753–982.
In 1388, Malik Nasir Khan (Faruqi dynasty Sultan of Khandesh), founded Burhanpur (named it after a medieval Sufi saint, Burhan-ud-Din).
Burhanpur became the capital of the Khandesh sultanate (1382-1601).
Miran Adil Khan II of Faruqi dynasty, built a citadel and a number of palaces in Burhanpur.
The city became a major centre for trade and textile production.

Under the Mughals:

Khandesh Sultanate was annexed by Akbar in 1601.
Burhanpur became the capital of Khandesh Subah.
It grew in importance because it was considered the gateway to south India.
Described in the Ain-i-Akbari (the chronicle of the rule of Akbar), by Abul Fazl, as a city of gardens, some of which boasted of sandalwood trees.
Burhanpur was the residence of Khandesh's Mughal governor, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, during Akbar and Jahangir's rule.
He constructed a new water supply for the town, as well as several gardens.

Maratha conquest:

1705: Santaji Ghorpade attacked Khandesh (during the reign of Rajaram I), which forced the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to deploy more army in Khandesh.
1720s: the town was attacked by the Maratha Peshwa Bajirao during his expedition to Malwa and Delhi.
1750s: Maratha army under Sadashivrao Bhau, who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, took control of the town.
Downfall of the Maratha Empire: the town was given to Maratha Sardar Holkar, then Scindia, and finally in 1818, Burhanpur was handed over to the British by the Marathas.

Mughal Water Management works:

The Mughal era brought significant advances in water management due to the need to efficiently utilize scarce water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.
Qanat system: Played a crucial role in the use of groundwater.
A developed irrigation system was made possible by storing well water, surface water as well rain water.
Water from these sources was stored in tanks and then distributed across the vast agricultural lands through a large network of canals.
Some water-lifting devices were also used for utilising the stored water.
In the Doab and Haryana region, the role of canal irrigation became quite significant by the closing decades of the nineteenth century.

Water Management during Akbar’s Rule (reigned 1556-1605)

Hydraulic systems employed to control summer temperature, such as in Fatehpur Siri. Here, the Rahat/Rehat/Rehant system (sometimes called the Persian wheel) was used.
- The technology employed to raise water, had been used in India prior to Mughal rule.
- Thus, the achievement was an engineering feat of scale rather than innovative technology.
Innovation occurred in placing inhabitable water buildings within the two supply systems for raising water, creating buildings that were simultaneously pieces of machinery and social spaces.
‘Ain-i-Akbari’ mentioned that most of the province of Lahore was cultivated with the help of well-irrigation using technologies such as Arhat or Rahat/Saqiya (‘Persian wheel’) to lift water.
Around Agra, the ‘charas’, or the leather bucket lifted out of water by oxen, pulling rope thrown over a pulley was most common.
Dhenkli/Shadoof/Tula/lat/Latha, based on the level principle, was generally used wherever the water-level was close to the surface.
Most of the wells were ‘kachcha’, i.e., made without use of masonry.

Water Management during Shahjahan’s rule (reigned 1628-1658):

Proposed to advance nearly Rs.40,000 to cultivators in Khandesh and the Painghat portion of Berar for the purpose of erecting dams or bunds.
The old channel of the eastern Yamuna Canal was dug in the reign of Shahjahan. Shahjahan decided to re-open it from Khizrabad, to serve the new city of Shahjahanabad at Delhi. This was the famous ‘Nahr-I-Bihist’ or ‘Nahr-i-Faiz’ which irrigated a considerable area.
In Punjab, a small system of canals was brought into existence in the Upper Bari doab. The best known of these was the ‘Shahnahr’.
Taj Mahal originally had sophisticated waterworks to irrigate the garden and an elaborate water channel system was created in the Khan-i-Alam complex on the western side of Taj Mahal.
- The fountain pipes were not connected directly with the copper pipes feeding them, as this would have resulted in gradual decrease of volume and pressure of water.
- Instead, a copper pitcher was provided under each fountain pipe and the same was connected with the water supply line.
- The water first filled the pitcher and rose in the fountains simultaneously.
Excavations at Mehtab Bagh (Charbagh complex in Agra) supposed to have been constructed by Shah Jahan, brought to light a huge tank of octagonal shape.
- The digging of pits revealed that they were built of Lakhauri brick in lime mortar for installing a fountain shaft.
- Lakhauri brick: Red burnt-clay bricks, originating from the Indian subcontinent; became popular element of Mughal architecture during Shah Jahan.

Water Management during Aurangzeb’s rule (reigned 1658-1707):

The Bibi-ka-maqbara, built for Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad also had a remarkable water management system.
There is a huge water tank on the south-east corner of the complex which is known as Hati Haud.
The water channels run on the enclosure walls from the Hati Haud and the water is distributed from the channels to various parts of the complex through terracotta pipes.

The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Context: The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur, in Madhya Pradesh, has been included into UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Introduction:

Situated: along the Betwa and Kaliasot Rivers, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Constructed: during the 11th century
Patronage of: Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty
Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
Paramara dynasty:
- Reigned over the Malwa region and adjacent territories from the 9th to the 14th century.
- Raja Bhoj emerged as a celebrated monarch.
- He was renowned for his architectural treatise, the “Samaranganasutradhara”.
- Inscriptions and literary works attribute King Bhoj with an extensive temple building initiative, dedicated to various aspects of Shiva.
- However, the Bhojpur temple remains the sole surviving shrine definitively linked to Bhoja.
The temple has been designated as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Architectural features of the temple:

Architectural style reflects the evolution of temple design during the Paramara period.
Elements of the Bhumija style emerged in the 9th century and flourished until the 13th century.
Bhumija style is an evolved form of the Nagara temples.
The main structure and the shikhara in this style harmoniously blend influences from the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
The temple does not have a mandapa, which have led researchers to propose the hypothesis of it being a funerary monument.
The unfinished shikhara is decorated with small sub-shrines or kuta-stambhas and corner bands known as Lata.
The temple has a square plan and it is built on a raised plinth with ornate carvings and sculptures in its exterior.
In the centre, the garbhagriha is constructed which houses a massive lingam, carved from a single stone.
Projecting balconies are built on three sides of the temple.
The northern wall features a makara-pranala, which provided a drainage outlet for the liquid used to bathe the lingam.
The four brackets supporting the cornerstones feature four different divine couples: Shiva-Parvati, Brahma-Shakti, Rama-Sita, and Vishnu-Lakshmi.

About Paramara Dynasty (9th-14th Century):

Introduction:

Exerted dominion over Malwa and adjacent territories in west-central India.
Originated from the Parmara clan of Rajputs.
Initially served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
They rose to sovereign power around 972 CE when Siyaka, one of the rulers, sacked Manyakheta and established Paramaras as an independent authority.
Capital: Dhara (modern-day Dhar)
The dynasty faced repeated conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms such as the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti.
Due to the challenges, the capital was shifted to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu).
Religion:
- Predominantly followers of the Shaivite tradition.
- Also supported Jain scholars

Rulers:

Earliest known king Siyaka:
- Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE), mentions him as vassal to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
- As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Siyaka engaged in military campaigns against the Pratiharas and Hunas.
- He secured victory over Krishna III's successor, Khottiga, in 972 CE.
Munja (Siyaka's successor):
- Munja attained victory over various neighbouring kingdoms, such as Chahamanas, Guhilas, Hunas, and Kalachuris.
- He was defeated by Western Chalukya king Tailapa II. This resulted in loss of southern territories to the Chalukyas.
Sindhuraja (Munja’s successor):
- He reclaimed the lost territories by defeating the Western Chalukya king Satyashraya.
- He expanded the dominion by defeating Shilaharas, Somvanshi, and rulers of Lata (now South Gujarat).
- His court poet, Padma Gupta, wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
King Bhoja (Sindhuraja’s son and successor):
- Reigned from 1010–1055 CE.
- The dynasty reached its zenith during his reign.
- Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
- Extended control from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
- He founded the town of Bhojpur.

Cultural Contributions of King Bhoja:

Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India.
Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by his court poet Dasabala.
Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple, he also construction of three dams in Bhojpur.
- The first dam, built on Betwa River.
- A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills.
- A third dam diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river.
Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Saraswati in Dhar.
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar king, and several books are attributed to him. He was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was authored by him.
Some of his surviving works in Sanskrit language:
- Bhujabala-bhima, a work on astrology
- Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu, a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry (champu genre)
- Govinda-vilasa, poem
- Raja-Martaṅda or Patanjali Yogasutra Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Raja Mriganka Karana, a treatise on chemistry, dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs.
- Samarangana-Sutradhara, a treatise on architecture and iconography.
- Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions.
- Tattva-Prakasha, a treatise on Shaivite philosophy.
- Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy.
- Vyavahara-Manjari, a work on dharmasastra or Hindu law
- Yukti-Kalpataru, a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building etc.
His Prakrit language poems are: Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka.
- The Kodanda-Kavya was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.
- The Kurma-Sataka was found inscribed at the BhojShala in Dhar.

The Paramara Dynasty experienced a decline in their power, ultimately leading to the defeat and death of the final recorded ruler, Mahalakadeva, by the forces of Alauddin Khilji of Delhi in 1305 CE. However, despite this, inscriptions indicate that Paramara authority persisted for some time following Mahalakadeva's downfall.

Bhojshala Complex

Context: The Madhya Pradesh High Court directed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque complex.

About Bhojshala

Located in: Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Established in: 1034 AD
Built by: Raja Bhoj of Parmar Dynasty (1000–1055 AD)
Key features of the temple: It was the University in which the statue of Vagdevi ( Mata Saraswati) was installed.
- Bhojshala was first attacked by Alauddin Khilji in 1305 AD.
- In 1514 AD, Mehmudshah Khilji II attacked Bhojshala and tried to convert it into dargah. He encroached land outside Saraswati Temple and built ‘Kamal Moulana’ Makbara.
- In 1952, the Central Government gave up Bhojshala to the Archaeological Survey of India.

Architecture of the complex:
- It has a large open courtyard around which there is a verandah decorated with pillars and a prayer hall is located behind it in the west.
- The carved pillars and the exquisitely carved ceiling of the prayer hall were from Bhojshal.
Inscriptions: In the rocks of complex , two hymns written in Prakrit language of the Karmavatar or crocodile incarnation of Vishnu are engraved.
- Two Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions, one containing the Sanskrit alphabet and the main endings of nouns and verbs and the other containing the individual declensions of the ten tenses and moods of Sanskrit grammar. These inscriptions belong to the 11th-12th century.
- Two Sanskrit texts are engraved in Anustubha verse.
- In one of these, Raja Bhoj's successors Udayaditya and Narvarman have been praised.
- In the second, it is told that these pillars were installed by Udayaditya.

Martand Sun Temple

Context: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Transport, Tourism & Culture has recommended the government to allow worship at monuments protected by ASI having religious significance. Monuments are classified by ASI as living monuments and non-living monuments. Prayers are currently allowed at monuments which are living places of worship. Last year, a puja was performed at the Martand Sun Temple of Kashmir, which resulted into a controversy.

About Martand Sun Temple

Martand Sun Temple is an 8th century AD Hindu Temple. The temple has been dedicated to Martand, the Sun God.
Located in Anantnag district of Jammu & Kashmir.
This temple has been constructed during the reign of Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty.
Martand Temple has three distinct chambers - Mandapa, Garbhagriha and Antralaya - probably the only three chambered temples in Kashmir.
Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, decribes the grandeur of Martand Temple.
Despite the temple being in ruins, it is the most striking example of Hindu temple architecture in Kashmir.
Some walls of the temple have carvings of deities and temple is ringed by a row of pillars, which is a sub-style of Kashmiri temple architecture.
The temple is believed to be architecture synthesis mixture of Hindu and Graeco-Roman styles of architectures.
The temple is believed to be destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in the 14th century.
Nearby town of Mattan is named after the Martand Sun Temple.

About Laliaditya Muktapida

Lalitaditya Muktapida ruled Kashmir from 725 AD to 753 AD.
Lalitaditya belonged to the Karkota dynasty.
He built the capital of his kingdom at Parihaspora, the ruins of which survive to this day.
Lalitaditya defeated central Indian king Yashovarman.
He has been given the title of 'World Conqueror' by Kalhana as he ruled over a vast geography from Central Asia to Bengal.
He is the most important ruler of Kashmir.

Qutub Minar and its monuments

Context: The initial stage of restoration efforts for the Alai Darwaza (at Qutub Minar complex) will be undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Alai Darwaza

Originally, Qutb-ud-din Aibak commissioned the construction of a mosque, later partly expanded by Shamsuddin Altamash (Iltutmish).
Alauddin Khilji had grand plans for the Qutub complex, aiming to enlarge the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and erect four gateways leading to it.
However, his vision was left incomplete as he passed away after the completion of the first gateway, known as the Alai Darwaza, in 1311 AD. This 13th-century structure continues to stand as a remarkable architectural achievement.
According to the Archaeological Survey of India's website, the Alai Darwaza holds historical significance as the first building to incorporate Islamic construction and ornamentation principles.
Notably, it represents a pivotal moment in Indian architecture, being the inaugural instance of red sandstone and white marble used in conjunction.
Additionally, it is considered one of the earliest examples of a true dome constructed according to arcuate (curved or arched) architectural principles.
Its incorporation of local motifs, such as lotus buds adorning its entrances, further adds to its cultural significance.
The plinth on each side is intricately adorned with floral and geometric designs in both white marble and red sandstone, creating a stunning polychromatic effect.
Despite being a single-story structure, its exterior creates the illusion of a double-story building.
The domed gateway is adorned with inscriptions in Naskh script, latticed stone screens, and showcases the exceptional craftsmanship of the Turkish artisans responsible for its construction.
The Qutub Minar Complex:
The Qutb Minar complex comprises a collection of historical monuments and buildings dating back to the Delhi Sultanate era, located in Mehrauli, Delhi, India.
In addition to the prominent Qutb Minar and the Quwwat-ul Islam Mosque, the complex encompasses other notable structures, including the Alai Darwaza gate, the Alai Minar, and the Iron pillar.
Within the complex, one can also find the tombs of Iltutmish, Alauddin Khalji, and Imam Zamin.

Qutub Minar

The Qutb Minar takes inspiration from the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and serves as a significant example of early Afghan architecture, eventually influencing the development of Indo-Islamic Architecture.
It holds the distinction of being the tallest minaret worldwide constructed from bricks. Its design encompasses five distinctive storeys, each featuring a projecting balcony.
Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the surrounding monuments.
Initially constructed as a Victory Tower to commemorate Muhammad Ghori's triumph over the Rajput king, Prithviraj Chauhan, in 1192 AD, the Qutb Minar was initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later became the first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty.
The minaret's construction marked the onset of Muslim rule in India. Fashioned from red sandstone and marble, Aibak could only complete the first storey.
The subsequent three floors were added by his son-in-law and successor, Iltutmish.
In 1368 AD, the Minar was struck by lightning, which caused the removal of its top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq, a later Sultan of Delhi (1351 to 1388), replaced the missing section with the current two floors. He adorned it with white marble and sandstone, contributing to its distinctive appearance, as seen in the lower three storeys.
The Minar reflects a progression in time with inscriptions displayed in bold and cursive Thuluth script of calligraphy, distinguished by thicker strokes at the top compared to the earlier Kufic script during the initial construction.
Historical records reveal further repairs conducted by Sultan Sikander Lodi in 1503, following another lightning strike.
In 2004, seismic monitors were installed on the Minar, and subsequent seismic activity, such as the 2005 Delhi earthquake, indicated no substantial damage. This resilience has been attributed to the use of lime mortar and rubble masonry, which absorb tremors.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

The construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque commenced in 1193 CE under the patronage of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, marking his victory over the Rajputs.
This mosque holds the distinction of being the first mosque built in Delhi following the Islamic conquest of India.
Aibak, aiming to establish the prominence of Islam in the newly conquered territory, chose the heart of the captured Rajput citadel of Qila Rai Pithora as the site for this mosque.
The architectural style and design of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque bear similarities to the Adhai-din-ka Jhonpra or Ajmer Mosque in Ajmer, Rajasthan, also constructed by Aibak during the same period.
The side arches are smaller in size, and the screen is adorned with religious texts and floral patterns.
The mosque's construction followed a Corbel style rather than a scientific one, evident in the variations in the arch patterns.
The entrances to the courtyard incorporate ornate mandap domes from temples, with their pillars extensively used throughout the structure, including the sanctuary beyond the tall arched screens.
Iltutmish, Qutbuddin's successor, expanded the original prayer hall screen by adding three more arches.
As the Mamluk empire stabilized during Iltutmish's reign, he could replace most of the conscripted Hindu masons with Muslim artisans, resulting in stylistically more Islamic arches.

Iron pillar in the Qutb Complex

The iron pillar stands as one of the most remarkable metallurgical wonders globally.
Originally, it was erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–414 AD) in front of a Vishnu Temple complex at Udayagiri around 402 AD.
Subsequently, during the 10th century CE, it was relocated from Udayagiri to its current location by Anangpal.
Anangpal's intention was to incorporate this pillar into a Vishnu Temple that was constructed at its present site.
The pillar boasts an inscription in Sanskrit, written in the Brahmi script dating back to the 4th century AD. This inscription reveals that the pillar was originally set up as a Vishnudhvaja, on a hill known as Vishnupada.

Alai Minar

Alauddin Khalji initiated the construction of the Alai Minar following his expansion of the Quwwat ul-Islam Mosque, which had been built before 1300 AD.
He envisioned this tower to be twice as tall as the Qutb Minar, proportionate to the enlarged mosque.
However, the construction of the Alai Minar came to an abrupt halt shortly after Alauddin's demise in 1316 and was never resumed by his successors from the Khalji Dynasty.
Today, only the first storey of the Alai Minar remains, a massive rubble masonry core that was evidently intended to be clad with dressed stone at a later stage.

Khilji dynasty architecture

Context: During the renovation work at Siri Fort, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), a tomb-like structure dating back to the 13th century was unearthed.

The Magnificent Siri Fort

Siri Fort, located in New Delhi, stands as a testament to the city's rich history and architectural prowess. It was built around 1303, during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, the second ruler of the Khilji Dynasty.

Defence against Mongol onslaught:

Alauddin Khilji, known for his dominion extension into Southern India, established Siri as the second city of Delhi.
The fort was strategically designed to mimic massive Turkish forts, serving as a seat of power during Alauddin's territorial expansion campaigns.
Its construction aimed to counter the frequent Mongol invasions of West Asia and protect Delhi from their onslaught.

Architectural Marvel and Strategic Design:

The fort is situated northeast of the iconic Qutub Minar and was meticulously planned and built with an oval-shaped layout.
The fort was a symbol of civic pride, housing the grand Hazar Sutan palace with its marble floors and exquisite stone decorations.
Unique additions like flame-shaped battlements, and bastions showcased the innovative architectural style of the Khilji’s.
Hauz Khas village was an extension of the fort, which was designed to meet the water needs of the army. The fort is currently in ruins and the only structure that remains is its boundary walls.

The Legacy of Siri:

Beyond Siri Fort, Alauddin Khilji’s vision extended to the fortifications of Jahanpanah, connecting Siri to the larger defence network. Siri was also known as ‘Darul Khilafat’ or the ‘Seat of the Caliphate’.
The fort's strength and grandeur attracted the attention of Timur, the Mongol ruler who invaded Delhi in 1398.
In his memoirs, Timur described Siri as a city surrounded by lofty buildings and formidable stone and brick fortifications.

Contributions and Destruction:

The craftsmen of the Seljuq dynasty played a significant role in shaping the architectural monuments of Delhi during this era.
Unfortunately, the decline of Siri Fort began with the removal of its stones and artifacts by local rulers for their buildings.
Sher Shah Suri, used materials from Siri to construct his city.

Khilji Dynasty Architecture

During the Khilji dynasty, which was the second Muslim dynasty ruling the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320, the Indo-Islamic architectural form was still in its formative stage but witnessed some progress in the late 13th century.

One of the key figures during this period was Ala-ud-din Khilji, who ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296. He emerged as a prominent patron of Islamic architecture and spearheaded crucial developments in the field.
His notable architectural endeavors included the expansion of the Qutb-mosque. The proportions of the minaret were doubled compared to those established a century earlier.
Another remarkable architectural achievement of this period is the Alai Darwaza, which was completed in 1305. It stands out for its inventive arches, walling techniques, dome support systems, and surface decorations. The Alai Darwaza incorporates indigenous features seamlessly into its design, skillfully merging Indian and Islamic architectural elements.
Jamaat Khana Masjid was built at the tomb of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, a renowned saint of the period, and was erected towards the end of Khilji rule.
Several other buildings were also constructed in the Qutb area, including a college and the tomb of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

About Alauddin Khilji

The Khilji dynasty held sway over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly thirty years. The dynasty was established by Jalalud din Firoz Khilji, and Alauddin Khilji eventually seized power and assumed the role of Sultan by eliminating his predecessor.

He conducted raids in the Deccan Peninsula, particularly in Deogiri, the capital of the state of Maharashtra, plundering their treasures.
In the initial years of his reign, Alauddin successfully repelled a major Mongol invasion at the Battle of Jaran-Manjur in 1298. This victory not only consolidated his power but also enhanced his reputation, ensuring stability during his rule.
To secure a trade route to Gujarat, Ayn-al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramar kingdom of Malwa. Despite facing strong resistance from the Rajput army, Multani emerged victorious and became the governor of the province.
Subsequently, in 1299, Nusrat Khan was dispatched to conquer Gujarat itself, defeating its Solanki king. Nusrat Khan looted the chief cities of Gujarat and desecrated temples, including the famous Somnath temple, which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century.
In 1308, Alauddin's trusted lieutenant, Malik Kafur, captured Warangal and overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River.
Alauddin Khalji's expansionist ambitions extended into South India. With the assistance of commanders like Malik Kafur, he launched campaigns to subdue various kingdoms, accumulating substantial war booty, known as Anwatan, from their conquests.
Alauddin's commanders collected spoils of war from the defeated kingdoms and paid a fifth of the loot (khums) to Sultan's treasury, strengthening the Khalji rule.
Despite his lack of formal education, Alauddin Khalji displayed a remarkable appreciation for art and education. His court attracted renowned figures such as Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi, who contributed to the cultural vibrancy of his reign.

Gateway to the past: Khooni Darwaza

Context: In the book 'Delhi': Unknown Tales of a City’ by Ronald Vivian Smith, the description has been of Khooni Darwaja, which was built by Sher Shah Sur.

ronald vivian smith Google Search Personal Microsoft Edge 15 05 2023 11 26 48

Khooni Darwaja

Khooni Darwaza, located near the Delhi Gate, was constructed during Sher Shah Suri's reign in the 16th century (1540-45).
Initially known as Lal Darwaza, it was later renamed Khooni Darwaza due to a tragic event that took place in 1857. Lieutenant Hodson shot and killed Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons and grandson there, after the British forces recaptured Delhi and the last Emperor sought shelter in Humayun's Tomb.

Architectural features

The architectural design of Khooni Darwaza showcases a combination of Mughal and Afghan influences. Constructed using quartzite stone, the gate stands tall with three stories.
It features three arched entrances, with the central one being the largest.
The upper floors of the gate boast balconies known as jharokhas, offering panoramic views of the surrounding area.
In the past, the gate's expansive courtyard served as a gathering space for the public, as believed by historians. Enclosed by a tall wall, the courtyard encompasses various chambers and rooms.

Additionally, on either side of the gate, there are rectangular windows with decorative overhanging edges known as chajjas, supported by intricately carved brackets.

Kangura structure:

The Kangura or Kungura battlement is an important aspect of Indian monuments which serves both military and aesthetic purposes.
While the petal shaped roof boundary looks regal, it also served as a place for soldiers to guard and defend the building.

Damaaga:

Below the Kangura battlement, there are three hole-like openings. These are called damaaga.
The damaagas were also structure built for defence, and could be used to pour boiling oil on enemies scaling the gate.

Pishtaq:

The main entrance have two wonderfully carved pishtaq, or niches.
These niches could be used to keep lamps to light up the entrance in the dark.
The frames of the window are made from red sandstone.
It is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey in India.

Establishment of Sur Dynasty

Battle of Chausa (1539): In this battle Sher Khan defeated Humayun due to his superior political and military skills.
Humayun arrived at Agra after the defeat and assembled his army with the support of his brothers Askari and Hindal to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter took place at Kanauj.
Battle of Kanauj (1540): Humayun’s army was completely routed by Sher Shah.

Sur Dynasty (1540-1555)

Founded by Sher Shah.
Through his ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief of Afghans in India. His military capability and diplomacy made him victorious over Humayun and many other Rajput rulers.
Malwa fell without a fight and Rana Uday Singh of Mewar surrendered without resistance.
End of the dynasty:

Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar failed as a gunshot caused his death in 1545.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at a young age led to a state of confusion about succession. Humayun used this opportunity to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers.

Architecture during Sher Shah

Indian Architecture during the reign of Sher Shah Suri can be divided into two separate time periods. The first phase which runs from 1530 to 1540, a group of tombs were constructed taking the Lodi style to its ultimate expression. During the second phase from 1540 to 1545, when Sher Shah Suri wrested control from Humayun, he patronized a list of architectural innovations which represent an important development in the gestation of the subsequent Mughal Architecture.

1. First phase (1530-1540):

The initial phase of constructing tombs in Sasaram, Bihar, clearly demonstrated Sher Shah Suri's ambition to create a monument grander than anything found in Delhi.
To bring his vision to life, he enlisted the expertise of Aliwal Khan, a master builder trained in the Imperial tradition.
The construction began in 1525 with the tomb of Hasan Sur Khan, Sher Shah Suri's father, following a fairly conventional Lodi design.
However, Khan's subsequent masterpiece, the tomb of Sher Shah Suri, is a breath-taking architectural marvel.

It is an immense and majestic structure situated in a picturesque tank.
Crafted from the finest Chunar sandstone, this remarkable monument left a significant impact on the evolution of Indo-Islamic funerary architecture.

2. Second Phase (1540-1545):

Sher Shah Suri gained control from Humayun and supported a range of innovative architectural endeavours that played a crucial role in the development of subsequent Mughal architecture.
Purana Qila or old fort is one of the oldest forts in Delhi India. The construction began in the time of Humayun and continued under Sher Shah Suri.

Purana Qila, served as a defensive citadel and the focal point of his sixth city in Delhi, called Shergarh. He added several more structures in the fort during his reign.
The fort also includes overhanging balconies or jharokhas, topped with pillar pavilions or chhatris which is a feature of Rajasthani architecture.
Sher Mandal, an interior structure in the Old Fort is credited to Sher Shah.
The Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid, the royal chapel of Sher Shah Suri, constructed around 1542, had a far greater influence on the subsequent Mughal architecture.

It exhibits four-centred arches within definite rectangular frames, adorned with delicate spearhead fringes and merlons.
The composition is harmoniously completed by the horizontal line of the projecting chajja, resulting in a cohesive and integrated structure.

Buddhist Stupas found in Madhya Pradesh's Bandhavgarh

Context: Buddhist stupas have been found in the ongoing excavation in the Bandhavgarh Tiger reserve in Madhya Pradesh. Many dynasties have ruled this region, including the Gupta, Pratiharas and Kalachuris.

Stupa

The stupa serves as the most fundamental of Buddhist architectural monuments. It symbolises a sacred space for the community as it represents Buddha’s burial mound.
Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, which was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in 3^rd century BCE, served as an architectural prototype for all others that followed. This historical site is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Stupa Architecture

The most basic stupa, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, has three fundamental features:

A hemispherical mound (Anda): Domed shape recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains.
A square railing (Harmika): It is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (Chattra): The central pillar represents the pivot of the universe, the axis mundi along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. The three circular umbrella-like disks represent the Triratnas of Buddhism: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).
Secondary Features:

Toranas (gateways): Enclosure wall with decorated gateways at the cardinal directions.
A circular terrace (Medhi): It likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.
Building material: Unburnt bricks were used at the core and burnt bricks were used on the outer face that was covered in a thick coating of plaster.
Decorations: To embellish Medhi and Toran, wooden sculptors were used.
Pradakshinapatha (Circumambulatory pathway): As a form of worship, devotees walk around the pradakshina patha, or open ambulatory pathway. Wooden railing that capped the stupa also encircled the Pradakshinapatha.
The earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha. Over time, it has taken a grander symbolic association, “the mountain home of the gods at the centre of the universe”.

Kalachuri Dynasty

Two branches of the Kalachuri dynasty were:

The earlier rulers were called the Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati. They ruled in Central-Indian region between the 6th-7th centuries AD.
The Later Kalachuri dynasty ruler was known as the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri that ruled between the 7th-13th centuries AD.

Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati

The Mahishmati Kalachuri rulers are known as the Haihayas.
The inscriptions also mentioned about the three important rulers of the dynasty: Krishna Raj, Shankargana, and Buddharaj.
Literary references have suggested their capital was situated at Mahishmati in the Malwa region.
Territories controlled:

The Kalachuri inscriptions mentioned that the Kalachuri dynasty ruled over the Ujjayni, Vidisha, Anandapura, and parts of Vidarbha.
The dynasty controlled Vidarbha, where they succeeded the Vakataka and the Vishnukundina dynasties.
In addition, the Kalachuris conquered northern Konkan (around Elephanta) by the mid-6th century. Here, they succeeded the Traikutaka dynasty.

Krishnaraj (c.550-575)

He is the earliest known ruler of the dynasty.
Coins: Featured Brahmi script legends, imitated the designs of earlier coins issued by the Gupta Kings. For example, coins featuring a bull are based on the coins issued by Skandagupta. These coins have described him as ‘Parama-Maheshvara’ (Devotee of Shiva).
Shankaragana’s inscription described Krishnaraja as the devotee of Pashupati (Shiva).
He commissioned, the Shaivite monuments at the Elephanta Caves and the earliest of the Brahmanical caves at Ellora.

Shankaragana (c.575-600)

He is the earliest ruler of the dynasty to be attested by his own inscriptions, which were issued from Ujjain, which is regarded as the earliest epigraphic record of the dynasty.
He adopted titles similar to the Gupta emperor Skandagupta, which suggests he conquered western Malwa (formerly under the Gupta authority).
He probably extended control over the parts of the present-day Gujarat.

Buddharaja

Shankaragana was succeeded by Buddharaja, the last known ruler of the early Kalachuri dynasty.
Chalukyan Invasion:

The first Chalukyan invasion was undertaken by king Mangalesha, somewhere around 600 CE.
However, the invasion did not result in a complete conquest, as evident by the Vidisha and Anandapura grants of Buddharaja.
During the second invasion by Mangalesha, Buddharaja lost his sovereignty.

Cultural contributions of Kalachuri Dynasty

Elephanta Caves, Mumbai

These contain Shaivite monuments, along the Konkan coast.
Historical evidences suggest Krishnaraja was associated with these monuments. For example: Silver and copper coins of Krishnaraja have been here, suggesting he was the patron of the main cave temple on the island.
Ellora Caves
The earliest of the Hindu caves at Ellora have been built during the reign of Kalachuris. For example, earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja.

About Bandhavgarh National Park and Tiger Reserve

Location: It is situated on the Eastern Satpura hill, between two other major protected areas of Madhya Pradesh, Kanha Tiger Reserve on the southern side and Sanjay National Park on the north eastern side.
The National Park was included in the Project Tiger network in 1993. The Panpatha Sanctuary was merged into the core area of Tiger Reserve, there-by increasing its core area.

Weather: According to Koppen’s Scheme, it lies in Monsoon type with Dry Winter Climate.
Historical significance: Famous Bandhavgarh fort, ancient Caves, rock paintings and carvings are found inside the Protected Area.
Fauna and Flora:
It is best known for ever-green Sal forests.
Some of the wildlife in the region, prominently figure in the IUCN red list of Endangered species: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole (Indian Wild Dog), Bengal or Indian Fox, Sloth Bear, Smooth-coated Otter, Rusty Spotted Cat, Fishing Cat, Gaur and Wild Elephant.