Indian Architecture

Call to protect historically significant structures at Thirunelli temple in Kerala

Context: The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has urged the government to protect historically significant structures such as the 600-year-old 'Vilakkumadom,' a magnificent granite edifice, at the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Kerala's Wayanad district.

Thirunelli Temple

History 

  • There is documentary evidence that Thirunelly was an important town and pilgrim centre in South India during the reign of Chera monarch Bhaskara Ravi Varma I (962-1019 CE). 
  • Historian V. R. Parameswaran Pillai states in his book 'Thirunelli Documents' that this temple was formerly an important component of Kerala's early recorded history. 
  • Architecture 
  • This 3000-year-old temple is a fine example of Kerala temple architecture. The temple is an architectural marvel with around 30 granite columns and a granite paved floor. A cloister of cubical granite pillars runs along the temple's outer wall.
  • An open courtyard surrounds the Sanctorum, which is encircled by a tile-roofed building. 
  • The holy temple pond is called Panchatheertham. The temple lacks a temple well, which is a notable characteristic. 
  • The main deity idol of the temple is in the form of Chathurbhuja.  
  • Religious Significance
  • Temple is the only temple in the world where worshippers can complete all of life's rituals, from birth to death and life after death. 
  • The ceremonies are carried out on the banks of the Papanasini stream, which flows down from Mount Brahmagiri. 
  • Lord Brahma is said to have performed Lord Vishnu's prathishta here. The cave temple Gunnika, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is located on the temple's western side. As a result, Thirunelli is blessed by the presence of all three parts of the trinity. 
  • It is also known as ''Sahyamala Kshetram'' and ''Southern Kashi''.

Distinctive Kerala style of temple architecture

Provincial variety of Dravidian style

  • The Dravidian style took a positive shape and became strengthened during the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. This style underwent gradual changes without losing its individuality. 
  • Kerala, on the west coast of South India, has a provincial variation of this style. Basic temple construction and Brahmanical religion developed in Kerala in tandem and steadily under the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram.

Local features in the Kerala temple architecture

Largely dictated by the geography of the region that abounds in forests blessed with the bounties of the monsoons, the structure of the temples in Kerala is distinctive.

Roof

  • Temple roof resembles those found in the Himalayan regions and those in East Asia. 
  • Steep and pointed roofs constructed with wood are covered with copper sheets. 
  • The shape of the roof is in accordance with the plan of the sanctum below. With a circular plan, one sees a conical roof, while with a square plan the roof is pyramidal.
  • The roof protrudes at numerous levels to shelter the interior skeletal framework from the region's violent monsoons. 

Sanctum

  • The Central sanctum of a Keralite temple is referred to as the Sree Kovil. 
  • It is surrounded by a cloistered Prakara, pierced at one or more cardinal points with a Gopuradwara. 
  • The cloistered Prakaram has a Namaskara Mandapam located directly in front of the sanctum. This Prakaram also houses subsidiary shrines. 

Mandapam

  • The Mukha Mandapam is integrated with the Gopura entrance. 
  • The flagstaff or Dwaja Stambham is located outside of the Dwajastambham.
  • The Balipitham may be located in the Mukhamandapam or in the outer courtyard.
  • The outer prakaram or courtyard houses other subshrines, and optionally a temple tank. 

Hall

  • The Kuttambalam or the theater hall of the Keralite temple is located either as a part of the inner prakara or as a separate hall outside the innermost prakaram. 
  • The Kuttambalam has a stage, raised from the rest of the floor, and a backstage area. This is the site of the performance of Kathakali or Chakkiyar koothu recitals. Thus, the kuttambalam plays a role in educating visitors on the rich legends of the Indian cultural fabric. 
  • Materials Used and Decorative elements
  • A harmonic blend of stones, woodwork, stucco work, and painting create a structure rich in regional traditions. 
  • The woodwork is quite important here, as it gives the Kerala temple silhouette its vitality and character. The temple's inner skeletal framework is made of wood, but the foundation and upper construction are made of granite and laterite, respectively. 
  • Kerala temple walls are made of coursed laterite stone masonry that has been plastered with mud and lime. 
  • Murals can be found on some of these temple walls. Another distinguishing feature of Keralite temples is the use of Vilakku Maadam (multi-tiered brass lamps) in front of temples.

About INTACH

  • The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is a non-profit charitable organisation registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
  •  It achieved Special Consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council was awarded in 2007. 

History

  • INTACH was established in 1984 in New Delhi with the goal of establishing a membership organisation to promote and lead heritage awareness and conservation in India. 
  • INTACH has been a leader in the conservation and safeguarding of India's natural and cultural heritage since 1984. 
  • In 2007, INTACH signed a memorandum of understanding with AusHeritage, Australia's well-known heritage network, to engage on regional initiatives in South Asia and South East Asia.

Restoration

  • Over the years, INTACH has taken up the restoration and conservation of hundreds of monuments that fall outside the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India and other government organisations.
  • After developing Raghurajpur, Odisha, India, as a heritage village known for its master 'Pattachitra' artists and 'Gotipua' dance troupes, it later used the same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Odisha, India, known for its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination.

Mission

  • INTACH's mission to conserve heritage, is based on the belief that living in harmony with heritage enhances the quality of life, and it is the duty of every citizen of India as laid down in the Constitution of India. 
  • The objectives spelt out in the Memorandum of Association constitute INTACH's Mandate and Vision
  • Sensitise the public about the pluralistic cultural legacy of India and instill a sense of social responsibility towards preserving India's common heritage.
  • Document unprotected buildings of archaeological, architectural, historic and aesthetic significance, as well as the cultural resources, as this is the first step towards formulating conservation plans.
  • Develop heritage policies and regulations, and make legal interventions to protect India's heritage when necessary.
  • Provide expertise in the field of conservation, restoration and preservation of specific works of art and encourage capacity-building by developing skills through training programmes.
  • Undertake emergency response measures during natural or man-made disasters and support the local administration whenever heritage is threatened.

History around the corner- An illuminated view of Khan-E-Khana (Rahim Khan’s tomb) and the Humayun’s tomb

About Rahim Khan

  • Early Life: He was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, Akbar's uncle and tutor, and after Bairam Khan was assassinated, Akbar had the child brought to him and arranged for his upbringing.
  • Career: 
  • He was one of Akbar's Navratans and also served in Jahangir's court. His political and military career began with Akbar's Gujarat campaign. 
  • Emperor Akbar nominated him as Governor of Gujarat in 1575.
  • He was a composer who created couplets about Lord Krishna since Akbar's wife, Jodha, revered Lord Krishna. 
  • Akbar bestowed the title Mirza Khan upon him. He used Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit in his poetry.
  • Over the years, his 700-odd couplets have become a significant feature of Hindi school textbooks. 
  • He was also a leading translator of his time, having translated Babur's autobiography from Turkish to Persian.
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Khane-E-Khana

  • Rahim Khan is credited with funding the creation of attractive structures like as canals, tanks, and gardens. The most impressive of his works is the tomb he made for his wife, Mah Banu, in 1598. It was the first Mughal tomb erected specifically for a woman.
  • Features: 
  • Material used: The tomb is made of red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
  • Different architectural styles: It is an arch-shaped structure and is decorated using the structure of an inverted lotus. Other styles include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern. 
  • Ornamentation: The tomb has been ornamented with diverse motifs including those seen in other mausoleums as well as those found in Hindu architecture like the peacock and Swastika. 
image 78

Humayun’s Tomb

  • Significance of Tomb: 
  • Built in 1570, it is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. 
  • The tomb has also been documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
  • The structure is considered to be an inspiration for the most well-known example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal.

Commissioning

  • Many scholars have argued that it was Haji Begam, Humayun’s widow who had commissioned this mausoleum. 
  • However, according to Akbar Nama, written by Emperor Akbar’s official biographer Abu’l Fazl, Haji Begam was on a pilgrimage to Mecca during much of the construction period of the tomb. This has been confirmed by both Abu’l Fazl and Father Monserrate, a Jesuit priest who resided in Emperor Akbar’s court during the early 1580s. The monument was built by Emperor Akbar. 
  • Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent. 
  • It was designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
  • Features: 
  • Persian Influence:

It was the first structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand, was introduced in India. Persian style is once again evident in this complex in the Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden layout based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in The Holy Quran.  

Hybrid of Persian and Indian Architectural styles

Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a distinct Indian architectural feature. This combination of Persian and Indian architectural styles works beautifully together and this makes Humayun’s Tomb a great example of a hybrid of styles of two separate cultures.

  • Four distinct octagonal units separated by four recesses make up the mausoleum, with the entrance located in the recess which is located in the centre of the southern facade. 
  • Contrast is one of the key elements: While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble. 
  • Dormitory of Mughals: A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first floor. The large corner rooms as well as the numerous cells at the plinth level are a clear indication that the structure was originally designed to accommodate several graves. Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there. 
  • Significance: For the patron of this tomb, Akbar, there were two purposes behind building this great structure, to commemorate his father’s legacy and to make a political statement. 

Cracks found on the Gateway of India but structure fine: Govt.

Context: Context: According to a recent observation, there were some cracks which were found on the Gateway of India.

About Gateway of India

  • Gateway of India is located in Mumbai’s southern coast and does not fall under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • It is a Triumphal Arch structure that showcases the Indo-Islamic architecture of Gujarat and the Indo-Saracenic style.
  • Its architect is George Wittet.
  • It was erected to commemorate the landing of King-Emperor George V, the first British monarch to visit India, in December 1911 at Strand Road near Wellington Fountain.
  • The Gateway is also the monument from where the last British troops left India in 1948.
  • It does not fall under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India. It is not a centrally protected monument. Its preservation and restoration come under the control of the Archaeological Department of the Maharashtra Government.

What is a Centrally protected monument?

  • The centrally protected monuments are sites which have been declared so under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act).
  • All archaeological sites and remains which have been declared by the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951, or by section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 to be of national importance shall also be deemed to be protected areas for the purposes of this Act. AHMAR act is different from the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 as the latter one provides preservation while the previous one recognises a site.
  • All functions related to conservation, preservation, and environmental development of centrally protected areas come under the Archaeological Survey of India.·   Any construction activity around such monuments is guided and regulated by the National Monument Authority.

The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958

Why:

  • Preservation of historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance (over 100 years old).
  • Protection of sculptures, carvings, and other similar objects.
  • Regulation of archaeological excavations.

Authorization:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) functions under this act.

Amendments in 2010:

  • It strengthens its penal provisions, to prevent encroachments and illegal construction close to the monuments – which was happening on a large scale.
  • Defines Prohibited area: 100 metres around every national monument where no construction, public or private is permitted.
  • Defines Regulated area:  200 metres beyond the prohibited area, where any construction requires the permission of a newly constituted National Monuments Authority.

New proposed amendments:

  • An Expert committee will decide on the extent of the prohibited and regulated areas around each monument and the activities permitted herein.
  • The ASI would be given enforcement powers such as in the Forest Act which would empower it to act against those encroaching at protested sites.

About the Archaeological Survey of India

  • The first systematic research into the subcontinent’s history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was founded by the British Indologist William Jones in January 1784. 
  • The most important of the society’s achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. 
  • The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor. 

Present Status:

  • The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture. Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance.
  • These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, stepwells, and rock-cut caves.
  • The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.
  • The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.

About National Monument Authority

·   National Monuments Authority (NMA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India has been set up as per provisions of The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains or AMASR Act, 1958 (amended in 2010).

Functions of NMA:

  • Protection and preservation of monuments and sites through management of the prohibited and regulated area around the centrally protected monuments.
  • To consider grant of permissions to applicants for construction-related activity in the prohibited and regulated area.
  • To categorize all the protected monuments and protected areas declared as of National importance as per AMASR act 1958.

FAQs

What is an ancient monument?

In the AMASR Act, ancient monument means any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock sculpture, inscription or monolith, which is of historical, archaeological or artistic interest provided it has been in existence for not less than one hundred years. Other inclusions are remains or the site of an ancient monument, and means of access to the monument are also termed ancient monuments.

How is a monument declared protected?

Where the Central Government is of opinion that any ancient monument is of national importance it issues a notification (preliminary) in the Official Gazette, of its intention to declare such ancient monument to be of national importance. A notification published under section 4 (3) makes the ancient monument to be of national importance for the purposes of this Act.

What is the difference between a protected area and a protected monument?

When any archaeological site and remains is declared to be of national importance it is called a protected area whereas an ancient monument when declared to be of national importance is called a protected monument. The government may acquire the protected monument under the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act, of 1894.

Protection of Indian Heritage & Artefacts

Recent investigation by the Indian Express and the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists highlights that the Archaeological Survey of India needs to be equipped with resources to protect objects within its mandate.

The Government is trying to bring the lost heritage and artefacts of the country back and therefore, has also signed agreements with the Museums in the UK, US and Australia to repatriate Indian Antiquities.

Challenges faced to bring back historical artefacts:

  1. The major challenge is to find out the background detail of the objects that have been moved out of India.
  2. There are also large gaps between what have been reported as missing and the number of objects and artefacts that are being found in the foreign museums.
  3. The Law enforcement agencies involved in the process lack the resources. For example: CAG report has brought to the light that the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has no vigilance or the monitoring cell that would deter the crimes of theft relating to antiquities.
  4. To attract the best talent/domain experts the ASI will need more autonomy from the Union Ministry of Culture.
  5. Parliamentary Standing Committee Reports on Transport, Tourism and Culture:
  6. 2005: Access to the latest technology: Archaeologists in the ASI are dependent on laboratories in the developed/first world countries for the analysis of pottery.
  7. 2021: Lack of resources in the Museums in India.

Way forward:

  1. Mirdha Committee, 1984: It recommended that the ASI needs to be given the status of a ‘scientific and technical institution’ and to be made more autonomous for better functioning.
  2. The Agencies need to be equipped with latest technologies and adequate resources. For example: Goa’s Advanced Antiquities Management System (AAMS) launched by the state’s Directorate of Archives and Archaeology.
  3. Also, there is a need to bring expertise so as to preserve the antiquities and heritage of India in an ambitious manner.

Martand Temple

Archaeological survey of India is looking towards bringing back artefacts belonging to the medieval History of Jammu and Kashmir that were lost or stolen previously. Among these includes the objects stolen from Martand Temple.

ABOUT MARTAND TEMPLE

  • It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Sun God located near Anantnag in Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (Union Territory), India.
  • According to Kalhana in Rajatarangini, Martand Sun Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD. Lalitaditya belonged to the Karkota dynasty.
  • Dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism. Surya is also known by the Sanskrit language synonym Martand.
  • The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a zeal to Islamise the society under the advice of Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad Hamadani.
  • Other Sun Temples in India: Sun Temple at Konark (Odisha), Sun Temple at Modhera (Gujarat).

Temple architecture:

  • It blended the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.
  • Primary shrine in its centre and surrounded by 84 smaller shrines.
  • Temple walls are depicted with the images of lord Vishnu and river goddess such as Ganga and Yamuna.
  • Material: Lime mortar was used with huge blocks of grey limestones.
image 13

ABOUT KARKOTA DYNASTY

  • Duration: 625 − 855 CE
  • Region: Kashmir Valley
  • Founder: Durlabhavardhana
  • Succeeded by: Utpala dynasty (Avanti Varman was the founder)
  • Patronised the both Hinduism (Vaishnavite) and Buddhism (ruins of Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara could be found).
  • Sources for the dynasty: Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Nilamata Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Chronicles of Xuanzang.
  • Coins: based on the Kushan style (image of king standing or Gods on obverse) with Sharada script. Coins were always inscribed in the name of Kidara I on the reverse. They were made using the mixed metals.
  • Lalitaditya commissioned numerous gold and silver images for temples and monasteries across faiths, and his span is considered to be the zenith of Kashmiri sculpture.

India treasure trove and Antiquities Abroad

There has been high profile official move to ensure the return of lost heritage from abroad. In October 2021, India successfully got back as many as 307 antiquities to India valued at nearly $4 million.

Definition of an antiquity:  

  • The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, define an antiquity" as "any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship, any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave; any article object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages; any article, object or thing of historical interest that "has been in existence for not less than one hundred years"
  • For manuscript, record or other document which is of scientific, historical literary or aesthetic value, the duration is not less than seventy-five years."

Related laws in India:

  • In India Item-67 of the Union List, Item- 12 of the State List, and Item-40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country's heritage.
  • Before Independence, an Antiquities (Export Control) Act was passed in 1947 to ensure that "no antiquity could be exported without license."
  • In 1958, The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was enacted (AMASR Act).
  • The government enacted The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, which was implemented from April 1, 1976.

About the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act:

  • The Antiquities And Art Treasures ACT, 1972: This Act is enacted to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art treasures, to prevent smuggling of and fraudulent dealings in antiquities.
  • Important Sections:
  • Section.3: The Act states, "it shall not be lawful for any person, other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorised by the Central Government in this behalf, to export any antiquity or art treasure.
  • Section.5: Antiquities to be sold only under a licence.
  • The Act also states ‘No person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a licence. The licence is granted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
  • Section.14: Any person who owns controls or is in possession of any antiquity shall register the same before the registering officer and should obtain a certificate.

Section.25: If any person exports or attempts to export any antiquity or art treasure is liable for punishment for a term not less than 3 months which may extend to 3 years and with fine.

Archaeological Survey of India:

The first systematic research into the subcontinent's history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was founded by the British Indologist William Jones on January 1784. The most important of the society's achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.

Present Status: The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture. Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance. These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, step-wells, and rock-cut caves. The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.  

International Convention:

  • The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the- Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defined "cultural property as the property designated by countries having "importance for archaeology, prehistory history, literature, art or science."
  • Following the UNESCO convention in 1970, guidelines have been issued globally for museums, which states that; ‘When acquiring an object, collected whether by purchase or donation or any other way, museums should exercise due diligence in verifying the object's history. If a museum is acquiring - an object, the museum must verify whether the object was lawfully obtained, lawfully exported and/ or imported’.
  • The UNESCO 1970 declaration stated that, requesting Party shall furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return. The first thing in order to prove the ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police.

Provenance of an antiquity: Provenance is the history of ownership and documentation of either purchased or acquired pieces.  An antique's provenance can add substantial value, as it can attribute ownership in the past to a famous or important historical figure.

Angkor wat Temple

India is currently working on the restoration project of 12th Century sites at the Angkor Temple in Cambodia.

About the Angkor Temple

image 4
  • Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world.
  • Literally means ‘City Temple’.
  • Dedicated to Lord Vishnu (protector in Cambodia). However previous kings of Khmer dynasty were Shaivite.
  • Patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II (Khmer empire), whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.
  • Duration: 1116-1150 C.E.
  • It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next.
  • Carvings in the temple shows eight different stories of Hindu mythology (e.g. Amrit Manthan).
  • Material used: Grey sandstone.
  • Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site.

About the Khmer Dynasty:

image 5
  • Also known as Angkorian Empire or Khambuja.
  • Duration: 802-1431 CE
  • Founder: King Jayavarman II
  • Angkor was their capital city.
  • Important contribution: Angkor Wat, Angkor City and Bayon Buddhist temples.