Context: The Shirui Lily Festival commenced in Shirui Village, Ukhrul district, Manipur after a two-years pause due to the long-drawn ethnic conflict in the state.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shirui Lily Festival.
About Shirui Lily Festival
Annual cultural state festival of Manipur organised by the Manipur Tourism Department.
Initially, the festival was celebrated by the locals of Shirui village to pay tribute to the state flower Shirui Lily. Since 2017, it has been declared as a state festival by the state government of Manipur.
It is designed as an eco-tourism festival to raise awareness about the Shirui Lily and to promote tourism to the hills of Ukhrul.
The festival includes cultural performances, music concerts, beauty pageant, trash collection marathon etc.
Shirui Lily
The Shirui Lily is a rare endemic species found only on the upper reaches of the Shirui Hill range in Manipur.
IUCN status: Endangered.
Threats: Changing climatic conditions, human encroachment and exploitation of natural resources, habitat invasion by the dense root system of a wild dwarf bamboo species.
Context: According to a recent study, humans have mapped only 0.001% of the deep ocean since the 1950s. Most of the ocean floor remains unimaged.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts related to Deep Sea; Deep Sea Mission.
What is the Deep Sea?
Deep sea is broadly defined as the ocean depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m or more below the sea level.
Two-thirds of the earth’s surface consists of the deep ocean. It is thus the world’s largest as well as least explored ecosystem.
The latest study shows:
Evident geographic disparities in deep-sea exploration. Almost 65% of sightings are from waters around three countries- the U.S., Japan, and New Zealand's coastlines.
Overrepresentation of oceanic features like canyons and escarpments in observations, whereas abyssal plains, which dominate the seafloor, are under-represented.
Hence, our perception of the deep sea is based on this limited data. This emphasises the necessity for broader global engagement in deep sea exploration and research.
Significance of expanded Deep-Sea Research:
Build evidence-based policies for ocean protection: The deep ocean stabilises our climate and ecosystems. With growing threats such as deep sea mining and warming, deep-sea research will bridge the gap in knowledge of oceanic processes associated with climate.
Mapping unexplored species: Deep sea hosts enormous marine biodiversity. It might host species in unexplored areas with medicinal potential, and also aid the conservation efforts of species.
Resource Potential: Deep sea is a storehouse of untapped natural resources including: Minerals and gas hydrates (poly-metallic nodules, gas hydrates and rare earth elements); Oil and natural gas.
Strategic importance: Deep-sea infrastructure like undersea cables facilitate over 95% of global internet traffic, and must be safeguarded from potential threats, especially as countries like China advance their deep-sea military capability. Deep-sea research and development is crucial for asserting rights within India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under UNCLOS.
In a bid to explore those vast regions beneath the surface of the ocean, India is preparing for a deep-sea mission- Samudrayaan, expected to be launched by the end of 2026.India will send its scientists 6000 metres beneath the ocean surface in a submersible named Matsya (a 25-tonne titanium-hulled vehicle) to collect biological and geological samples, conduct environmental observations, and explore mineral resources critical to future technologies.
Context: Despite a 15% Suez Canal transit fee discount and the US-Houthi ceasefire, shipping lines remain cautious about returning to the Suez Canal Route. Instead, the ships are taking the longer Cape of Good Hope route.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Suez Canal; Cape of Good Hope.
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
Built by French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, and completed in 1869 but opened for navigation in 1879. The Canal was nationalised by Egypt in 1956.
Length: 193 km
It enables direct shipping between Europe and Asia without circumnavigating Africa.
It links Europe with the Indian Ocean via the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea by cutting the travel distance by approximately 7,000 km.
Handles about 12-15% of global trade, including a significant portion of oil and gas shipments.
Recent Developments
Because of the Houthi attacks starting in late 2023, many global shipping companies began avoiding the Red Sea and Suez Canal, rerouting their ships around the Cape of Good Hope, a much longer route.
As a result, Suez Canal revenues plunged from $10.3 billion in 2023 to $4 billion in 2024, and global shipping costs soared. To revive the traffic, Egypt’s Suez Canal Authority (SCA) has offered a 15% fee discount on transit fee to cargo ships of minimum 130,000 mt capacity.
Despite the ceasefire and discounts, most shippers stay on the longer Africa route. As the vessels go around Africa, it is leading to higher shipping costs, extended voyage durations by 10-14 days, higher fuel burn, and eventually higher freight rates.
Context: The Registrar General of India (RGI) has recently released the Sample Registration System (SRS) Report for 2021. Among other data, the report provides insights about the key trends of Total Fertility Rate in India.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends about Total Fertility Rate in India.
What is Total Fertility Rate?
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of a population is the average number of children that are born to a woman over her lifetime if:
They were to experience the exact current age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) through their lifetime.
They were to live from birth until the end of their reproductive life.
Replacement level fertility is the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next. It is considered to be 2.1 children per woman.
If the TFR of a population goes down below 2.1- it indicates that a generation is not producing enough children to replace itself. Thus, indicative of reduction in population in general and depletion of working age population in particular.
Major Highlights of the SRS Report:
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in India has remained constant at 2.0 in 2021, same as the year 2020.
India has witnessed a steadily declining TFR from 6.18 in 1950 to 4.60 in 1980 to 2.0 in 2021.
Bihar has reported the highest TFR at 3.0, while Delhi and West Bengal reported the lowest TFR of 1.4.
Gradual decline in the share of population in the age group of 0-14 from 41.2% in 1971 to 24.8% in 2021.
The proportion of the economically active population between 15-59 years has increased from 53.4% to 66.2% during the same period (1971-2021).
Elderly population has gone up to 5.9% for the 65+ age group and to 9% for the 60+ age group during the same period (1971-2021). Kerala recorded the highest percentage of population in the age group of 60.
Mean age at effective marriage for females has increased from 19.3 years in 1990 to 22.5 years in 2021.
Key Facts:
As the Census is usually counted every 10 years, the Sample Registration System (SRS) Report is the largest demographic survey in the country mandated to provide annual estimates of fertility and mortality indicators at the State and national level.
Context: Following the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty, India has commenced reservoir flushing and maintenance work at the Baglihar and Salal hydroelectric projects on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.
These operations aim to boost reservoir holding capacity and improve power generation efficiency. This has resulted in reduction of downstream water flow to Pakistan by nearly 90%.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Indus river system and its tributaries; River Valley Projects on Indus river system.
Indus River System
Nature: Antecedent
Source: near Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
Flow direction: First north-west in India, and then sharp bend towards south-west into Pakistan.
Important locations: Enters India near Damchok Forms deep gorge by cutting Ladakh range at Bunzi, north of Nanga Parbat. Enters Pakistan near Chillas.
Tributaries of Indus River
Panjnad refers to five rivers of Punjab which are tributaries of the Indus – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. Jhelum and Ravi join Chenab, Beas joins Sutlej, and then Sutlej and Chenab join to form Panjnad.
Jhelum
Origin from Sheshnag lake near Verinag (SE Kashmir).
Flows through Wular lake.
Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
Chenab
Formed by the confluence of two rivers- Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
Largest tributary of Indus river.
Ravi
It originates from Rohtang pass in Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. Flows between the Dhauladhar and Pirpanjal ranges.
Beas
It originates from Beas kund near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh. Joins Satluj within India at a place called Harike in Punjab.
Satluj
It originates in the ‘Rakshas tal’ near Mansarovar in Tibet, where it is known as Langchen Khambab.
Antecedent river which cuts through the Himalayas at Shipki La and enters India. Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
River Valley Projects on Indus System
Bhakra Nangal project
On river Satluj India’s largest multipurpose project Reservoir–Gobind Sagar
Naptha Jhakri project
On Satluj in Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Project
Also known as Rajasthan canal. Drawn out from Harike barrage. Goes up to Jaisalmer and Barmer.
Pong project
On Beas Reservoir- Maharana Pratap Sagar
Pandoh project
On Beas
Chamera project
On Ravi in Himachal Pradesh
Thein project
On Ravi in Punjab
Salal project
On Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Baglihar project
On Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Dulhasti project
On Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Tulbul project
On Jhelum in Jammu & Kashmir Dam is built on Wular lake Also known as Wular barrage.
Context: Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project in Telangana is under scrutiny due to structural failures and design flaws, raising concerns over dam safety, governance, and financial viability.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project.
Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project
World’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation project.
Built on: Godavari River in Telangana.
Purpose: To ensure irrigation, drinking water, and industrial water supply to drought-prone and water-scarce areas of Telangana by lifting water from the Godavari River and distributing it across districts.
Lift irrigation: Unlike traditional gravity-based irrigation systems, water does not rely on gravity to flow in canals from higher ground to lower; rather pumps or surge pools are used to lift water to a higher elevation, from where it is distributed to fields via a canal system.
The project sprawls over approximately 500 km in 13 districts, with a canal network of 1800 km. The project started in 2019.
As per the project master plan, of the 240 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water- 169 TMC (>70%, is meant for irrigation); 30 TMC is for Hyderabad municipal area; 16 TMC for miscellaneous industrial uses, and 10 TMC to provide drinking water to nearby villages.
The vast bulk of this water (195 TMC) will come from the Medigadda Barrage. 20 TMC will from Sripada Yellampalli project, and another 25 TMC will be groundwater.
Crisis at Medigadda Barrage
In 2023, a pillar at the Medigadda Barrage sank which led to partial submergence and flooding. The National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) visited the site for a technical assessment.
Subsequently, the state government requested a thorough inspection of all three barrages: Medigadda, Annaram, and Sundilla.
NDSA Findings
NDSA had found a lack of proper geo-technical investigations, design deficiencies, construction defects, failure of modelling studies, structural distress, absence of robust quality control, operation and maintenance failures and dam safety aspects ignored.
NDSA Recommendations
NDSA has recommended a full suite of actions from structural rehabilitation to strengthening of the barrages.
Rehabilitation of the design, and a comprehensive assessment of health and safety of the entire barrage.
Immediate stabilisation measures to arrest the ongoing distress.
Comprehensive geotechnical studies and advanced geophysical assessments to establish a reliable baseline of the ground conditions and structures for future interventions.
Hydraulic design aided by appropriate hydraulic model studies and structural design through appropriate mathematical modelling software.
Context: Servitors of the Jagannath Temple in Puri have warned members of their community against participating in any rituals that are held at the Digh temple, West Bengal, a new replica of the 12th century shrine.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Digha Temple; Lord Jagannath Temple.
Digha Temple, West Bengal
Recentlyconsecrated in April 2025.
Location: Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal, about 350 km from Puri, Odisha.
Dedicated to: Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, Goddess Subhadra and Goddess Mahalaxmi.
The 213 foot high temple is a replica of the world famous Puri Temple.
Built insandstone in the Kalingan architectural style.
Non-Hindus and foreigners would be allowed to enter the Digha shrine – a break from the centuries-old practice of allowing only Hindus in Puri.
Controversy associated with Digha Temple:
Use of the word ‘Dham’ (seat) and a picture of the Nilachakra (metal wheel atop the Puri Temple) for the Digha temple have been questioned. There are only four dham in Hinduism – Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri and Rameswaram.
Stone Idols: The idols at the Digha temple are made of stone, which cannot be the case with Lord Jagannath. Lord Jagannath is Daru (wood) Brahma, and he is never made of stone. The idols in Puri are made of neem wood.
Replica of Puri Temple: Performing the same rituals in Digha – and at other Jagannath temples in the country – would dilute the significance of the Puri Temple. The temple could emerge as a competitor to Puri for Bengali tourists and devotees.
About Jagannath temple
Ancient Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu.
The present temple was rebuilt by the king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE.
Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India).
Deities worshipped: Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra
The idol of Lord Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture. The temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
Ratha Yatra or chariot festival is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India. During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.
Context:Veerashaiva-Lingayats are demanding a separate religion code for the community in the upcoming National Census that will likely commence in 2026.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Veerashaiva-Lingayats.
Basava & Lingayats
Basava, a 12th century philosopher and social reformer, was the founder of the Shaivite sect called Lingayats. He was the Prime Minister during the reign of Kalachuri dynasty King Bijjala (I) of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 12th century Karnataka.
Veerashaivas are a sub-sect of Lingayats and ardent followers of Lord Shiva. They preceded Basavanna, the founder of Lingayatism. Veerashaivism has its roots in the Vedas and Agamas, and they only worship Lord Shiva.
Basava advocated equality of all human beings, irrespective of caste and that all forms of manual labour are equally important.
He rejected temple worship and rituals led by Brahmins and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga (known as Ishtalinga).
His poetry was known as Vachanaas and primarily focused on socio-cultural reforms. He rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions, and rituals.
Key concepts in Lingayatism
Anubhav Mantapa: Considered to be the first parliament in the history of mankind. Proceedings of Anubhav Mantapa are recorded in the form of Vachana Literature.
Kaayaka (Manual labour): Working for survival with a divine mindset which is mandatory to every individual. Without Kaayaka nobody has the right to live.
Daasooha (Charity): Part of the earnings from Kaayaka must be spent on the welfare of the poor called Dasooha. It is a voluntary contribution from one’s own earned wealth.
Sharanas: Sharanas are common followers of Lingayat beliefs.
Political and Social Background: Veerashaiva-Lingayats
The Veerashaiva Mahasabha in 1940 had passed a resolution seeking a separate religion tag for Veerashaiva-Lingayats and petitioned the then British government.
Ahead of the 2011 census too, the Veerashaiva Mahasabha had petitioned the Centre seeking the religion code. But after being denied the same, the community members, through a “jana jagruthi jatha” were asked to write “Veerashaiva-Lingayat” in the column meant for “others” instead of identifying as Hindus.
In 2011, separate codes were assigned to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism. There was a separate column for “other religions and persuasions”.
Veerashaiva-Lingayats are the dominant land-owning community in north and central Karnataka, and seen as politically powerful too. They are a part of backward classes Category in the current OBC classification in the state.
Their population in Karnataka is about 66.3 lakh or about 11% of the State population. Veerashaiva-Lingayat community is also spread across in neighbouring Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
Context: For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of Natural Hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Hydrogen as a fuel: advantages; resource distribution; technologies for extraction and harvesting Hydrogen.
Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe.
On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. It must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Natural hydrogen also occurs as a free gas in geology, produced by processes such as serpentinisation (the interaction of water and iron-containing rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive rocks, and from organic matter at depth.
Hydrogen Fuel: Presently, Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural Hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well.
How is Hydrogen Extracted?
Currently, the majority of hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas through an energy-intensive and polluting process.
Green hydrogen can be made using renewable electricity, however, is still prohibitively expensive and would require vast amounts of wind and solar power to work out at scale.
Hydrogen Reserves:
The presence of Hydrogen in coal mines points towards generation from underlying organic matter.
Active mountain ranges with tectonic activity, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas, are being considered as areas for geological hydrogen production.
The fact that Helium co-exists with Hydrogen in a few reserves points towards some geological processes, such as radiolysis, playing a role in its generation.
Hydrogen Reserves in the World:
Hundreds of hydrogen seeps have been catalogued globally in various countries, including Australia (Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island), the US (Kansas, Nebraska), Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada.
An estimated tens of trillions metric tonnes of Hydrogen may be available in geologic stores. If even just 2% of these reserves are commercially exploitable, they would provide about twice as much energy as all the earth’s provable natural gas reserves —enough to meet projected hydrogen demand (500 million tonnes per year) for around two hundred years.
Hydrogen Reserves in India
India’s Hydrogen demand is projected to grow from six million tonnes per year (Mt/year) in 2020 to over 50 Mt/year by 2070 to support its net-zero target. The natural hydrogen reserves are likely present in favourable geological structures like:
Hard rock formations of diverse ultramafic/mafic and basaltic assemblages
Andaman and Himalayan ophiolite complexes
Greenstone volcanic-sedimentary sequences in cratons (Dharwar, Singhbhum)
Sedimentary basis (for example, in Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana and Chhattisgarh), basement rocks with fractures
Areas where active hydrothermal systems as represented by hot springs exist.
Challenges in Exploration and Excavation of Natural Hydrogen:
Natural Hydrogen exploitation and exploration is not easy. It has technical, logistical, economical, and safety-related challenges.
Accurately locating and quantifying underground hydrogen reserves is the primary challenge. Unlike oil and gas, for which well-established exploration techniques exist, natural hydrogen exploration is still evolving.
Development of efficient and cost-effective extraction technology for natural hydrogen. While modifying current gas industry practices associated with well drilling and extraction facilities, one must consider hydrogen’s specific properties, including its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
Hydrogen extraction also involves specific safety issues as opposed to hydrocarbons because of its high diffusivity and reactivity.
Approaches under-development for Hydrogen Excavation:
Production of hydrogen by drilling and flowing water into rock and then transporting the hydrogen to the surface for collection.
Injecting water with dissolved carbon dioxide into iron-containing rocks that could potentially lead to carbon sequestration as limestone, while simultaneously producing hydrogen.
A comprehensive geological study is essential in India, considering critical factors such as the quality, extent, thickness, accessibility, and hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock; size and viability of hydrocarbon accumulations; potential losses during migration; and the accessibility of the area for exploration and development.
Context: The state government of Maharashtra has reclaimed the famous "Raghuji Sword" of the 18th century Maratha general Raghuji BhonsleI for Rs 47.15 lakh at an auction in London, United Kingdom.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Raghuji Bhonsle.
About Raghuji Bhonsle I
Raghuji Bhonsle I (reign 1739–1755) was a distinguished Maratha general under Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.
He was the founder of the Nagpur-based Bhosale dynasty, which became a significant power center within the Maratha Confederacy.
He led pivotal military campaigns in Bengal in 1745 and 1755, greatly expanding the Maratha Empire’s territory into Bengal and Odisha.
His influence also extended to regions in Central India such as Chanda, Chhattisgarh and Sambalpur.
His successful campaigns in South India resulted in the defeat of the Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah, and further solidified Maratha dominance in the region.
He was honoured with the title ‘Senasaheb Subha’ by Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, impressed by his bravery and military acumen.
Raghuji Sword
The sword bears an inscription in Devanagari script on its spine, suggesting that it was made for Raghuji Bhonsle I.
The sword exemplifies the ‘European’ style of Maratha weaponry — characterised by a straight, single-edged European blade paired with a locally crafted Mulheri hilt, beautifully adorned with intricate gold inlay.
The European-made blade reflects the active global arms trade in 18th-century India, emphasising the intersection of Indian and European craftsmanship.
Note:
Nagpur Bhosales ruled over a mineral-rich region abundant in iron and copper, which were skilfully used to craft both everyday items and formidable weapons. The quality and artistry of the weaponry crafted by the Bhosales are renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship.
Following the 1817 Battle of Sitabuldi, where the East India Company defeated the Nagpur Bhosales, the British looted the Bhosale treasury, seizing priceless treasures, ornaments and weapons.
The artifact will be brought back to India shortly, where it is expected to be displayed in a museum or heritage institution.
Context: India's urban governance needs urgent reform to effectively implement SDG-11, i.e., to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Limitations in current urban governance and planning frameworks.
Urbanisation: Double-edged sword
India is undergoing an unprecedented urban transformation, with more than 30% of its population residing in cities.
However, Urbanisation is a double-edged sword. While it brings economic opportunities and development, it also exacerbates environmental degradation, congestion, pollution, and social inequalities.
E.g., the recent crisis in cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad indicate, water shortages, power deficits, and extreme heat are no longer seasonal anomalies but signs of systemic fragility.
The 2023 Annual Survey of Indian City Systems by Janaagraha revealed that only 16 cities had a city sustainability plan, and just 17 had a resilience strategy. This highlights the foundational work still required to align urban governance with SDG-11.
The 2025 report by the Sustainable Futures Collective titled- ‘Is India Ready for a Warming World?’ notes serious gaps in long-term urban climate planning.
Limitations in Existing Indices
Inadequate SDG-11 Tracking: NITI Aayog’s SDG Urban Index ranks 56 cities on 77 indicators. But its SDG-11 component is limited to four indicators: Swachh Survekshan, road deaths, PMAY-U housing, and waste treatment. It excludes critical aspects like climate resilience, social inclusivity, and urban safety.
Fragmented Assessment Tools: Ease of Living Index covers 111 cities but lacks a dedicated SDG-11 framework. International indices (e.g., Mercer, Economist) often fail to capture localised Indian realities.
Policy-Research Gap: The absence of city-specific data and disaggregated indicators inhibits targeted policymaking and the identification of urban stress zones.
The absence of a focused SDG-11 index hinders policymakers from identifying genuinely safe, sustainable, and inclusive cities, creating a policy-research gap. To bridge this gap, a new research initiative was undertaken.
The New Research Initiative
The research initiative constructed four separate indices aligned with the pillars of SDG-11: safety, inclusivity, sustainability, and resilience.
Ten major Indian cities: Hyderabad, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, and Surat were ranked across selected indicators.
These included 9 indicators for safety, 19 for inclusivity, and 15 for sustainability and resilience each.
Data sources included Census 2011, the Road Transport Yearbook, Indian Forest Survey, NCRB, PLFS, NFHS-5, RBI statistics, IMD Climatological Tables, and Ola Mobility Institute's 2022 Ease of Moving Index.
A multi-criteria decision-making model, the Shannon Entropy Weighting Technique, was used to ensure objectivity in assigning weights to the indicators.
Key Findings from the Study
Many cities regarded as front-runners by NITI Aayog performed poorly in this assessment, exposing the shortcomings of existing indices. For instance, disparities in the inclusivity index underscored uneven access to economic and social opportunities.
Safety rankings highlighted differences in law enforcement efficacy and crime prevention.
Sustainability scores revealed gaps in pollution control and waste management, while resilience rankings exposed weaknesses in disaster preparedness and recovery planning.
Way Forward
Cities must establish better mechanisms for tracking SDG-11 at the urban local body (ULB) level. While some States and Union Territories have adopted district-level monitoring frameworks, urban local bodies must follow suit.
Integrated Command and Control Centres, developed under the Smart Cities Mission, should be leveraged to collect real-time data and enhance urban planning and development processes.
As almost one-third of urban residents are poor, addressing their needs is critical. India still relies on Census 2011 data, leading to severe underestimation of urban poverty. A periodic Urban Poor Quality of Living Survey at the State level is necessary to bridge this gap.
Each city (small and large) faces unique challenges, requiring localised governance, better planning, and city-specific strategies.
Addressing these differences through data-backed, city-specific policies is crucial for a more equitable urban future.
Context: India has strategically advanced its maritime interests by submitting a revised claim to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), seeking recognition for an additional 10,000 square kilometers of seabed in the Central Arabian Sea.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Extended Continental Shelf; Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf; Location of Sir Creek.
Continental shelf is a natural seaward extension of a land boundary. Coastal countries have an EEZ (exclusive economic zone) which gives exclusive mining and fishing rights, up to 200 nautical miles from their coastlines.
Extended Continental Shelf:
States can make claims for more area in the ocean in the UN body Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), if they can scientifically establish that this claimed area extends unbroken from their landmass all the way till the sea bed.
If proved, all of this oceanic area is considered part of a country’s extended continental shelf. This gives them rights to commercially mine for valuable minerals, polymetallic nodules and oil reserves.
India’s extended Maritime Claims
India has increased its claim in the Central Arabian Sea, as part of its ‘extended continental shelf’ by nearly 10,000 square km.
India has also modified an earlier claim to avoid a long-standing dispute with Pakistan over the maritime boundary between the two countries.
With the anticipated addition of approximately 1.2 million square km of extended continental shelf from the two submissions to the ~2 million sq. km of EEZ, India’s seabed and sub-seabed area would become almost equal to its land area of 3.274 million sq. km.
India’s Maritime Disputes
1. With Pakistan:
Sir Creek dispute: Sir Creek area is a 96-kilometer tidal estuary in the Indus River Delta. It serves as a boundary between India's Gujarat state and Pakistan's Sindh province. It is located near the marshy regions adjoining the Rann of Kutch.
2021: Pakistan objected to portions of India’s claimed territory in the Western offshore regions on the grounds that nearly 100 nautical miles overlapped with a maritime border that was under the Sir Creek dispute.
2023: CLCS rejected the entirety of India’s claim in the Arabian Sea region. However, the Commission gives leeway to countries to submit ‘modified claims.’
2025: India has split its original claim (in the Western Arabian Sea) into two ‘partial ones.’ This was done to ensure that India’s claim in the Central Arabian Sea region is not affected.
2. With Oman:
Some parts of India’s continental shelf claims in the Arabian Sea overlap with that of Oman.
However, the two countries have an agreement in place since 2010 that while the continental shelf between them is yet to be delimited, it is ‘not under dispute.’
3. On the Eastern and Southern coast:
India has claimed about 300,000 square km in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean though these have faced contests by Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
The CLCS is expected to begin a new session of consultations later this year.
