Context: The recent film Kesari Chapter 2: The Untold Story of Jallianwala Bagh is based on Sir C. Sankaran Nair.
Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About C Sankaran Nair and his key Contributions.
About C. Sankaran Nair
Born in the year 1857 in Malabar, Kerala.
He was a liberal constitutionalist, social reformer, and a fierce critic of both British imperialism and reactionary elements within Indian society.
He was a staunch advocate of universal liberty and equality.
He was a brilliant jurist, being appointed as Advocate General of the Madras Presidency and later a judge of the Madras High Court.
Author of book “Gandhi and Anarchy” (1922)- a critique of Gandhi’s political methods, especially non-cooperation and Khilafat movement. Despite his disagreements with Gandhi, Nair acknowledged his global stature.
Nair firmly believed in constitutional methods and rejected political fanaticism. This conviction led him to oppose Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement as well as the Khilafat agitation.
Critic of extreme nationalism, religious mobilisations, and political fanaticism.
Key Achievements:
He was the first Malayali and the only Keralite to preside over the Indian National Congress (Amaravati Session, 1897).
Nair was among the first Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, overseeing portfolios like education and health.
He was a member of London’s National Liberal Club.
Key Contributions:
Vision of Secular India:
At the 1897 Amravati Congress, Nair advanced a vision of secular India, advocating education for lower castes, upliftment of women, and the dismantling of caste-based barriers.
He opposed the creation of sectarian institutions like Banaras Hindu University, fearing they would breed communalism.
Resignation over Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: He resigned from Viceroy Executive Council in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Champion of Social Reforms:
He campaigned for the abolition of caste, equality of women, and reform of the matrilineal system among the Nairs of Kerala.
He was associated with the Social Reform Conference and believed political freedom was meaningless without social emancipation.
He resisted the Village Cess Bill in the Madras Legislative Council, which threatened traditional self-governing village systems.
Protector of Free Speech and Education:
As a Viceroy’s Council member, he refused to allow a church prayer supporting Allied victory during WWI, stating : “Christ does not take sides in war.”
He advocated English education as a means of women’s empowerment, political awakening, and rational public discourse.He envisioned an India where reason triumphed over dogma.
Political Realism: For Nair, India was not a romantic ideal but a land bound by social evils. He remarked: “India was a land of millions- ignorant, illiterate, half-starved, superstitious, and shackled by caste.” He did not glorify a mystical past, unlike many contemporaries. Instead, he offered a rational, reformist blueprint for a modern India.
Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects.
Hydrology of Brahmaputra River
Brahmaputra originatesas Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang).
Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region.
The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna.
Left/ South bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
Right/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
Dihang
Kameng
Dibang
Manas
Lohit
Subansari
Noa Dehing
Dhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing
Sankosh
Kopilli
Ronganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong
Hydro-statistics and Regional data
Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second.
During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second.
These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.
As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference.
Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China
Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region.
This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.
China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra
Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.
Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.
As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.
India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:
Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.
The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.
Environmental Risks:
Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes.
Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.
Key Facts:
Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually.
The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.
India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.
Context: Recently,Mount Etna, the largest volcano in Europe erupted.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mount Etna and cause behind its eruption.
About Mount Etna:
Location: Mount Etna is located on the east coast of Sicily. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated just off the toe of the Italian “boot” (Southern Italy).
Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe.
It is an active Stratovolcano.
Mount Etna has the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps.
Etna has been a World Heritage Site since 2013.
It is known for frequent eruptions. Since 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and many more summit eruptions have happened.
Etna’s summit has five craters, which are responsible for most of the volcano’s eruptions.
What caused the massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna?
Experts suggest that the eruption began with an increase in pressure inside the volcano due to expanding gases, which led to the collapse of the southeast crater, resulting in hot lava flows.
What kind of eruption did it have?
Scientists typically classify eruptions based on how explosive they are.
According to Italy’s National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) Etna Observatory, the volcano was witnessing a “Strombolian” eruption.
Strombolian eruption:
This type of eruption is usually characterised as discreet moderately explosive bursts which can eject chunks of rock and cinders that can travel hundreds of metres into the air. It occurs due to the presence of gas in the magma chamber within the volcano.
The Strombolian eruption is named after another Italian volcano called Stromboli, which produces minor eruptions every 10 to 20 minutes.
However, some volcanologists believe that Mount Etna did not experience a Strombolian eruption but rather a Plinian eruption, in which hot gas, ash, and rock can explode high enough to reach the stratosphere.
Context: The Nalanda University was established under the Nalanda University Act 2010, by the Ministry of External Affairs. The new campus of Nalanda University was inaugurated in 2024 and is located close to the ruins of the ancient university in Bihar’s Rajgir town. The University now has over 1200 students.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nalanda University.
About Nalanda Mahavihara:
Introduction:
Nalanda Mahavihara, the 5th-12th Century AD (in ancient and medieval Magadha) university is considered to be one of the greatest centres of learning in ancient India.
The ruins of ancient Nalanda University in Bihar was declared as the World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
The details of the university can be found in the writings of the famous Chinese traveller Huang Tsang. According to him, there were 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at Nalanda at that time.
Foundation of the Mahavihara:
Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire period (3rd–6th century CE), and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
The numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda suggests that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of Nalanda.
Kumaragupta’s successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.
It was also patronized by King Harshavardhana of Kannauj (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8th-12th century CE).
After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.
Curriculum and associated scholars:
The curriculum at Nalanda was a skill full of secular and religious knowledge, of the theoretical and the practical.
Curriculum of Nalanda included major Buddhist philosophies like Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya
The curriculum also included other subjects like the Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine and even metal casting technique.
The mahavihara had a renowned library that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like Huang Tsang.
Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, the Bodhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva and the Mahavairocana Tantra.
One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
Part of Nalanda’s mission was to bring Buddhism to the world.
Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or Upajjhaya (Upadhaya).
Famous scholars associated with the Mahavihara: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga.
In the 1190s, the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to extinguish the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern and eastern India.
Context: Recently, a Neolithic habitation site with evidence of early metallurgy has been unearthed in Assam.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Neolithic site Daojali Hading.
Daojali Hading: Neolithic Site in Assam
Archaeological findings at Daojali Hading have confirmed it as a major Neolithic site dating back over 2700 years.
Location: It is situated in the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest, Dima Hasao district, Assam.
The site was uncovered during the construction of the Lumding-Haflong Road in the 1960s, leading to systematic excavations. These investigations have revealed polished double shouldered celts, cordmarked pottery, mortars and pestles, besides jadeite stone.
The discovery of a furnace and iron slag indicate metallurgical activities. This has provided substantial support for earlier hypotheses that Daojali Hading was a major prehistoric settlement in the northeastern part of India.
The unearthed artefacts linked the site with the broader Eastern and Southeastern Asian Neolithic cultural complex.
Context: May 31st marks the birth anniversary of the 18th century Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar who was a great administrator and visionary. In all her dealings with her subjects, Ahilya Bai was guided by her innate generosity and principles.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ahilya Bai Holkar.
About Ahilyabai Holkar
Born in 1725, she was the Rani of Indore (Holkar dynasty) within the Maratha Confederacy.
She established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty, south of Indore on the Narmada River.
After the demise of her husband (Khande Rao) she was trained in military affairs by Malhar Rao Holkar.
She came to power after the passing of her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.
Contributions in Culture:
Ahilyabai funded the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi (1780) which had been destroyed in the past and subsequently converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb in 1669.
The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country. Renovations in Somnath, Varanasi, Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites were undertaken during her reign.
The Maheshwari Sari are also part of the queen’s legacy. She not only promoted the traditional weave but also paved the way for skilling women, thus empowering them. The production of these saris was not only a way to increase the revenue collection of the state, but provided a steady source of income to the weavers. Under her encouragement, the production of Maheswari saris gained momentum and popularity.
About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:
The Holkars were Subedar (one of the designations of a governor of a Subah/province) under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
When the Maratha Empire began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar.
In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (his daughter-in-law).
Context: India Meteorological Department (IMD) has declared the monsoon onset over Kerala on May 24, 2025, eight days ahead of its normal date schedule of June 1. The onset of monsoon marks the beginning of the four-month (June-September) southwest monsoon season over India, which brings over 70% of the country’s annual rainfall.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Key facts about Indian monsoon- southwest monsoon season over India.
What factors contributed to the early onset of Monsoon?
Multiple, large-scale atmosphere-oceanic and local factors developed and favoured the early monsoon onset this year. The monsoon arrived over the south Andaman Sea and neighbourhood areas on May 13, against a normal of May 21.
The IMD termed the onset took place under very favourable conditions, including:
1. The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): It is one of the most important and complex ocean-atmospheric phenomena influencing Indian monsoons with origins in the Indian Ocean. A key feature is that a disturbance of clouds, wind and pressure moves eastward at a speed of 4-8 metres per second. Within 30 to 60 days, MJO winds can travel around the world and cause significant weather changes during their movement. In a favourable phase, it can enhance rainfall over India during the monsoon season.
2. Mascarene High: Mascarene High is a high-pressure area found around the Mascarene Islands (in the south Indian Ocean) during the monsoon period. The variation in the intensity of high pressure is responsible for heavy rains along India’s west coast.
3. Convection: An increase in the convective activity, i.e., the vertical transport of heat and moisture in the atmosphere also brings rainfall. E.g., a convective system over Haryana moved south-eastward and led to rains in the Delhi region (in mid May).
4. Somali Jet: It is a low-level, inter-hemispheric cross-equatorial wind band originating near Mauritius and north Madagascar. During May, after crossing the east coast of Africa, it reaches the Arabian Sea and the west coast of India. A strong Somali jet is associated with the strengthening of monsoon winds.
5. Heat-low: Following the movement of the Sun to the northern hemisphere, marking the summer season, a low-pressure area develops in the Arabian Sea. The development of a heat-low pressure zone over Pakistan and adjoining areas acted as a suction device for moist air along the monsoon trough, and its strong presence influences good monsoon rainfall.
6. Monsoon trough: It is an elongated low-pressure area extending from the heat low to the north Bay of Bengal. The north-south swinging of this trough causes rainfall during the June–September period across the core monsoon zone. Pressure gradient and monsoon onset vortex, a cyclonic formation in the Arabian Sea, also play a role in good monsoon.
7. Neutral El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions were observed during the period, which typically support a normal or stronger monsoon, unlike El Niño years that often suppress rainfall over India.
What is the onset of Monsoon?
The monsoon season in India typically lasts from June to September, although its timing and intensity can vary across different regions.
Pre-monsoon period (March to May): During this time, temperatures rise across the country due to the increasing solar radiation. As summer approaches, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the surrounding oceans, causing a low-pressure area to develop over the region.
Arrival of the southwest monsoon (end of May to mid-June): The southwest monsoon is responsible for the majority of the rainfall in India. It begins with the onset of the monsoon over the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean are drawn towards the low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, creating a monsoon trough.
Factors affecting onset of monsoon:
Intense heating of the Indian landmass and formation of intense low pressure.
Deflection of SE trades after crossing the equator towards Indian west coast.
Advancement of the monsoon (June to July): The monsoon winds gradually advance across the country, starting from the southernmost state of Kerala and progressing northwards. This northward progression is known as the “monsoon onset line” and is closely monitored by meteorological departments.
Onset over different regions: The onset of the monsoon occurs at different times across various regions of India. The western coast and northeastern states receive the monsoon rains first, followed by the central and northern parts of the country. The Himalayan region experiences the monsoon last.
Monsoon progression and rainfall: Once the monsoon sets in, it brings heavy rainfall to different parts of India. The amount and distribution of rainfall vary from region to region. The western coast and north eastern states generally receive more rainfall compared to the arid regions in the northwest.
How does IMD declares that monsoon has arrived in India?
Following are the guidelines to be followed:
Rainfall
If after 10th May, 60% of the available 14 stations report rainfall of 2.5 mm or more for two consecutive days, the onset over Kerala be declared on the 2nd day.
Low outgoing longwave radiation
INSAT derived OLR value should be below 200 wm-2 in the box confined by Lat. 5-10ºN and Long. 70-75ºE.
Wind field
Depth of westerlies should be maintained upto 600 hPa, in the box equator to Lat. 10ºN and Long. 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bounded by Lat. 5-10ºN, Long. 70-80ºE should be of the order of 15 – 20 Kts. at 925 hPa. The source of data can be RSMC wind analysis/satellite derived winds.
Note – Similar to above the onset of NE monsoon also has its own criteria: India Meteorological Department (IMD) made the following criteria in August 1988 for declaring NE monsoon onset, which was further amended in August 2006 (IMD, 2008).
The criteria are:
Withdrawal of Southwest monsoon up to Latitude 15-degree N
Onset of persistent surface easterlies over Tamil Nadu Coast
Depth of easterlies up to 850 hPa over Tamil Nadu Coast
Fairly widespread rainfall over coastal Tamil Nadu, South Coastal Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas.
Impact of Climate Change on Monsoon:
According to IMD, there has been overall decrease in monsoonal rainfall of about 6%-10% since 1951. However, changes in monsoon remains within 10% of the long period average (LPA).
Intermittent rainfall has increased with increase in dry as well as wet spells.
Onset of monsoon and its withdrawal has also been delayed. For e.g. based on data from 1901-1940, the date of withdrawal was 1 September which was revised to 17th Sept in 2020. Despite this, monsoon 2023 was delayed by around 20 days.
It has impacted the regional spread also. Indo-Gangetic plains + Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal -> reduced. Saurashtra and Kutch, southeastern Rajasthan, northern Tamil Nadu, -> Increased
Context: Protests broke out at the Upper Siang district in Arunachal Pradesh as Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) is gearing up to carry out a pre-feasibility study for the proposed 11,000 MW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project. Locals are protesting citing concerns over its environmental and social impacts.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Siang Hydropower Project; Siang River; Adi Tribes
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project:
Proposed 11,000 MW Multipurpose Project in the Siang river.
Handle possible threats from the 60,000 MW power project (the world’s biggest hydropower dam) being constructed by China in the upper reaches of Yarlung Tsangpo river in Tibet (called Siang in Arunachal Pradesh). China is not a signatory to the International Water Conventions. It intends to divert the water from the multiple water reservoirs to dry regions of Tibet and elsewhere in the country.
Siang Upper Multipurpose Project aims to maintain natural flow of water in the Siang river throughout the year, and flood modulation in case of sudden water release by China.
Concerns:
Displacement: The project is estimated to affect at least 100,000 local residents (in the upper Siang district) who could be displaced.
Environmental concerns: There are also concerns about the environmental impact of the project involving construction activities on the Siang River.
About Siang River
The Tsangpo – Yarlung Zangbo, as it is known in China – enters Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River.
It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the towering Namcha Barwa peak, and enters Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (orDihang).
It turns towards the south and enters Assam, where it is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang, and thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.
River Teesta joins Jumna (Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) as a right bank tributary.
Jumna moves further and joins Padma which then joins Meghna. Meghna flows into the Bay of Bengal.
The sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri, Kameng, and Bhareli rivers) , Assam (Manas, Kopili, Sankosh, and Dikhow rivers), Nagaland {Doyang (flows into Dhansiri)}, Meghalaya (Umngot and Kynshi rivers), West Bengal and Sikkim (Teesta)
It meanders through the heartland of Arunachal Pradesh, inhabited by the Adis.
Context: Urban forests are essential for sustainable and healthy city living, but face serious threats from unplanned urbanisation requiring legal, civic, and policy safeguards. The recent Kancha Gachibowli incident in Telangana highlighted the vulnerability of urban forests and environmentally insensitive models of urban development.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to initiatives to protect urban forests.Mains: Importance of urban forests.
Why do Urban Forests matter?
Urban forests such as Kancha Gachibowli in Hyderabad, Aarey in Mumbai, Turahalli in Bengaluru, Neela Hauz and the Ridge in Delhi, and Dol Ka Baadh in Jaipur, are significant for healthy urban living. Urban forests help:
mitigate climate change, sequester carbon and absorb pollutants.
control stormwater runoff, erosion, and flooding.
reduce the urban heat island effect
coping with emissions from automobile vehicles (PM 2.5 and PM 10 pollutants)
green spaces help the survival of endangered species.
A study by the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service showed that one hectare of trees can remove around one ton of air pollutants. However, diminishing urban forests in India’s metropolitan cities spell severe consequences. E.g., air quality index (AQI) in Delhi at 494.
Legal and Policy Framework for Protection of Urban Forests:
Constitutional Safeguards:
Article 21 (Right to Life): includes the Right to a healthy environment.
Article 48A: Duty of the State to protect and improve the environment.
Article 51A(g): Fundamental duty of citizens to protect the environment.
Government Schemes and Policies:
National Forest Policy of 1988 and the National Mission for Green India of 2014 underlined the imperative of increasing afforestation and social forestry.
Smart Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation, launched in 2015 integrated smart urban designs with ecological and social development.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) of the Government of India had rolled out the Nagar Van Yojana (urban forest scheme) in 2020 to promote and grow forest spaces in urban areas.
Nagar Van Yojana:
Launched in 2020 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) of the Government of India.
Objective: To promote and grow forest spaces in urban areas.
Target: To develop 1000 Nagar Vans by 2027 with the financial support of National Fund of National Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA).
Significance: Help in protecting forest land within and around urban centers from degradation and encroachment. According to the India State of Forest Report 2023, the scheme has resulted in an increase of 1445.81 km of tree and forest cover.
Judicial Interventions:
The landmarkGodavarman case in 1996 broadened the definition of forests to enhance the protection of urban greenery.
In 2015, the Delhi High Court directed the Delhi government to notify and protect the Delhi Ridge, also known as the Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor.
Similarly, the SC issued a stay order on the tree felling in Aarey in Mumbai in 2020 in response to the petitions by the citizens who conducted the Save Aarey Forest movement.
Threat to urban forests is a challenge to our biomedical, social, and cultural well-being. Urban forests are not just patches of greenery but life-sustaining ecosystems which need sustained preservation.
Context: A cooler-than-usual summer over large geographical areas of the country has contributed to keeping all-India average temperatures within the normal range in May 2025. The primary reason is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Western Disturbances.
Unusual weather conditions
As per the India Meteorological Department (IMD):
All-India weekly average maximum temperature was 3-5 degrees Celsius below normal over West, Central, and North India. Normal temperatures prevailed over remaining parts of the country.
Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ)- spanning Central, North, and Peninsular India between Gujarat and West Bengal, which is prone to heatwave conditions every year from March to June, has not as yet experienced significant heatwaves.
May has been exceptionally wet over the South and Central Indian regions. Southern Peninsular India has benefited from intermittent spells of rain throughout the ongoing pre-monsoon season.
Reasons for cooler temperature in Summers:
Western Disturbances: The primary reason for a wetter- and cooler-than-usual summer is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes. Western disturbances are eastward-bound winds that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and cause rain or snow along their way.
Continuous incursion of Moisture: There has also been a continuous incursion of moisture from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea into the Indian mainland, with the subsequent wind interactions causing rainfall and thundershowers.
What are Western Disturbances?
Western disturbances are extra-tropical cyclones that originate in the Mediterranean region and move eastwards towards the Indian subcontinent, affecting Northern India, northern Bangladesh, and south-eastern Nepal.
The sub-tropical westerly jet streams help western disturbances to enter the Indian sub-continent and affect its weather. The winds while moving take up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
These moisture laden winds eventually reach the northwestern Himalayas and get blocked, as a result the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared. This ultimately leads to:
Snowfall in western Himalayas (J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
Non-monsoonal rainfall over Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh). These disturbances provide moisture to Rabi season crops
On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April.
Context: Writer, activist, and lawyer Banu Mushtaq won the International Booker Prize 2025 for her short story collection Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp).
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about International Booker Prize; International Booker Prize 2025.
About Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp):
Hridaya Deepa (Heart Lamp) is a collection of twelve short stories written in Kannada by Banu Mushtaq. It is translated from Kannada to English by Deepa Bhasthi.
Heart Lamp narrates the everyday lives of Muslim women moved by their lived experiences of pain and suffering in a patriarchal society.
It became the first Kannada work of literature to be bestowed with the International Booker Prize.
International Booker Prize
International Booker Prize (formerly Man Booker International Prize) is an international literary award hosted in the United Kingdom.
It is awarded annually to:
single work of fiction or collection of short stories translated into English (originally written in a language other than English) and published in the United Kingdom or Ireland.
The £50,000 prize for the winning title is shared equally between author and translator. It promotes international literature in the English language.
Context: The Shirui Lily Festival commenced in Shirui Village, Ukhrul district, Manipur after a two-years pause due to the long-drawn ethnic conflict in the state.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shirui Lily Festival.
About Shirui Lily Festival
Annual cultural state festival of Manipur organised by the Manipur Tourism Department.
Initially, the festival was celebrated by the locals of Shirui village to pay tribute to the state flower Shirui Lily. Since 2017, it has been declared as a state festival by the state government of Manipur.
It is designed as an eco-tourism festival to raise awareness about the Shirui Lily and to promote tourism to the hills of Ukhrul.
The festival includes cultural performances, music concerts, beauty pageant, trash collection marathon etc.
Shirui Lily
The Shirui Lily is a rare endemic species found only on the upper reaches of the Shirui Hill range in Manipur.
IUCN status: Endangered.
Threats: Changing climatic conditions, human encroachment and exploitation of natural resources, habitat invasion by the dense root system of a wild dwarf bamboo species.
