GS Paper 1

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Context: April 3 is the death anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj who passed away in 1680 at the age of 50. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shivaji.

About Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: 

  • Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj  was born on February 19, 1630, at Shivneri Fort located in Maharashtra.
  • He was son of Shahaji Bhonsle (a Maratha general) and Jijabai (mother).
  • He grew up under the guidance of Dadoji Kondadev, who trained him in warfare and administration.
  • At the age of 16, he captured Torna Fort in 1645, marking the beginning of Maratha rule. 
  • He also took over several forts like Rajgad, Purandar, and Sinhagad from the Adil Shahi Sultanate ruling from Bijapur in Deccan. 
  • He introduced guerrilla warfare tactics to fight against the Mughals and Deccan Sultanates.
  • He took on the titles of Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Image

His struggles with Bijapur

  • Shivaji’s father Shahaji was in service of the Bijapuri Sultanate - a tripartite association between Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda, as a general.
  • By 1645, Shivaji acquired control of several strategic from under the Bijapur Sultanate around Pune.
  • Following his success, he had emerged as a threat for Mohammed Adil Shah who gave the order to imprison Shahaji in 1648. 
  • Shahaji was released on condition that Shivaji kept a low profile and kept from further conquests. Shivaji resumed his conquests after Shahaji’s death in 1665.
  • Battle of Pratapgad: The Battle of Pratapgad took place in 1659, at Pratapgad Fort in Satara. The battle was fought between the Marathas forces led by Chhatrapati Shivaji and the Bijapur troops under General Afzal Khan. The Marathas emerged victorious, marking their first significant military triumph against a major regional power.

Conflict with the Mughals

  • In 1659, he defeated Afzal Khan, a general of Bijapur, using strategic warfare.
  • In 1665, he signed the Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh (Ruler of Amber), surrendering 23 forts.
  • In 1666, he was captured and imprisoned in Agra by Aurangzeb but escaped using a clever disguise. His son Sambhaji Bhonsle was kept as a political prisoner to the ruler of Amber Sawai Jai Singh I, and later became Mansabdar.

Relationship with the English

  • Initial days of his reign, Shivaji maintained cordial relationships with the English till they supported the Bijapuri Sultanate in a confrontation against him in the capture of Fort of Panhala in 1660. So in 1670, Shivaji moved against the English in Bombay for them not selling him war material. 

Coronation & Expansion: 

  • On June 6, 1674: he was crowned as Chhatrapati (King or Lord of the Parasol) at Raigad Fort, officially establishing the Maratha Empire. In the following year, he expanded territory across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
  • For this, he built a strong navy to protect the Konkan coastline, making him one of the first Indian rulers to emphasise naval power.

Death:

  • He died on April 3, 1680, at Raigad Fort. He left behind a strong, independent Maratha Empire that challenged Mughal supremacy.

Administration of Shivaji

  • Was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). These eight ministers were:
    • The Peshwa or Prime Minister, was head of general administration and represented the king in his absence.
    • The Majumder or the Auditor was responsible for maintain the financial health of the kingdom.
    • The PanditRao or Chief Spiritual Head was responsible for overseeing the spiritual well-being of the kingdom,
    • The Dabir or Foreign Secretary was entrusted with the responsibility of advising the king on matters of foreign policies.
    • The Senapati or Military General was in charge of overseeing every aspect of the military.
    • The Nyayadhish or Chief Justice saw formulations of law and their subsequent enforcement, civil, judicial as well as military. 
    • The Mantri or Chronicler was responsible for keeping elaborate records of everything the king did in his daily life.
    • The Sachiv or Superintendant was in charge of royal correspondence
  • Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.
  • Reduced power of Deshmukh & Kulkarni and appointed his own revenue officials karkuns.
  • Chauth was 1/4th of land revenue and Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which Marathas claimed hereditary right but formed part of Mughal empire.
Chauth was a regular tax or tribute imposed from the early 18th century by the Maratha Empire and was an annual tax nominally levied at 25% on revenue or produce.
The sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the chauth. A tribute paid to the king. 
  • His army consisted of cavalry supervised by havildars and infantry having Malvi foot soldiers as an important feature. 
  • He also maintained a navy with the purchase of twenty galivats(armed boat) from the Portuguese shipyards of Bassein (Vasai). Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg, which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.
  • Shivaji signed a charter to the Dutch banning, freeing, and stopping the import and export of all slaves under his rule.
  • Shivaji abolished the ‘vatandari’ system, a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan during his time, and implemented the Ryotwari system instead.
  • Vatandari system was a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan region, where landowners (vatandars) held hereditary rights to land and collected revenue from local cultivators, who were dependent on them for their livelihood. 
  • Shivaji abolished this system, and introduced the Ryotwari system, giving cultivators greater control over their land.

    Promotion of Art and Culture

    • Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit: In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of ‘Rajavyavaharakosa’, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677
    • Seal: Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. 
    • Religious policy: Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.
    • Forts: The forts he built are Sindhudurg, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Raigad etc.
    • Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas and inspirer of Shivaji. He was an Indian Marathi Hindu saint, philosopher, poet, writer and spiritual master.

    India’s Coal Reliance has Risen to 79%: MOSPI

    Context: India’s coal reliance has risen to 79% in FY2024, as per the MOSPI’s latest Energy Statistics in India. Renewable energy sources have not seen any meaningful rise in the share of the total energy produced in the past decade, despite the push for renewable energy. 

    Relevance of the topic:

    Prelims: Key highlights of the MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025.

    Mains: Reasons behind high reliance on coal. 

    Key Stats in the Energy Sector

    • The share of coal in India’s total energy generation increased to 79% to 16,906 petajoules (PJ) in 2023-24, about two percentage points more than previous year (MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025). 
    • Coal has consistently accounted for over 70% of India's energy output since 2014-15. Despite increased domestic production, coal import dependence remains high (26%), peaking at 31% in 2019-20.
    • Crude oil’s share has been at 6% in 2023-24. This share has reduced from 2014-15 when it was 11% in 2014-15.
    • Natural gas was 7% of the total energy produced in 2023-24, down from 9% in 2014-15.
    • Renewable energy sources (hydro, solar, nuclear) have not significantly increased their share, standing at 7% in 2023-24 compared to 6% in 2014-15. Their share in total energy production has always been under 10% in the past decade. 
    • Estimated potential for generation of energy from renewable resources has reached 2109 GW as of March 2024. The highest potential for generation of energy comes from wind at 1163 GW (55%), followed by solar energy 749 MW (35.5%) and large Hydro.
      • India’s total renewable energy-based electricity generation capacity: 203 GW (2024).
      • India’s ambitious renewable energy target: 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030.
    image 1

    Major Initiatives related to Renewable Energy Transition: 

    • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM): Focuses on solarisation of irrigation pumps. 
    • PLI Scheme for Solar PV Modules: Promotes domestic manufacturing of solar panels. 
    • Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana: Aims to provide rooftop solar to households. 
    • Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power: Encourages large-scale solar power projects. 
    • Green Energy Corridor Scheme: Facilitates transmission infrastructure for renewable energy. 
    • National Green Hydrogen Mission: Focuses on developing green hydrogen technology. 
    • National Bioenergy Programme: Promotes the use of biofuels. 
    • Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (SAUBHAGYA): Aims to provide electricity to all households. 
    • Green Energy Corridor (GEC): Facilitates the transmission of renewable energy. 
    • National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) and Smart Meter National Programme: Modernises the electricity grid. 
    • Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME): Promotes the adoption of electric vehicles. 

    Reasons for High Reliance on Coal despite Renewable Energy Transition Efforts: 

    • Stable and Reliable Energy Source: Coal-based power plants provide consistent base load electricity, essential for meeting India’s growing energy demands. Unlike intermittent renewable sources (like solar and wind), coal ensures uninterrupted power supply.
    • Economic Viability: Coal is one of the cheapest energy sources in India due to vast domestic reserves. Setting up coal-based power plants has lower upfront costs compared to renewable infrastructure. RE technology requires large capital investment, and large contiguous land, which are in short supply. 
    • Employment and Socio-economic Factors: Coal mining and associated industries provide jobs to millions, especially in coal-rich states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Phasing out coal would impact livelihoods and local economies, making the transition politically sensitive. 
    • Infrastructure Constraints to scale RE Energy: India has a well-established network of coal-based thermal power plants, which would require significant investment to replace. There is inadequate infrastructure for transmission of RE generated in remote locations to load centres. 

    Ugadi Festival 

    Context: Recently, the auspicious festival of Ugadi, which represents the beginning of the New Year, was celebrated.

    Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ugadi; Traditional News Year Festivals.  

    About Ugadi festival

    • Ugadi/Yugadi, also known as Samvatsaradi (beginning of the year), is New Year's Day.
    • Celebrated in: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka.
    • Locally known as Souramana Ugadi or Mesha Sankranti (by followers of Souramana calendar system) in Karnataka. 
      • Souramana (solar year) is a way of measuring time using the movement of the sun.
      • Chandramana (lunar year) is a way of keeping track of the year with the moon's movement. 
    • It is observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra (falling in late March or early April as per the Gregorian calendar). 
    • Traditions and rituals: 
      • Drawing colourful patterns on the floor called Muggulu.
      • Mango leaf decorations on doors called Torana.
      • Preparing and sharing a special food called Pachadi.
      • It has been an historic festival of the Hindus, with medieval texts and inscriptions recording major charitable donations to Hindu temples on this day.
    image 121

    Traditional News Year Festivals in India

    S.NO.Festival Information 
    1.Puthandu- Tamil Nadu
    - First day of year on the Tamil calendar
    - The festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar. 

    References about the festival: 

    - In Netunalvatai, by a Sangam period author, Nakkirar

    -Silappadikaaram by Illango Adigal

    - Manimekalai by Seethalai Satanar
    2.Jude Sheetal/Maithili New Year- Bihar; Jharkhand

    - Celebrated by the Maithilis in Bihar, Jharkhand and even Nepal.
    3.Novruz- Novruz is the Iranian New Year

    - In India, it is celebrated by the Parsi community. 

    - In 2009, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. 
    4.Vishu - Kerala

    - The festival starts with Vishu Kani: arranging harvest's fruits, vegetables and seasonal flowers in front of a mirror.

    -Devotees visit Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple and Guruvayur Krishna temple for prayers.
    5.Navreh/Kashmiri New Year- Celebrated by Kashmiri Pandits

    - Dedicated to their Goddess Sharika. 

    - On the eve of the Navreh, the priest of the family provides a Nechipatra, a collection of the important events and a scroll, Kreel-Pach of the Goddess.
    6.Gudi Padwa/Marathi New Year - Maharashtra and parts of Goa.

    - People hoist Gudi dhwaja (a decorated flag to symbolise victory) outside their homes.

    - Some believe that the festival marks the victory of Shivaji over Mughal dominance in the Maharashtra region. 
    7.Shigmo/Shishirotsava- By Konkani speaking communities in Goa and parts of Karnataka.

    - Two variants: Dhakto Shigmo (small Shigmo) and Vhadlo Shigmo (big Shigmo).

    - Dhakto Shigmo: celebrated by the farmers, labor class, and the rural population;

    - VhadloShigmo: celebrated on a major scale and everyone takes part. 
    8.Cheti Chand- Celebrated by the Sindhi community.

    - Marks the arrival of spring and harvest

    - In the Sindhi community, it also marks the birth of Uderolal in 1007. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus. 
    9.Losoong - Also known as Namsoong

    - Sikkimese New Year, also observed in Darjeeling (West Bengal)

    - Communities: Lepchas and Bhutias.

    - Several religious dances (known as Chaams) are performed mostly in the famous monasteries. 
    10.Ashadhi Beej- Celebrated by the Kutchi community in Gujarat

    - Associated with the beginning of rains in the Kutch region. 
    11.Sajibu Cheiraoba/Nongma Panba- Manipur

    - Celebrated by Meiteis, an ethnic group who follow Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion).

    - Observed on first day of Manipuri lunar month Shajibu (month of April every year)
    12.Pana Sankranti/Vishuva Sankranti - Celebrated in Odisha

    - An earthen pot is filled with a sweet drink which is known as Pana and hung over a Basil (Tulsi) tree.

    Sarhul Tribal Festival

    Context: The Adivasis in Jharkhand and the larger Chhota Nagpur region welcome the new year and the spring season with the Sarhul festival. Sarhul is celebrated on the third day of the Chaitra month (Hindu calendar), which usually falls in April.

    Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sarhul tribal festival.

    About Sarhul Festival

    image 120
    • Sarhul, literally "worship of the Sal tree", is among the most revered Adivasi festivals.
    • Tribes celebrating the festival include: Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho.
    • Origin: In the 1960s, Adivasi leader Baba Karthik Oraon, who advocated for social justice and the preservation of tribal culture, began a Sarhul procession from Hatma to the Siram Toli Sarna Sthal in Ranchi.
    • It is rooted in nature worship and celebrates the symbolic union of the Sun and the Earth. A male priest from the village (pahan) plays the role of the Sun, while his wife (pahen) becomes the earth.
    • Sal trees are seen as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity protecting the village from inclement natural forces.
    • On the first day of Sarhul, the village's pahan, who observes a rigorous fast, fetches water for the ceremonies, houses and Sarna Sthals are cleaned, and Sal flowers gathered for rituals.
    • On the second day, the deity is presented with Sal flowers, and a rooster is sacrificed.

    The final day is marked by a grand community feast, in which people share handia (rice beer) and enjoy a variety of delicacies. 

    Sagaing Fault: Earthquake in Myanmar

    Context: A powerful earthquake of magnitude 7.7 struck Myanmar, with the epicenter located approximately 17.2 km from Mandalay (city in Myanmar). This quake of magnitude 7.7 was the strongest one anywhere in the world in the last two years. 

    Relevance of the Topic : Prelims : Earthquake, Sagaing fault, location of Mandalay. 

    Sagaing Fault

    • Myanmar is vulnerable to earthquakes, largely due to its location along the Sagaing Fault.
    • Sagaing Fault is a major tectonic fault line between the Burma and Sunda plates. The fault runs approximately 1,200 kilometres (north to south) through the country and has a history of significant seismic activity. 

    Recent Myanmar Earthquake:

    • Myanmar sits directly on top of the Sagaing Fault. In this region, the Indian and Sunda tectonic plates move in opposite directions at a speed of 49mm per year.
    • When these plates slide past each other horizontally, stress builds up due to friction.    This vast reserve of energy is then released in a violent 'slip-strike' earthquake.
    • The earthquakes from this fault are violent and extremely shallow, meaning they have the potential to cause enormous damage in nearby population centres.
    image 113

    How do Earthquakes originate?

    • An earthquake is a violent and abrupt shaking of the ground, caused by movement between tectonic plates along a fault line in the earth’s crust. 
    • The earth’s outermost surface (crust) is fragmented into tectonic plates.
      • These plates continuously move at a slow pace, colliding, sliding, or moving past each other. 
      • The edges of these plates, known as plate boundaries, are irregular and get stuck due to friction.
      • When the plates move far enough, the edges suddenly unstick, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves. 
    • This release of energy causes the ground to shake, resulting in an earthquake. 
    image 114

    Key Facts related to Earthquakes: 

    • The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake or hypocentre. The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre (directly above the focus). 
    • The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. Mercalli scale is used to measure the intensity of an earthquake. It assesses the effects and damage caused by an earthquake at a specific location. 
    • Earthquakes are divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep, based on their depth which range between 0 – 700 km.
      • Shallow earthquakes have a focus 0 – 70 km deep
      • Intermediate earthquakes have a focus 70 – 300 km deep
      • Deep earthquakes have a focus 300 – 700 km deep.
    • Shallow earthquakes are usually more dangerous because they release more energy when they reach the surface. In contrast, deeper earthquakes lose some of their energy as they travel a longer distance to the surface. 

    India’s Deep Sea Challenge

    Relevance of the topic:

    Prelims: Deep Ocean Mission, Samudraya Project,Matsya 6000, Exclusive Economic zone.

    Mains: Challenges in deep sea explorations. 

    Deep Sea and Blue Economy

    Oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface and about 95% of them remain unexplored. In recent years, India is increasing its focus on deep-sea exploration to boost India’s blue economy. 

    • Economic importance: Deep sea is a storehouse of untapped natural resources including:
      • Minerals and gas hydrates (poly-metallic nodules, gas hydrates and rare earth elements)
      • Oil and natural gas. 
    • Ecological importance: Deep sea hosts enormous marine biodiversity. Deep-sea exploration can enhance meteorological understanding and support climate change research.
    • Strategic importance:
      • Deep-sea infrastructure like undersea cables facilitate over 95% of global internet traffic, and must be safeguarded from potential threats, especially as countries like China advance their deep-sea military capability.
      • Deep-sea development is also crucial for asserting rights within India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), under UNCLOS. 

    EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE: 

    • The concept of an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) was established through the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 
    • EEZ is a maritime zone that extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from a country's coastline, where the nation has special rights over ocean resources. 

    Within EEZ, a nation has:

    • Sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources of the seabed, subsoil, and waters above it.
    • Jurisdiction with regard to the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations, and structures; marine scientific research.
    • Responsibility for the protection and preservation of the marine environment.
    • Other rights and duties provided for under the international law.
    image 26

    India’s Initiatives for Deep Sea Exploration

    Deep Sea Mission: 

    • An ambitious initiative spearheaded by the Ministry of Earth Sciences.  
    • Aim: To explore and harness the vast resources of the deep sea. 
    • It focuses on the sustainable utilisation of ocean resources for economic growth and scientific research. 

    Key Initiatives Under DOM:

    • Development of 'Matsya 6000’: This crewed submersible is designed to reach depths of up to 6,000 meters. It successfully completed wet testing, with a 500-meter depth demonstration planned by the end of 2025. 
    • Exploration of Polymetallic Nodules: India has been allocated a site in the Central Indian Ocean Basin for exploring polymetallic nodules, estimated to contain about 380 million tonnes of these valuable resources.
    • Acquisition of an Advanced Research Vessel: The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) is procuring a new ocean research vessel with all-weather capabilities, capable of carrying 34 scientists, to support deep-sea exploration activities. ​
    • Samudrayan Program: As part of DOM, the Samudrayaan mission aims to send three individuals to a depth of 6,000 meters in the Matsya 6000 submersible, marking India's entry into crewed deep-sea exploration. 

    Challenges in developing Deep Sea capabilities: 

    • High-pressure conditions: The pressure underwater increases by approximately 1 atmosphere (atm) for every 10 meters of depth. In India's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the pressure at the ocean bed can exceed 380 atm, requiring specialised materials and engineering to ensure the safety and functionality of submersibles. Designing submersibles and underwater equipment that can withstand such immense pressure without structural failure is technically challenging.
      • E.g., The OceanGate Titan submersible disaster (June 2023) highlighted the risks associated with inadequate material strength at great depth. 
    • Sound propagation underwater is complex, influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and salinity, making underwater communication and navigation challenging. Very Low Frequency (VLF) and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) sound technologies are essential but costly to develop.
    • Lack of indigenous technology for deep-sea exploration, coupled with inadequate financial investment and the absence of advanced research infrastructure, further complicates India's ability to harness deep-sea resources. 
    • Strategic challenge posed by other nations like China, which already has advanced deep-sea capabilities, including equipment capable of damaging undersea communication cables. India risks lagging behind in both economic and security dimensions. 

    What must India do ?

    To develop its deep-sea capabilities, India must adopt a multi-pronged strategy:

    • Invest significantly in indigenous technology development for deep-sea submersibles, pressure-resistant materials, and underwater communication systems, while also fostering collaborations with technologically advanced nations.
    • Establish specialised research institutions and training programs will build a skilled workforce equipped to handle deep-sea exploration.
    • Creating a dedicated Ministry for ocean development would streamline efforts and ensure accountability.
    • Increase funding for the Deep Ocean Mission and encourage public-private partnerships to boost research and innovation.
    • Strengthening underwater infrastructure, including undersea cables and mining systems, is essential to enhance connectivity and resource extraction. 
    • Develop surveillance and defence mechanisms to safeguard its underwater assets and counter potential threats from hostile nations. 

    A mission-mode, targeted approach is needed to establish India's presence in the international maritime space, develop its deep-sea capabilities and advance the blue economy. 

    United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

    Context: The ‘United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers’ was released to mark the first-ever World Day for Glaciers on March 21. 

    Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of global warming on mountain ecosystems and its consequences. 

    United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR)

    • WWDR is a global report that provides a comprehensive assessment of the world’s freshwater resources. 
    • It is produced annually by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme, and published by UNESCO.

    Major Highlights of the UNESCO’s Report

    1. Glacial Melting:

    • Glaciers are disappearing faster than ever. Since 1975, glaciers (which do not include the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets) have lost >9,000 billion tonnes of mass. 450 gigatons of mass was lost in 2024 alone.
    • Reasons for accelerating glacier melting:
      • Warmer temperatures
      • More frequent and intense wildfires
      • Dust storms lead to more deposition of black carbon and other particulate matter on glacier surfaces, leading to greater absorption of solar radiation (decreased Albedo).  
    image 23

    2. Accelerating Permafrost Thaw: In high-altitude regions, permafrost is any ground that stays frozen — 0 degrees Celsius or lower — for at least two years straight. Rising temperatures are melting permafrost in these regions rapidly. 

    3. Decline in Snow Cover: Reduction in snow cover in nearly all mountain regions, especially in spring and summer. Snow cover is the total of all the snow and ice on the ground. It includes new snow and previous snow and ice that have not melted. Earlier, a 2024 study found a 7.79% decline in global snow cover between 1979-2022.

    4. Erratic Snowfall Patterns: Due to atmospheric warming, the rain-snow transition zone is shifting upwards, i.e., mountain ranges are receiving a greater fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. Snow duration has reduced, snow-melt is taking place earlier than usual. 

    Implications of the Changing Climatic Patterns: 

    • Consequences of permafrost thawing:  
      • Release of organic carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Permafrost contains a vast amount of organic carbon (4.5% of the global soil organic carbon) and other nutrients.
      • Mountain slopes become more vulnerable to erosion, increasing the risk of landslides and other hazards.
    • Consequences of increased glacial melting:
      • Increased glacial lake formation and higher risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). 
      • Rise in the sea level: Melted glacier ice contributes 25-30% of global sea-level rise. Between 2006 and 2016, the global mass loss of glacier ice amounted to 335 billion tonnes of lost ice per year, which corresponded to an increase in sea levels of almost 1 mm per year. 
    • Shorter snow duration: affects ecosystems, water supply, and agriculture. Earlier snowmelt means water is available too early in the season, causing shortages later. 

    Vikramshila Mahavihar

    Context: The state government of Bihar has recently identified 202 acres of land at Antichak village, Bhagalpur district to establish a Central University, a few kilometers away from the site of ancient Vikramshila Mahavihar. 

    Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Vikramshila Mahavihar

    Vikramshila Mahavihar:

    image 98
    • Vikramashila was a Buddhist monastery situated in Bhagalpur district, Bihar. One of the three most important Buddhist Mahaviharas of its time in India, along with Nalanda and Odantapuri.
    • Founded by: King Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty in the late 8th to early 9 Century AD. Thrived during the Pala Period (8th to 12th century). Vikramshila Mahavihar existed and flourished at the time of Nalanda.
    • Practised Tantrayana: Tantric practices and rituals (one of the three great vehicles of Indian Buddhism after Hinayana and Mahayana).
      • Only university that specialised in tantric and occult studies.
      • Other subjects such as theology, philosophy, grammar, metaphysics and logic were also taught.  
    • Eminent scholar: Atisa Dipankara played a key role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
    • Factors for decline (13th century): Combination of factors, including- invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1193 AD, and rising Hinduism and the decline of Buddhism.
    • Major artifacts found: carved limestone sculpture that depicts the eight major events of Buddha’s life; sculptures of Buddhist and Hindu deities such as Avalokiteshvara, Loknath, Ganesh, Surya, Vishnu, etc. 
    • The university also had a vast library and a dedicated air-conditioned system (cooling system) possibly for preserving precious manuscripts. 

    Read More: Nalanda University 

    Bhagat Singh, a radical thinker and ideologue

    Context: Every year on March 23, India observes Shaheed Diwas to honour the sacrifices of Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar — who were hanged by the British authorities in Lahore on March 23, 1931, for their involvement in the killing of J.P. Saunders, a British police officer. This act was a retaliation for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, a prominent leader, who was fatally injured during a peaceful protest against British rule. Bhagat Singh’s execution, at the age of 23, left a lasting legacy that shaped the spirit of nationalism in India.

    Relevance of the topic:

    Prelims: Key facts about Bhagat Singh. 

    Mains: Contribution of Extremists in the Indian National Movement.

    Introduction: Bhagat Singh

    Bhagat Singh, a radical thinker and ideologue
    • He was a revolutionary, who was martyred in the fight against imperialistic tyranny. 
    • Bhagat Singh was a polyglot able to communicate in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, and English. 
    • Having grown up in an Arya Samaj setting he was also familiar with the fundamentals of Sanskrit.
    • His jail notebook is also reflective of the diversity in his literary writings where he draws on the works of important scholars like Karl Marx, Karl Kautsky, Thomas Paine, Mark Twain, Thomas Jefferson, etc. 

    Evolution of ideals

    • In one of his earliest writings, Vishwa Prem (Universal Love), published in November 1924, he declares “Visvabandhuta (Universal Brotherhood)! For me the greatest meaning of this word is equality and nothing else.”
    • Early idealism is reflected in his belief that, ‘there would be Britishers and Indians all right but not as rulers and the ruled.’ 
    • Shift in Perspective:
      • By 1928, the realities of the Indian situation had become more apparent. 
      • In the article Communal Riots and their Solution, he stated that the religions have left the country in communal divisions and the resulting riots have tainted the clean image of India. 
    • Critique of Journalism: 
      • He said that the media arouses the public sentiment by writing bold headlines in the newspapers against one or the other and compel people to start fighting with one another.
      • He also stated that, ‘not limited to just one or two places, riots started in many locations just because of the fact that local newspapers had written articles that stoked passions.
    • On the responsibility of newspapers:
      • He stated that, ‘the actual duty of newspapers is to educate, to liberate people from narrow-mindedness, eradicate fundamentalism, to help in creating a sense of fraternity among people, and build a common nationalism in India’. 

    Interplay of society and politics: 

    • Challenging the separation of students and politics:
      • His July 1928 article, Students and Politics, was a sharp response to those who often championed a wall of separation between student life and political activity.
      • He explained that the then Punjab government requiring students to “sign off on an undertaking that they will not take part in political activities,” was to pressurise the students and create fear in their minds. 
    • Role of education in Political awareness: 
      • He explained that the basic duty of the student is to study, but also posed a question, ‘is it not part of the education that the youth should know what the conditions are in their country and be enabled to think of solutions for their improvement?’ 
      • He specified that an education which will ‘only equip students for clerical jobs’ is worthless.
      • According to him, students must acquire the knowledge of politics too, and when the need arises they should put questions forward about the actions of those in power. 
    • Rediscovering the legacy of Untouchables in India's history: 
      • In ‘the Problem of Untouchability’, he reminded the oppressed untouchables of their role in India’s past.
      • He also wrote that they should unite to stand on their own feet and challenge the existing oppressive order of society.
      • He rejected the belief in Varna system and also the belief in that person’s occupation is based on his/her birth. 

    Revolution: Call for change and social transformation: 

    Necessity of Revolutionary Spirit:

    • In a 1929 article, ‘What is Revolution?’, he responded to the criticism of the idea of revolution that many veterans of the freedom movement had opposed. 
    • He wrote that ‘people generally get accustomed to the established order of things and begin to tremble at the very idea of a change’, which is a lethargical spirit that needs to be replaced by the revolutionary spirit.
    • In the absence of Revolution, ‘degeneration gains the upper hand and the whole of humanity is led misled by reactionary forces’, further leading to stagnation and paralysis in human progress and society as a whole. 

    Anarchism-ideological reflections: 

    • In his work titled ‘What is Anarchism?’, published in 1928, he reflected on the ideological propositions of anarchist theory and practice.
    • He explained that Anarchists are against God and religion to begin with because they feel this is the root of mental slavery. And then they are against the state because it is the root of physical slavery.
    • Anarchists maintain that motivating people with the temptation of heaven, fear of hell or with the iron hand of law is the wrong approach and it is also an insult to a superior being like a human.

    Bhagat Singh stated also stated that: 

    • Human beings should acquire knowledge freely and work at his will and live life peacefully.
    • People presume this might mean that we would be living in the same manner as in the forests in ancient times but they are wrong.
    • In ancient times there was ignorance and people were not able to travel far and wide.
    • But now we can have knowledge and can live freely by creating relations with all. 

    Defining revolution:

    • In a ‘Letter to Young Political Workers’, he mentions that, ‘according to our definition of the term, as stated in our statement in the Assembly Bomb Case, revolution means the complete overthrow of the existing social order and its replacement with the socialist order’. 
    • For establishing such an order, the immediate aim is the achievement of power.
      • The State and the government machinery is just a weapon in the hands of the ruling class to further and safeguard its interest.
      • The aim of a revolutionary is to snatch the power, and handle it, to utilise it for the consummation of our ideal, i.e., social reconstruction on a new, i.e., Marxist, basis.
      • At the same time, Bhagat Singh mentioned that, along with the fight, we have to educate the masses and create a favourable atmosphere for our social programme.

    Reason and Romanticism in Bhagat Singh's philosophy: 

    Religion as an obstruction to progress: 

    • As an atheist, he had thought organised religion to be a hindrance to the freedom struggle in particular and to social progress in general.
    • In an article published 1928, ‘Religion and our Freedom Struggle’, he reflected that ‘Religion’ is a problem that is still present in Indian society.
    • He stated that, ‘a clash between people could be instigated with the loud recitation of Koranic verses and Vedic mantras.’ The question is then, why should we not do away with all this once and for all?

    The Case against faith: 

    • He wrote in, ‘Why I am an Atheist’, that, when man tries to stand on his own two legs and becomes a realist, he shall have to throw faith aside and face all the distress and trouble in which circumstances may land him.
    • He also argued that anyone who stands for progress has to criticise, disbelieve and challenge every item of the old faith. Item by item, the person has to reason out every nook and corner of the prevailing faith.
    • If after considerable reasoning, one believes in any theory or philosophy, his faith is welcomed. His reasoning can be mistaken and sometimes fallacious. But he is liable to correction because reason is the guiding star of his life.
    • However, only faith and blind faith is dangerous as it inhibits critical thinking and makes a person reactionary. 

    Nature over conscious power: 

    • In explaining his Weltanschauung (a particular philosophy or view of life; the world view of an individual or group) he put forward his belief in the non-existence of a conscious Supreme Being who is guiding and directing the movements of nature.

    Bhagat Singh's eventful life was marked by extensive writing and tireless efforts. A meaningful tribute to his legacy as a revolutionary would be to widely engage with his writings.

    Read more about Bhagat Singh: 

    1. Bhagat Singh’s Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam
    2. Bhagat Singh
    3. Getting it right: a historian’s effort to document the life of Bhagat Singh

    Lapis Lazauli

    Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About lapis lazuli; Use in ancient civilisations (Indus Valley, Egyptian, European Renaissance). 

    About Lapis Lazuli

    • Deep blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious gemstone. 
    • Valued for its colour and ornamental properties for over 6,000 years. 
    image 21

    Geological Composition

    • Lapis lazuli is primarily composed of lazurite (25-40%), a feldspathoid silicate mineral that gives the rock its characteristic deep blue color. 
    • Its blueness depends on the amount and structure of sulphur within lazurite. 

    Prevalence

    • Found in many countries so far, including Chile, Russia, and the US.
    • The highest quality rock comes from Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, where it has been mined for more than 6,000 years. 

    Historical Significance and Uses

    • In ancient times, traders in India imported lapis lazuli from Badakhshan, perhaps as long ago as 1000 BC. 
    • Ornamental lapis lazuli ornaments have been found in the remains of Indus Civilisation sites including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. 
    • Ancient Egyptians used lapis lazuli in jewellery, amulets, and as powdered eye makeup. 
    • In the Renaissance period, artistes in Europe ground lapis lazuli down into ultramarine, an expensive pigment they used in their paintings. 

    Jnanpith Award 

    Context: Eminent Hindi writer Vinod Kumar Shukla was bestowed the 59th Jnanpith Award for the year 2024. The 88-year-old short story writer, poet and essayist, is one of the greatest contemporary writers in Hindu language. 

    Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Jnanpith Award. 

    About Jnanpith Award

    • The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award. 
    • It is presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their outstanding contribution towards literature. 
    • It is bestowed only on Indian writers writing in Indian languages included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, and English.
    • Details of the Award: Citation plaque, a cash prize of ₹11 lakh, and a bronze replica of goddess Saraswati. There is no posthumous conferral of the award. 

    Eighth Schedule to Indian Constitution

    • The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of 22 languages: (1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.
    • Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were the latest additions in 2004.

    Navroz: Parsi New Year

    Context: Navroz or Parsi New Year was celebrated on March 21 to mark the beginning of spring. 

    Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Navroz: Parsi New Year. 

    About Navroz

    • Navroz (Jamshed-i-Navroz) is the Parsi New Year which is believed to mark the beginning of spring. 
    • The festival is named after the Persian king Jamshed, who is believed to have created the Persian calendar. 
    • Indian Parsis celebrate the festival twice every year:
      • the date of the festival as per the Iranian Fasli calendar (around March 21)
      • the date according to the Shahenshahi (Zoroastrian) calendar, widely used by Indian Parsis (around July or August). 
    • The day is celebrated by decorating homes, engaging in prayers and enjoying special dishes. 
    • Navroz has been added to the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. 

    Zoroastrianism

    • Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions.
    • It is founded on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster and the sacred text Avesta. 
    • Originating in ancient Iran, it centers on the worship of Ahura Mazda, the uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom. 
    • The religion presents a dualistic view of the world, depicting an ongoing battle between good and evil, with the expectation that good will ultimately prevail.
    • Despite its decline after the Muslim conquest of Persia, it continues to be practiced today, primarily in India and Iran.