GS Paper 1

Daruma Doll

Context: The Prime Minister of India was presented a Daruma doll by the Chief Priest of the Shorinzan Daruma-Ji temple, Takasaki-Gunma during his recent visit to Japan. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Daruma Doll. 

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Daruma Doll

  • Daruma doll is a hollow, round, Japanese traditional doll modeled after Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen tradition of Buddhism.
    • Daruma tradition in Japan is based on the legacy of Bodhidharma known as Daruma Daishi in Japan. He was an Indian monk from Kancheepuram who is said to have travelled here over a thousand years ago. 
    • Bodhidharma spent nine years in meditation facing a wall at Shaolin Temple in China, demonstrating such unwavering determination that his legs atrophied from lack of use. This became the inspiration for the Daruma doll’s armless, legless form.
  • These dolls are typically red and can vary greatly in colour and design.
  • They are considered auspicious and a good luck charm in Japanese culture. Takasaki City in Gunma, Japan is the birthplace of the Daruma dolls. 

The doll represents the popular Japanese proverb which translates to ‘fall seven times, get up eight,’ representing the power of resilience. The special gesture reaffirms the close civilisational and spiritual ties between India and Japan. 

King Prithu of Kamrup: Assam’s Forgotten Hero

Context: Recently, the Assam Cabinet decided to name a new Guwahati flyover after Prithu, a 13th-century Kamrup ruler, as a symbol of Assam’s historic resistance to foreign invasions.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Prithu: 13th-century Kamrup ruler.

King Prithu of Kamrup

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  • King Prithu, also referred to as Raja Prithu Rae, was a 13th-century king of the Kamarupa kingdom, which corresponds to modern-day Assam.
  • He belonged to the Khen dynasty, who drew their lineage from Narakasura. They worshipped Kamteswari, an incarnation of Hindu Goddess Durga. Khen were probably local chieftains who rose to power after the fall of the Pala Dynasty. 
  • He has not been featured prominently in mainstream historiography, but local lore, inscriptions, and regional narratives elevate him as a heroic defender of the region.
  • He is remembered for defeating the invading army of Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1206 CE.
    • Prithu has gained renewed recognition in recent decades, largely due to the efforts of historian Raktim Patar who wrote Maharaja Prithu: The Unsung Warrior King Who Annihilated Bakhtiyar Khalji in 2021.
  • He also defeated Hisan Uddin Iwaz (Delhi Sultan Ghiassuddin), noted British civil servant Wolseley Haig in The Cambridge History of India, Volume III.

Prithu and Bakhtiyar Khilji’s Invasion: 

  • Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general under Muhammad of Ghor, was one of the earliest Turko-Afghan commanders who attempted to expand Islamic rule into eastern India.
  • In 1205-1206, following his destructive raid on Nalanda and Bengal, Bakhtiyar Khilji aimed to expand his conquests into Tibet through Kamrupa.
  • The campaign ended in disaster, Khilji’s forces were completely routed in Kamrup, with local accounts suggesting that he was fatally wounded.
  • This marked the first successful repulsion of Turko-Afghan incursions into the Northeast frontier. The Kanai Varasi rock inscription (Assam) is proof of the destruction of the Turks who invaded Kamrupa in 1206 CE. 

The identity of the local ruler who inflicted this defeat has remained uncertain due to the absence of direct contemporary evidence, but modern scholars often associate the victory with King Prithu of Kamrup.

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India’s Demographic Dividend as a Time Bomb

Context: India’s vast youth population promises a demographic dividend. However, without education and skills aligned to the AI-driven future, it risks becoming a demographic time bomb.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues in India’s education system & challenges of AI-driven transformations in the job market. 

Rabindranath Tagore once remarked, “Don’t limit a child to your own learning, for she was born in another time.” India’s education system is preparing students for the jobs of yesterday while the future of work is being rapidly shaped by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and other disruptive technologies. 

With 800 million people below the age of 35, India’s youth population is considered its biggest asset. However, without appropriate reforms in education and skill development, this demographic dividend risks turning into a demographic liability.

Core Issues

  • The Indian education system remains outdated and examination-centric, with limited focus on employability and career readiness.
  • Curriculum update cycles run on three-year timelines, while technology and industry demands change at a much faster pace.
  • Increasing disconnect between degrees and job skills is leading to high underemployment and unemployability among graduates.
  • Despite multiple government skill-development initiatives, outcomes remain fragmented and insufficient. 

Causes of the Crisis: 

  • Curriculum Lag: Educational curricula do not adapt quickly enough to changing industry needs.
  • Narrow Career Awareness: Surveys show that 93% of high school students are aware of only seven career options, while the economy offers more than 20,000.
  • Examination-Centric Pedagogy: Schools prioritise rote learning and marks over creativity, problem-solving, and practical skills.
  • Ineffective Skill Missions: Programs like Skill India Mission, Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendra, Pradhan Mantri Yuva Yojana and SANKALP (Skill Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion) etc. function in silos with weak industry integration.
  • Digital Tools but Analog Mindsets : Despite smartphones and EdTech platforms, most tools are used for test preparation, not job-ready skill development.

Consequences of Inaction: 

  • Rising Unemployment and Underemployment: Only 43% of Indian graduates are considered job-ready (Graduate Skills Index 2025). Even engineering graduates face high unemployment, with 40-50% not securing placements.
  • Youth Disillusionment and Social Instability: The mismatch between expectations and opportunities risks creating frustration and unrest. Historical episodes like the 1990 Mandal protests show how youth frustration can spill into violence and instability.
  • Global Competitiveness at Risk: Without reskilling, India’s workforce may fall behind as AI and automation reshape global labour markets.
  • Demographic Time Bomb: Education without employability can worsen inequality and destabilise society.

Way Forward

  • Curriculum Reform: Shift from rote-based teaching to competency-driven learning that fosters creativity, adaptability, and problem-solving.
  • Early Career Guidance: Institutionalise career counselling in schools to widen awareness of diverse opportunities.
  • Industry-Education Linkages: Establish national skill councils to ensure curricula are updated in real-time with industry demands.
  • Focus on Reskilling and Upskilling: Encourage lifelong learning through flexible programs in emerging fields like AI, robotics, renewable energy, and healthcare.
  • Unified Skilling Mission: Consolidate fragmented schemes under a single, outcome-driven national framework.
  • Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaboration between government, private sector, and universities to create a robust skill development ecosystem.

India stands at a decisive juncture: its demographic dividend could either power economic growth or explode as a demographic time bomb. Hence, we must not confine students to outdated learning models; instead, we must equip them for a rapidly transforming future.

Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee and Direct Action Day 

Context: As ‘Bengal Files’ Film brings the Great Calcutta Killing back into debate, the figure of Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee re-enters the spotlight. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee and his role in Direct Action Day.

Who Was Gopal ‘Paantha’ Mukherjee?

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  • Born in 1916 in Kolkata’s Bowbazar area, Gopal Mukherjee was part of a middle-class Bengali Hindu family.
  • His family ran a meat shop on College Street, which earned him the nickname Paantha (goat, in Bangla). 
  • Known for his fearless personality, long hair, and commanding presence, he led a local gang that grew into one of the city’s most formidable street organisations by the mid-1940s.
  • When Direct Action Day violence broke out, Gopal and his group of over 800 young men mobilised to protect Hindu neighbourhoods from Muslim League mobs. In his own later words, he took up arms “to save the women of his area, to save the people.”
  • Family members describe him as inspired by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, involved in revolutionary groups like the Atma Unnati Samiti, and determined to resist what he saw as the forced incorporation of Bengal into Pakistan.
  • However, critics point out that Gopal’s “army” was not a patriotic militia but an extension of Calcutta’s underworld sustained by wrestlers, gamblers, and street enforcers.

In 1947, Mahatma Gandhi visited Calcutta to restore peace and asked people to surrender their arms. Gopal Mukherjee was summoned to meet him. Though he eventually went, he refused to surrender his weapons, telling Gandhi’s aides: “With these arms I saved the women of my area, I saved the people. I will not surrender them.”

Direct Action Day: 

  • On 16 August 1946, the All-India Muslim League called for “direct action” to push their demand for Pakistan, after the British exit from India.
  • In Bengal, where the League was in power under the Chief Minister H. S. Suhrawardy, the call took a violent turn (the Great Calcutta killings). 
  • What began as a hartal and rally at the Ochterlony Monument (today’s Shahid Minar) spiralled into four days of riots across Calcutta. Between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed, and thousands more injured.

Dhirio: Bull Fight in Goa 

Context: The legislators across party lines in Goa state Assembly have demanded the legalisation of bull fighting in Goa, known locally as Dhirio. Despite being banned, the bull fights continue to be clandestinely held in Goa. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about traditional animal-based sports in India. 

About Dhirio

  • The bull fighting, locally referred to as Dhirio or Dhiri, is an integral part of Goa’s cultural fabric. Such fights were organised after the harvest season.
  • Bullfighting involves pitting two bulls against each other in a violent and often bloody confrontation. It is a straight fight till one bull falls or flees. A fight can be over in a few minutes or stretch for more than an hour. 
  • These bull fights have traditionally been held in paddy fields and football grounds of Goa, with village shepherds bringing in their animals.
  • Bull fights have been taking place in Goa for generations going back to the time of the Portuguese. 

Legal Status of Dhirio: 

  • The Goa bench of the Bombay High Court banned Dhirio in 1997, citing violations of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. However, the bull fights continue to be organised clandestinely especially in coastal villages in South Goa and coastal belt in North Goa.

Argument in Support of Ban on Dhirio: 

  • The goal is to incite violence between the animals for entertainment and often gambling. These events subject the animals to significant physical and psychological harm, including fractures, puncture wounds, and severe stress. 
  • Agitated bulls may also charge at spectators, causing grievous injuries.

Important Court judgements in the context

  • In Jallikattu Case 2014 (Animal Welfare Board of India vs A. Nagaraja): The Supreme court ruled that animal life falls within the meaning of Article 21 of the Constitution. The SC noted that all living creatures (including animals) have inherent dignity, right to live peacefully and the right to protect their well-being. 
  • Legal backing to Jallikattu: In 2023, a five judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court dismissed petitions challenging constitutionality of Jallikattu, and upheld the validity of 2017 Tamil Nadu law for allowing bull taming sport Jallikattu. 

So, the legislators in Goa demand a similar exception to Dhirio, like Jallikattu citing the traditional continuity of the sport in the state. 

Also Read: Naangarni Spardha 

Outrage over classification of Sylheti as a Bangladeshi dialect 

Context: Sylheti is spoken by over 7 million people in Northeast India and millions more in Bangladesh’s Sylhet Division. The classification of Sylheti as a foreign or Bangladeshi dialect has sparked outrage in Assam's Barak Valley.  

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sylheti language.

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Sylheti Linguistic Status

  • Sylheti is spoken on both sides of the India-Bangladesh border, notably in Assam’s Barak Valley, and in parts of Meghalaya and Tripura & in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh.
  • Many speakers identify culturally and linguistically as Bengali, while maintaining Sylheti as their mother tongue.
  • It is often classified as a dialect of Bengali, with the primary argument being mutual intelligibility between the two.
  • However, linguists note that such intelligibility may stem from speakers’ exposure to both languages rather than inherent similarity. The region exhibits diglossia, with standard Bengali used for education and literacy, while Sylheti remains the spoken vernacular in daily life.
  • Sylheti and standard Bengali share almost identical morphology and syntax, but they differ in phonetics. 

Historically, Sylheti had a script known as Sylhet-Nagri, which emerged in the late medieval period under Persian influence. It was used mainly by Sufi mystics for religious and philosophical writings, but it was never widely adopted as a common script.

Historical Background of Sylhet: 

  • 1874: Sylhet was moved from Bengal to Assam to strengthen Assam’s revenue base.
  • From 1874-1947: Sylhet’s status was contested, i.e., Bengal vs Assam, Hindu vs Muslim political leanings.
  • 1947 Partition: A referendum decided Sylhet would join East Pakistan, except for Karimganj (now in Barak Valley, Assam). Many Hindu Sylhetis migrated to India, especially Barak Valley.
  • Pre-Partition migration: Sylheti traders, clerks, and professionals were already settled across Assam, Tripura, and Meghalaya long before East Pakistan or Bangladesh existed.

Naangarni Spardha

Context: Recently, Naangarni Spardha, the traditional oxen ploughing race was organised at Ringane village in Maharashtra’s Ratnagiri district.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about traditional animal-based sports in India. 

Naangarni Spardha

  • Naangarni Spardha is a traditional oxen race held annually in Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra. 
  • The unique rural sporting tradition thrives during the monsoon season.
  • The oxen race is held on a horseshoe-shaped, mud-filled track. Strict rules are enforced; any oxen pair that touches the track flags or steps outside the boundaries is immediately disqualified. Victory is determined solely by speed. 
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Other livestock‑based sports in India: 

1. Jallikattu:

  • Jallikattu is a traditional bull-taming sport from Tamil Nadu. 
  • In this event, a zebu bull such as the Pulikulam or Kangayam breeds, is released into a crowd of people (not teams), and many people attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull attempts to escape. They hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a stop. In some cases, they must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns.
  • Location: Tamil Nadu
  • Duration of the year: January (during Pongal)
  • History of the Event: Inception: around 6th-1st century BCE (Sangam period). It began during the Sangam period when Ayar tribal people living in Mullai region (dense forest) of Tamil Nadu started playing this sport. 
  • Legal backing: In May 2023, a five judge Constitution Bench dismissed petitions challenging constitutionality of Jallikattu and upheld the validity of Tamil Nadu laws protecting the sport.

2. Kambala: 

  • Kambala is an annual buffalo race held in the southwestern Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. 
  • The festival is dedicated to an incarnation of Hindu God Shiva- Lord Kadri Manjunatha. 
  • The festival is celebrated every year after harvest season (generally from November to March) to offer thanks to the god for a year of good harvest. 
  • Traditionally, it was sponsored by local Tuluva landlords in Dakshina Kannada and  Kasaragod region of Kerala, a region collectively known as Tulu Nadu.

Odisha and Chhattisgarh to ‘amicably’ resolve Mahanadi River Dispute 

Context: After a prolonged legal battle in a designated Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal over sharing of the Mahanadi river water, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have expressed willingness to resolve the dispute amicably between themselves.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provision for resolution of Inter-State River Water Dispute. 

Inter-State River Water Dispute

  • Article 262 of the Constitution provides for the adjudication of inter-state water disputes. It makes two provisions:
    • Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and control of waters of any inter-state river and river valley.
    • Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.

Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two laws:

1. The River Boards Act 1956: 

  • The Act provides for the establishment of river boards for the regulation and development of inter-state river and river valleys. 
  • A river board is established by the Central government on the request of the state governments concerned to advise them.

2. Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: 

  • The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act empowers the Central government to set up an ad hoc tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute between two or more states in relation to the waters of an inter-state river or river valley. 
  • The decision of the tribunal would be final and binding on the parties to the dispute. 
  • The Supreme Court nor any other court does not have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to such a tribunal under this Act. 

Mahanadi River System

  • Mahanadi river rises in the Sihawa hills, Chhattisgarh. This is south of the Amarkantak Plateau region. 
  • Basin states: Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1,41,589 sq. kms. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. 
  • The Mahanadi basin is geographically bounded by:
    • Central India hills on the north
    • Eastern Ghats on the south and east
    • Maikal range in the west. 
  • Major Dams: 
    • Hirakud Dam (Odisha): One of the longest earthen dams in the world. 
    • Hasdeo Bango & Arpa Projects (Chhattisgarh). 
Left bank TributaryRight bank Tributary
Seonath Ong
HasdeoTel
MandJonk
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Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal: 

  • Mahanadi River Dispute: Odisha alleges that the upper riparian state Chhattisgarh had "illegally" constructed a number of barrages across the river and its tributaries, which has seriously affected inflow into the Hirakud reservoir in Odisha, particularly in the non-monsoon seasons.  
  • The Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal was established in 2018. The proceedings continued between 2018 and 2023 with data submissions, arguments, and inspections from both states.

It is to be noted that no inter-state water dispute in the country has ever been resolved entirely through tribunal proceedings. Hence, the move towards amicable resolution of the inter-state river water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh is a step in the right direction. 

Sacred Buddhist Piprahwa gemstones repatriated to India

Context: A collection of 349 gemstones, part of the sacred Piprahwa Buddhist relics, was repatriated to India, 127 years after they were taken during colonial times.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Piprahwa Relics. 

These relics had appeared for auction at Sotheby’s Hong Kong, but were acquired and brought back to India through a private initiative led by Pirojsha Godrej of Godrej Industries.

What are the Piprahwa Relics?

  • The Piprahwa relics were discovered in 1898 during a British-era excavation at Piprahwa, near the India-Nepal border in Uttar Pradesh. Piprahwa is believed to be the part of ancient Kapilavastu, the homeland of Lord Buddha
  • The excavation uncovered a Buddhist stupa containing:
    • Bone fragments believed to be of Lord Buddha.
    • Jewel-encrusted reliquaries (349 gemstones).
    • Caskets made of soapstone and crystal, and a sandstone coffer.
    • Most relics were placed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, but the jewels ultimately went to auction houses.

Why is the Repatriation Significant?

  • Cultural and Religious Value: The relics are deeply sacred to the Buddhist community worldwide. Their discovery and preservation strengthen India’s identity as the cradle of Buddhism.
  • Geopolitical Messaging: By reclaiming Buddhist heritage from Hong Kong (under Chinese influence), India reinforces its Buddhist soft power against China’s attempts to project itself as a guardian of Buddhist legacy.

A large portion of the collection will be displayed at the National Museum Delhi.

Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements: Global South Crisis

Context: A recent global study highlights how flood risk disproportionately affects vulnerable communities, especially slum dwellers in the Global South.

Relevance of Topic: Prelims: Urbanisation trends Mains: Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements - reasons, consequences, suggestions.  

According to a 2024 Moody’s Report

  • More than 2.3 billion people are exposed to flooding every year.
  • In India, more than 600 million people are at risk of coastal or inland flooding.

According to Nature Cities Study: 

  • In the Global South, around 33% of informal settlements (housing over 445 million people) are located in flood-exposed regions.
  • India has the world’s largest number of slum dwellers living in vulnerable settlements in floodplains (over 158 million), most of them concentrated in the naturally food-prone delta of the Ganga river.
  • The largest concentrations and largest numbers of such people are in South Asian countries; northern India leads in absolute numbers, followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. 
  • Other notable ‘hotspots’ include Rwanda and its neighborhood, northern Morocco, and the coastal regions of Rio de Janeiro.

Regional Urbanisation Trends: 

  • Latin America & Caribbean: Highly urbanised (80%); most settlements are urban.
  • Sub-Saharan Africa: Less urbanised; 63% of informal settlements are rural.
  • In India, 40% of slum dwellers live in urban and suburban areas.

Why do people settle in Floodzones?

People settle in, or are forced to settle in, floodplains due to a combination of factors including : 

  • Access to jobs, social vulnerability, and financial constraints.
  • In the Global South flood zones offer cheaper land and housing, pushing low income households into more vulnerable areas. 
  • Absence of inclusive urban policies.
  • Flood-prone localities are not preferred by large builders for gated communities or IT parks, so those areas are available for migrant workers and informal settlements as they are cheaper.
  • However in wealthier regions like Europe, subsidised flood insurance premiums in high risk areas promotes the desirability of floodplain areas like beachfronts and water views.

Consequences of Living in Flood-Prone Areas: 

  • Floods result in the loss of livelihoods for vulnerable residents, especially those in informal employment.
  • Flooding disrupts essential services, such as sanitation, water, and electricity.
  • Poor drainage and waste systems heighten vulnerability to infectious diseases.
  • Informal settlements are typically tin-sheet, tent, or tarp housing, which are structurally weak and highly exposed to flood damage.

Way Forward

  • Adopt a human-centric approach instead of location-focused to improve inadequate infrastructure.
  • Governments should collaborate with communities, rather than relying only on traditional disaster preparedness.
  • Skill improvement in areas like sanitation, waste management, and installing drainage systems. It could enhance the resilience to not just foods but also other risks like infectious disease, while providing jobs.
  • Use data and machine learning for early-warning systems and future flood risk prediction.

The need of the hour is to prioritise action as the 2030 SDG deadline nears, especially goals on poverty, clean water, and climate action.

Kudavolai System: Chola Ballot Pots 

Context: In a recent address at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Prime Minister of India highlighted Chola empire's indigenous democratic tradition, contrasting it with the often-cited Magna Carta of 1215 CE in Britain.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Chola Empire, Kudavolai System.

Mains: Features, relevance, and limitations of Cholas governance system.

Chola Empire

  • The Chola Empire (9th to 13th centuries CE) is one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India. It is known for its maritime power, temple architecture, and democratic administrative systems. 
  • Long before the enlightenment in Europe birthed the ideals of representative governance, the Cholas had rules for local self-rule, literally inscribed into stone. 

Chola Democratic System

  • The Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. It was built on two core village-level institutions:
    • Sabha: Found in Brahmadeya villages (settlements gifted to Brahmins). Composed exclusively of Brahmin male members. Functioned through various committees (variyams) like garden committee, tank committee, justice committee, etc. Selection to these committees was often through the Kudavolai system.
    • Ur: For non-Brahmin villages. Peasant (Vellvangai) settlements were called Ur. Landholders of Ur (peasant village) acted as members of assembly Urar. Urar were entrusted with upkeep of temples, maintenance of tanks and managing water, and oversaw administrative functions like collection of revenue, maintenance of law & order. Less formal structure than Sabha, but still crucial to village-level decentralisation.
  • These were not symbolic councils, but functioning elected bodies with substantial powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice.
  • The ‘Uttaramerur Inscription’ issued by Prantaka Chola offers detailed information about the world’s earliest surviving evidence of a formal electoral system called Kudavolai System.

Kudavolai System: Ballot Pot Elections

  • The Kudavolai system, meaning “ballot pot”, was an early electoral method used in Chola village assemblies.
  • Under this method:  
    • The names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. 
    • A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. 
    • The selected individual would assume a position in the village assembly.
  • This randomised draw was not a game of chance, but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. 
  • To ensure that power was not monopolised by dynastic elites, eligibility criteria under the system were strict. 

Eligibility & Disqualification Criteria:

  • Candidates had to own tax-paying land, be between 35 and 70 years old,
  • Possess knowledge of Vedic texts or administration, and 
  • Have no record of crime or domestic abuse. 
  • Debt defaulters, alcoholics, and close relatives of sitting members were disqualified. 

Accountability Mechanism

  • Annual audits were mandatory.
  • Misappropriation of funds or dereliction of duty could lead to disqualification from future office, a radical mechanism even by modern standards.
  • Inscription no. 24 from Epigraphia Indica details the dismissal of a treasury officer over embezzlement, followed by a fine.
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Trade:

  • By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. 

Limitation of Cholas Administration:

  • However, the Chola system was far from egalitarian in the modern sense. It excluded women, labourers, and landless groups. 

Also Read: Imperial Chola 

Tughlaqabad Fort

Context: The Tughlaqabad Fort in Southeast Delhi has been made free of encroachments due to the efforts of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). 

Tughlaqabad Fort was built in 1321 by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty and ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. The fort was abandoned in 1327, just six years after its construction.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tughlaqabad Fort; Tughlaq Dynasty.

About Tughalqabad fort

  • Tughlaqabad fort is a ruined fort in Delhi, built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
  • Tughlaqabad is considered to be the third extant city of Delhi, after Lal Kot (built in mid-eleventh century by the Tomars) and Siri (built by the second ruler of the Khalji Dynasty, Alauddin Khalji). 
Tughlaqabad Fort

Architecture

  • Fortification: Tughalqabad consists of massive stone fortifications surrounding the ground plan of the city. The sloping rubble-filled city walls are a typical feature of monuments of the Tughlaq dynasty. 
  •  Divided into three parts:
    • Wider city area with houses built along a rectangular grid. 
    • Citadel with a tower at its highest point known as ‘Bijai-Mandal’.  
    • Adjacent palace area containing the royal residences. 
  • Among the major architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty, the tomb of Ghiyasuddin is almost perfectly preserved.
  • The Ghiyas-ud-Din's tomb is in the form of a self-contained fortress in miniature with the sloping walls of circular bastions. It may also have been intended as a fortified central tower.
  • The tomb-building is constructed diagonally at its widest part resembling it into the correct orientation with Mecca.
  • The major portion of the tomb-building is made with red sandstone, including the dome, made of white marble.
  • The architecture of the tomb's exterior portion resembles that of the structure of the Alai Darwaza constructed earlier. The similarity lies in the treatment of the pointed arches also. 
  • Tudor arch: The horse-shoe shaped tomb has been customized into a "Tudor" outline with a slight decorative double curve at the crown. 
  • The typical style of combining of the arch and the beam in the tomb was used for the first time in the architecture during the Tughlaq dynasty. 
  • The tomb signifies the beginning of the phase of a regal style of architecture. 
  • Adilabad Fort: Situated southeast of Ghiyasuddin Tomb. It was built by Muhammad Tughlaq (1325–1351) and shares the main characteristics of construction with Tughlaqabad fort.
  • Nai ka kot: Situated south-east of Adilabad. It is believed to have been built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a private residence before he built Adilabad. 

Tughlaq Dynasty

  • Third Dynasty of Delhi sultanate: The Tughlaq dynasty took over from the Khaljis in 1320.  Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. 
  • The Tughlaqs were able to maintain their rule for a long time because they had strong allies such as Turks, Afghans, and South Asian Muslim warriors. 
  • The dynasty reached its pinnacle between 1330 and 1335 AD, during a military campaign led by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. 
  • The dynasty ended in 1413.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320-1325 AD)

  • Fortified the North-Western frontiers to defend the sultanate against Mongol invasions. 
  • Muhammad Jauna Khan, son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq defeated Prataparudra-Deva II, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal. 
  • Established the city of Tughlaqabad. 
  • Ghiyasuddin Bahadur's rebellion in Bengal was suppressed during his rule. 

Architecture during Tughlaqs

  • Elements of Indo-Islamic style dominated the architectural developments during Tughlaq dynasty. The amalgamation of Islamic architecture as well as Hindu style has come to be known as the Indo-Islamic style of architecture.
  • The buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety, probably indicating less financial resources as well as puritanical tests. 
  • There was more emphasis on vastness in place of decoration of the buildings of the Khilji period. 
  • Dark appearance characterised the buildings. 
  • The constructions combined both arch and lintel method of entrance design. 
  • Introduced a style of construction known as “batter” which was characterised by sloping walls to give more strength to the building.
  • During the reign of three important rulers, the architecture of the dynasty flourished:
    • Founder of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320 to 1325)
    • Mohammed Shah Tughlaq (1325 to 1351)
    • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 to 1388) 

During the reign of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq

  • He had an important role in the development of architectures during Tughlaq dynasty. 
  • Major contributions: Fourth city of Delhi with fortified walls named Jahan-Pannah or the World Refuge, a double storied bridge of seven spans named Sath Pul, Bijai Mandal, the presumably part of a "Palace of a Thousand Columns”.
  • The city was deserted and desolate during the year 1340 due to the unpredictable policy of Muhammad Tughlaq to change the capital from Delhi to the city of Daulatabad.

During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq:

  • Successor of Muhammad Tughlaq, he constructed Delhi as the capital. 
  • Revived the Islamic style of architecture:
    • Architectural characters of this period were different from its predecessors as it had the reflection of the conditions that prevailed at the seat of the government.
    • It represented the suppression of the indigenous impulse.
  • Major creations: Ferozshah Kotla, the fifth city of Delhi, and three other fortress cities named as Jaunpur, Fathabad, and Hissar. 

Khirki Masjid at Jahanpanah: Khirki Masjid is a great example of Islamic architecture. It is a small quadrangle-shaped mosque and is covered entirely by a roof, which is an unusual thing for building of mosques. The presence of several domes on the roof along with the wonderful latticework or jali on the windows represents the typical Islamic style of architecture.

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