GS Paper 1

Kanwar Yatra 

Context: Recently, the Kanwar Yatra was observed during Hindu month of Shravan. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Kanwar Yatra.

What is the Kanwar Yatra?

  • The Kanwar Yatra is an annual pilgrimage undertaken by devotees of Lord Shiva, mostly during the Hindu month of Shravan (Saavan).
  • Pilgrims, called Kanwariyas, carry water from the holy river Ganga in decorated slings called kanwars, walking to offer it at Shiva temples.

Mythological Roots: Why Ganga Water?

  • During the churning of the ocean (Samudra Manthan), a deadly poison (halahal) emerged.
  • To protect the universe, Lord Shiva drank the poison, which turned his throat blue, hence the name Neelkantha. To soothe the burning poison, Ganga water was offered to Shiva.
  • Since, this event occurred in the month of Shravan, offering Ganga water to Shiva during this month is considered highly auspicious.

Despite its mythological links, the Kanwar Yatra in its current mass form is relatively recent. It is not mentioned in major ancient texts or British-era records.

Scholarly analysis suggests that it originated in 1700s Bihar (Sultanganj) and gradually spread across North India.

Where do Pilgrims go?

  • Sources of Ganga water: Haridwar, Gangotri, Gaumukh (Uttarakhand), Sultanganj (Bihar), Varanasi, Prayagraj, Ayodhya.
  • Shiva temples: Offerings can be made at any local Shiva temple, though famous destinations include:
    • 12 Jyotirlingas
    • Baidyanath Dham (Deoghar)
    • Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi)
    • Pura Mahadev (Baghpat)
    • Augharnath Temple (Meerut)

Why the Rapid Growth?

The popularity of the Yatra received a major boost in the 1980s. Scholars have linked it to following factors: 

  • Improved connectivity and infrastructure made long pilgrimages easier.
  • Hindu Identity Assertion 
  • Rising Incomes in North India 

Sociological Significance: The Kanwar Yatra helps blur rigid caste boundaries by fostering shared religious participation and community bonding across social hierarchies.

What is the Legal Status of Polyandry in India?

Context: A tribal woman from the Hatti community in Himachal Pradesh married two brothers under a traditional system of Polyandry.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Hatti tribe and the concept of polyandry in India.

Mains: Legal status of polyandry in India and key SC Judgements. 

What is Polyandry?

  • Polyandry refers to a marriage system where one woman has more than one husband. 
  • It has been practiced historically in Tibet, Nepal, and some tribal communities of India like the Toda in Tamil Nadu, Kinnaura in Himachal, and Jaunsaris in Uttarakhand.
  • In the Hatti tribe, polyandry is practiced primarily for preserving undivided family property, especially agricultural land, and reinforcing brotherly ties.
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The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:

  • The Act governs marriage applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. 
  • Section 2(2) of the Act states that its provisions do not apply to STs, unless directed by the Central Government via a notification in the Official Gazette. 
  • In the absence of such a notification, the Hattis continue to be governed by laws laid down under their customs, which are undocumented and uncodified.
  • The Act defines “custom” under Section 3 as a rule that has been observed for a long time, and has obtained the force of law.

Legal Status of Polyandry in India

  • Polyandry and Polygamy are outlawed by the Special Marriages Act 1954, the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, and criminalised under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.
  • While marriage is governed by personal laws, customary practices of Scheduled Tribes (STs) are recognised by the Constitution under Article 342. STs enjoy distinct legal status and cultural autonomy under constitutional provisions like Part XXI and the Fifth Schedule.
  • But for a customary law to be valid, it must be certain, reasonable, and consistent with public policy. 
  • When a customary law is challenged, it does not automatically gain legal recognition; courts have to be provided with proper evidence that such customary laws prevail.

Note: 

  • The Uttarakhand UCC mandates the registration of marriage, establishes equal rights of spouses across religions and communities and prohibits polygamy. However, in line with the constitutional provisions of respecting tribal autonomy, it does not apply to Scheduled Tribes. 
  • As per Section 2 of the Uttarakhand UCC Rules, 2025, the Code exempts members of Scheduled Tribes (as defined under Article 366(25) read with Article 342), and those whose customary rights are protected under Part XXI of the Constitution.

Key Supreme Court Judgments

Courts have held that customs must align with fundamental rights such as equality, dignity, and liberty; any custom violating these is deemed unconstitutional. 

  • Triple Talaq Case (Shayara Bano v. Union of India, 2017): The Supreme Court declared the practice of triple talaq as unconstitutional as it was deemed arbitrary, unreasonable and violative of Article 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
  • Sabarimala Case 2018: The ban on entry of women of menstruating age into the Sabarimala temple was held discriminatory and unconstitutional, violating Articles 14, 15, and 21. The Court ruled that religious customs cannot override gender equality.
  • Ram Charan Vs Sukhram case 2025: In a case related to succession rights for tribal women, the court affirmed that excluding female heirs solely based on customary male preferences violates Article 14 of the Constitution.

In various judgments, the SC has observed that customs too, like the law, cannot remain stuck in time and others cannot be allowed to take refuge in customs or hide behind them to deprive others of their rights. 

Keeladi Archaeological Site

Context: Findings from excavation at Keeladi village in Tamil Nadu's Sivaganga district provide compelling evidence of urban civilisation that existed in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam age.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Keeladi.

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About Keeladi

  • Keeladi is a small village in the Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river. 

Keeladi Findings: 

  • The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam Age on the banks of the Vaigai river. 
  • Carbon dating of charcoal discovered at the site in February 2017 established that the settlement dates back to 6th century BCE.
  • Houses built with burnt bricks, well-laid drainage systems, water tanks, and deep wells reflect urban planning and engineering skills.
  • Evidence of industries such as pottery, weaving, dyeing, and bead-making.
  • Square-shaped trenches reveal remnants of furnaces containing soot and ash, confirming that Keeladi was a centre for manufacturing beads made from quartz, carnelian, glass, agate, and other materials. 
  • Discovery of spindle whorls, terracotta beads, and tools points to organised economic activity.
  • The findings also indicate trade and cultural exchange with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
  • Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found. There are Tamil words engraved on the potteries that mention the names of individuals like 'Aathan', 'Uthiran' and 'Thiesan'.  

How is Keeladi linked to the Sangam Age?

  • The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE. The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time. 
  • Excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department (TNSDA) have pushed the Sangam age further back.  
    • In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE. 
    • One of the six samples collected at a depth of 353 cm, sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE. 
  • Keeladi could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments. 

What is the controversy surrounding Keeladi?

  • After reports of possible links with the Indus Valley Civilisation, the third round (2017) of diggings by the ASI saw a delayed start. 
  • Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna was transferred to Assam, allegedly in a perceived attempt to play down the excavation findings. 
  • Keeladi almost faded from public memory as there was no “significant finding” in the third round. This led to criticism that the excavation had been deliberately restricted to 400 metres. 

Are there Links to Indus Valley?  

  • The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation. 
  • The findings have also invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1000 years between the two places.
    • Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.  
    • However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs. 
  • TNSDA affirms that Keeladi has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade. Keeladi has also added to the credibility of Sangam Literature. 

Maratha Military Landscapes in UNESCO’s World Heritage List

Context: During the 47th session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) held in Paris, Maratha Fort Systems in India got UNESCO Heritage Tag.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Maratha Military Landscape, UNESCO World Heritage Tag.

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Maratha Military Landscapes in UNESCO’s World Heritage List

  • Maratha Military Landscapes of India has been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The decision was taken during the ongoing 47th session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) being held in Paris. 
  • With this inscription, India now has 44 properties on the UNESCO World Heritage List. India ranks 6th globally and 2nd in Asia Pacific Region for the most number of World Heritage Sites.
  • The purpose of including these heritage sites in UNESCO’s list is to preserve and promote shared heritage based on OUVs (Outstanding Universal Values) found in cultural, natural as well as mixed properties across 196 countries. 
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About Maratha Military Landscapes

  • Maratha Military Landscapes of India is an extraordinary network of twelve forts spread across the states of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
  • The list includes forts at: Raigad, Salher, Shivneri, Lohagad, Khanderi, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg (Maharashtra) and one Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu. 
  • The forts are located across a range of diverse terrains- from coastal outposts to hilltop strongholds - reflecting a sophisticated understanding of geography and strategic defence planning.
  • Time Period: 17th to 19th Centuries CE. 

UNESCO’s World Heritage List:

  • UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention was adopted in 1972 and entered into force in 1975.
  • Objective: To identify, protect and help preserve international sites of exceptional ecological, scientific, or cultural importance. 
  • As of 2025: India has 44 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These include 36 cultural sites, 7 natural sites, and 1 mixed site (Khangchendzonga National Park).
  • In 2024, the Moidams of Charaideo, Assam was inscribed in the World Heritage List.

Also Read: ‘Moidams’ to be considered for World Heritage List

Need to protect India’s Linguistic Secularism

Context: Recently, there have been a few instances of linguistic violence against non-Marathi speakers in Maharashtra. India’s diversity in religion and language is one of the primary factors which protects the secular character of the nation, ensuring its unity and integrity.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Features of Indian secularism; Article 29, Article 343, Eighth Schedule, Census 2011 data on languages.

Mains: Official vs National Language debate, Threats to Indian secularism and linguistic diversity. 

Indian Secularism

  • Unlike Western secularism, which calls for a complete separation of religion and state, Indian secularism is rooted in tolerance and equality granting all citizens the Freedom of Conscience and Religion. 
  • The state has no official religion, making India truly secular.
  • Indian secularism also addresses linguistic pluralism. It is neither pro-religion nor anti-religion or language, but actively seeks to prevent communalism, whether religious or linguistic, making diversity a foundation of national unity. 
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Constitutional Provisions to protect Linguistic Diversity:  

As per the data of Census 2011, India has a total of 121 languages and 270 mother tongues.  Such diversity needs to be protected; each and every language irrespective of region or State must be shown respect. This is the only way to protect India’s linguistic secularism.

  • In order to protect linguistic diversity, the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution includes 22 languages.
  • Article 29: Incorporates that any section of citizens of India including minority groups shall have the right to protect their language, script or culture, and that language cannot be the ground for discrimination. No State is permitted to go out of it in the name of a distinct language or culture. 
  • Article 343: As India is a Union of States, Article 343 enshrines that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The states are free to choose their own official language.  

India’s religious and linguistic diversity is a key pillar of its secular character, ensuring unity and integrity. However, these aspects can also become sources of conflict, as seen in recent communal and linguistic tensions like in Maharashtra.

Threat to India’s Linguistic Diversity: Linguistic Tensions and Identity Politics

  • Many Southern and North-eastern States have historically resisted the imposition of Hindi, fearing cultural and linguistic domination.
  • Dravidian Movement in Tamil Nadu strongly opposed Hindi imposition, instead promoting Tamil and English as symbols of cultural pride and autonomy.
  • Maharashtra has emerged as one of the most sensitive States on the language debate. The recent violence against non-Marathi speakers reflects identity politics, and not genuine concern for cultural protection.

India’s secular fabric is deeply woven into its religious and linguistic diversity. Protecting this diversity is not merely a cultural or political obligation, but a constitutional imperative.

In a globalising world, a conservative leaning towards religion or language will lead to a fragmentation of society and tear apart the secular fabric. 

Also Read: What makes the Indian Constitution Secular? 

Pandharpur Wari

Context: Every year, in the month of June-July, thousands of devotees in Maharashtra embark on a spiritual journey (yatra) called Pandharpur Wari. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pandharpur Wari. 

Pandharpur Wari

  • The Pandharpur wari is an annual pilgrimage (yatra) from various parts of Maharashtra to Pandharpur in Maharashtra, the abode of Lord Vitthal (revered form of Lord Vishnu).
  • It involves carrying the paduka (sacred sandals) of saints in a palki, most notably of Sant Dnyaneshwar Maharaj and Sant Tukaram Maharaj, from their respective shrines to Pandharpur.  Many pilgrims join this procession on foot. 
  • The tradition is more than 700 to 800 years old. Warkari means "one who performs the wari". Warkaris (devotees) walk for nearly 20 days, covering over 250 kilometres on foot.

Along the way, they sing abhangas (devotional songs) and perform kirtans.

Also Read: Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra 

Dalai Lama

Context: India raised a strong objection to China's demand that Beijing must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, asserting that no one except the Tibetan spiritual leader himself has the authority to decide on his successor.

Relevance of the Topic Prelims- Key facts about Dalai Lama. 

Dalai Lama

Who is Dalai Lama?

  • “Dalai Lama” is a title which is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai ('ocean') and the Tibetan word lama ('master, guru').
  • This title was first conferred in 1578 upon Sonam Gyatso, the leader of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, by Altan Khan, the first Shunyi King of Ming China.
  • The first two Dalai Lamas were offered this title posthumously. The Third Dalai Lama was a living leader to receive this title (Sonam Gyatso).

The Dalai Lama Lineage: 

  • The institution of the Dalai Lama is part of the tulku concept in Tibetan Buddhism, in which spiritual masters are reincarnated upon their death, so that their teachings can be preserved and carried forward.
  • All tulkus in the lineage of the Dalai Lamas are considered manifestations of the Buddha Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. 
  • The 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso) escaped from Lhasa in 1959 during the Tibetan diaspora and lives in exile in Dharamsala, India. He was recognised as the reincarnation of the previous 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso at the age of two. Bodhisattvas are persons who are on the path to becoming a Buddha, but who put the liberation of other sentient beings ahead of entering nirvana themselves.
  • The first Dalai Lama, Gedun Drupa, was born in 1391. Beginning with Lobsang Gyatso (1617-82), the fifth of the line, the Dalai Lama became both the spiritual and political leader of Tibetan Buddhists. 

Significance: 

  • The Dalai Lama is the symbol of unification of Tibet.
  • He represents Buddhist values and traditions not tied to a specific school.
  • From the 5th Dalai Lama onwards, the lineage was enjoined with the secular role of governing Tibet. 

14th Dalai Lama and Tibetan government-in-exile

  • The 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso) was born in the hamlet of Taktser in north-eastern Tibet, now Qinghai province of China, on July 6, 1935. He was identified at age 2 as the reincarnation of Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama.
  • 1951: Tibet was annexed by China. 
  • 1959: Tibetan national uprising was crushed by Chinese troops. The 14th Dalai Lama escaped from Lhasa along with a group of his followers, and crossed into India at Khenzimane in Arunachal Pradesh. 
  • 1960: Jawaharlal Nehru’s government settled him in McLeodganj, Dharamshala, where the Tibetan government-in-exile was established.
  • 2011: Dalai Lama wrote to the Assembly of Tibetan People’s Deputies, known as the Tibetan parliament-in-exile, asking to be relieved of his temporal authority. Formal transfer of political power to the democratically elected leader of Tibetans living in exile took place, ending a 368-year-old tradition in which the Dalai Lama was both the spiritual and political head of Tibetans.

Dalai Lama & China: 

  • China denounces the 14th Dalai Lama as a “splittist”, “traitor”, and an exile with “no right to represent the Tibetan people”, and prohibits any public show of devotion towards him.
  • In his 2011 statement, the Dalai Lama had said that his reincarnation should be found in a free country, not under Chinese control. No recognition should be given to a reincarnation selected for political purposes by the Chinese government.
  • Tibetans fear that as the Dalai Lama grows older, Beijing could announce a successor of its choice, and use it to tighten its control over the Tibetan Buddhist religion and culture.

15th Dalai Lama: 

  • 2025: 14th Dalai Lama announced that the 600-year-old institution of the Dalai Lama would continue and the Gaden Phodrang Trust (the official office of the Dalai Lama) shall be the sole authority to recognise the future reincarnation.

Gaden Phodrang:

  • Gaden Phodrang refers to the residential quarters of the Dalai Lama lineage from the second Dalai Lama onward at Drepung Monastery in Lhasa, Tibet.
  • After the Potala Palace was built (by a decree of the fifth Dalai Lama), the Dalai Lamas moved away from these quarters, and stayed at Potala Palace in winter and Norbulingka (built by the seventh Dalai Lama about 100 years after Potala) in summer. This tradition was followed until the 14th Dalai Lama’s escape from Lhasa to India in March 1959.

There are three institutions associated with Dalai Lama: 

1. Gaden Phodrang Trust: 

  • Registered in 2011 in Dharamshala with the aim of recognising the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama. 
  • It is based in the office of the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama heads the trust, whose members include some other aides of the spiritual leader.

2. Gaden Phodrang Foundation: 

  • Tax-exempt Swiss nonprofit with its registered office in Zurich, and is supervised by the Swiss Federal Department of Home Affairs. 
  • It is funded by charitable contributions made by the founder and the public.
  • The Dalai Lama is the founder and president of the foundation.
  • Aim: To maintain and support the tradition and institution of the Dalai Lama, preserve Tibetan culture, promote basic human values, mutual understanding among religions, peace and non-violence, and protection of the environment.

3. Dalai Lama Trust: 

  • Non-profit charitable organisation founded by the 14th Dalai Lama in 2009, headquartered in New Delhi.

Aim: To support the welfare of the Tibetan people and to promote human values, interfaith harmony, and world peace. Support Tibetan students and scholars and fund schools and educational institutions.

Key Facts:

  • The 14th Dalai Lama was conferred the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. 
  • Books authored by him: Freedom in Exile (autobiography); Voice for the Voiceless.

Enabling Voting Rights for Migrants 

Context: Under India’s election rules, eligible voters can only cast ballots in their constituencies, i.e., those working outside of their state have to return home to vote. As a result, a significant portion of the migrant population is excluded from exercising their voting rights. 

Relevance of the Topic:  Mains: Issues related to migration.

Migration is referred to as spatial mobility from one geographical unit to another which involves change in residence for a considerable period of time. 

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State of Migration in India

  • In 2021, the overall migration rate in India was 28.9%. 
  • According to Census 2011, migrants constitute 37% of India’s total population, with women accounting for 68% of the migrant population, a trend reflecting the feminisation of migration. 
  • Around  85% of migrants are Intra - state migrants.
  • A significant portion of migration in India is for marriage.
  • Around 10%, migration is for work.This number is significantly higher in certain northern and eastern States such as Bihar.
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One of the major challenges associated with Migration in India is low electoral participation of migrants. E.g., In the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, voter turnout in Bihar was just 56%, well below the national average of 66%. One of the biggest reasons behind this gap is the inability of migrants to return home to cast their vote.

Reasons behind Low Electoral Participation of Migrants:  

  • Around 85% of migrants are Inter-state migrants, high cost and long distances prevent return to home constituency.
  • Most migrants work in the informal sector, where lack of paid leave and daily-wage dependency hinder their ability to travel and vote.
  • Absence of local address proof prevents voter registration at destination.
  • Women migrants post-marriage often remain unregistered at new residence.
  • Low political visibility leads to exclusion from electoral outreach and campaigns.

This undermines the principle of universal adult franchise (UAF), migrants remain voiceless in shaping policies that affect them.

Mechanisms to increase Migrant Electoral Participation:  

  • Mechanisms to Facilitate Voting for Intrastate Migrants: Intra-State migrant participation can be improved by enforcing statutory holidays on polling day and arranging special transport, allowing informal workers to vote without wage loss.

Mechanisms to Facilitate Voting for Inter-State Migrants: 

  • Remote Voting Machines (RVMs): Pilot project by Election Commission of India to allow migrants to vote remotely across constituencies, though currently limited by administrative complexity and political concerns.
  • Postal Ballots: Extending postal voting, currently used for armed forces, to migrants. However the major challenge is it requires advance registration and streamlined logistics for ballot dispatch and return.
  • Switching Voting Constituencies: Allowing long-term migrants, living in a constituency for at least 6 months to register and vote in their place of work.
  • Targeted Voter Registration drives for women who migrate after marriage to ensure enrolment at their new residence.

Each of these options has its advantages and disadvantages. Enabling voting by migrants is a complex task and is made more complex by the heterogeneity of migrants. Therefore, a combined approach using RVMs, postal ballots, constituency switching, and logistical support is essential to ensure inclusive voting for both inter- and intra-State migrant workers.

Legal dispute over Tomb of Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus

Context: Madhya Pradesh High Court has rejected a plea seeking to conduct religious and cultural practices at the tomb of Sufi Saint Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus in Gwalior. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Tomb of Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus. 

The High Court ruled that allowing religious practices at a Centrally Protected Monument was not permissible. Allowing such rituals could lead to a “national loss”, destroying the monument’s “originality, sanctity and vitality”.

Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus

  • Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus was the 16th century musician and Sufi Saint of Shattari Order.
  • He was the contemporary of 3 Mughal emperors: Babur, Humayun, and Akbar. 
  • He played an instrumental part in Babur’s conquest of Gwalior fort in 1526. The saint suggested tactics to Mughal Army chiefs to establish their presence in the city and provided privileged information to them which eventually enabled them to plan a secret night attack to capture the fort.
  • He was also Humayun’s teacher. 
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About Tomb of Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus: 

  • The tomb of Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus was built in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh soon after his death in 1563.
  • It is one of the earliest and most iconic examples of Mughal funerary architecture and is considered one of the most notable structures of Akbar’s reign (1556-1605 CE).
  • The tomb has influence of Indian architecture, specifically from Gujarat and Rajasthan, which eventually evolved into Indo-Muslim architecture.
  • It is listed as a Centrally Protected Monument under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. It has been maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) since 1962.
  • The grave of Tansen, legendary musician of Akbar’s Court, is located on the premises of the monument. Tansen was a disciple of Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus. 
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Need for Gender Equity in Urban Bureaucracy 

Context: Integrating gender equity into India’s male-dominated urban governance and bureaucracy is crucial for building cities that are inclusive, safe, and responsive to all citizens.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Role of women in Urban Bureaucracy.  

India is in the midst of a profound urban transformation. By 2050, over 800 million people, about half the population, will live in cities, making India the largest driver of global urban growth. 

A key dimension of this transformation is how gender equity is integrated into urban governance, planning, and budgeting.

Women Representation in Governance

  • The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts mandated 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Governments (ULGs). 17 States and 1 UT have increased this to 50%.
  • As of 2024, women constitute 46% of local elected representatives (Ministry of Panchayati Raj).

While women’s representation in grass-root politics has increased, administrative cadres (city managers, planners, engineers, police) are male dominated, limiting the ability of cities to respond equitably to all citizens

The Gender Gap in Urban Bureaucracy: 

  • As of 2022, women constituted just 20% of the Indian Administrative Service (India Spend 2022).
  • Women representation in urban planning, municipal engineering and transport authorities is even lower. 
  • In policing, only 11.7% of the national force are women (Bureau of Police Research and Development 2023), and often concerned with desk roles.

Impact of Gender Gap in Urban Bureaucracy: Absence of Gender Responsive Policies:  

  • An Institute for Transportation and Development Policy and Safety Study found that 84% of women in Delhi and Mumbai used public or shared transport compared to  63% of men. Yet, urban planning prioritises mega-projects over safe, accessible, neighbourhood-level mobility.
  • A 2019 Safetipin audit across 50 cities found over 60% of public spaces were poorly lit. With few women in policing, community safety initiatives often fail to resonate with women.
  • With few women in policing, community safety measures often fail to reflect the lived experiences and needs of women.

Studies by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations and UN shows that women officials tend to prioritise water, health, and safety, and enhance public trust through more empathetic enforcement, underscoring the need for gender-diverse institutions in urban governance.

Gender-Responsive Budgeting

  • Gender-responsive budgeting (GRB) is a concept that integrates gender considerations into public finance.
  • Introduced globally in the 1990s, GRB recognises that budgets are not neutral and can reinforce inequalities if left unchecked.

Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) initiatives in India:  

  • It is a promising but underutilised tool in India’s urban governance. India adopted a Gender Budget Statement in 2005-06, with Delhi, Tamil Nadu and Kerala leading efforts.
    • Delhi has funded women-only buses and public lighting.
    • Tamil Nadu applied Gender Responsive Budgeting across 64 departments in 2022-23.
    • Kerala embedded gender goals through its People’s Plan Campaign. 
  • However, studies by UN-Women and the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy show that most such efforts suffer from weak monitoring and limited institutional capacities, especially in smaller cities.
  • For many ULGs, GRB remains tokenistic, overlooking essentials such as pedestrian safety or childcare in urban planning.

Global Best Practices:  

  • Countries such as the Philippines mandate 5% of local budgets for gender programmes. 
  • Rwanda integrates GRB into national planning with oversight bodies.
  • Uganda mandates gender equity certificates for fund approvals.
  • Mexico ties GRB to results-based budgeting.
  • South Africa pilots participatory planning to anchor GRB in lived realities.

Gender-balanced bureaucracies are not about fairness alone. They are essential for building safer, equitable, responsive cities.

Impact of Increased Women Representation in Bureaucracy can be seen globally:

  • Rwanda boosted maternal health and education spending.
  • Brazil prioritised sanitation and primary health care.
  • South Korea’s gender impact assessments reshaped transit and public spaces.
  • Tunisia’s parity laws gave women more technical roles, improving focus on safety and health.
  • The Philippines uses gender-tagged budgeting to fund gender-based violence shelters and childcare.

These examples show how representation leads to transformation when women are empowered in decision-making roles, the quality and inclusiveness of governance improves.

Way Forward

As India aims for a $5 trillion economy, its cities must aim to be engines of equity, not just growth.

Gender must be mainstreamed into urban governance through: 

  • Mandatory gender audits, participatory budgeting, and linked evaluation.
  • GRB should be institutionalised across ULGs, supported by targeted capacity-building.
  • Representation must translate into real decision-making power, breaking entrenched glass ceilings within bureaucracy.
  • Promote local gender equity councils.
  • Scale models like Kudumbashree (Kerala) which promote women-led planning.

Women are reshaping governance as leaders, they must now help shape how cities are planned and managed. When cities reflect women’s lived experiences, they work better for all. To build cities for women, we must start by building cities with women.

Annual Rath Yatra in Puri 

Context: The annual Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath and his siblings Lord Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra will begin in the temple town of Puri, Odisha on June 27, 2025. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Ratha Yatra; Lord Jagannath Temple. 

Rath Yatra

  • The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India.
  • It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh (June or July).
  • The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra.
  • During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.
  • The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra).
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About Jagannath Temple

  • Ancient Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu. 
  • The present temple was rebuilt by the king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE. 
  • Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India). 
  • Deities worshipped: Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra 
  • The idol of Lord Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or 19 years by an exact replica.
  • The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture. The temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
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Flash Flood in Subarnarekha River

Context: The Subarnarekha River has flooded large parts of Balasore district in Odisha, affecting over 50,000 people and inundating dozens of villages.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Subarnarekha River; Flash Flood. 

Subarnarekha River

  • Subarnarekha (literally means Streak of Gold) is a rain-fed river that originates near Ranchi, the capital of Jharkhand on the Chhotanagpur plateau.
  • The river flows through Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The total length of the river is 395 kilometres. 
  • Kanchi and Karkari rivers are its chief tributaries.
  • Subarnarekha passes through areas with extensive mining of copper and uranium ores. As a result of unplanned mining activities, the river is polluted. It has been the lifeline of tribal communities inhabiting the Chhotanagpur region, and water pollution affects their livelihood. 
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Flood and Flash Flood:

  • Flood: An overflow of water onto normally dry land. The inundation of a normally dry area caused by rising water in an existing waterway, such as a river, stream, or drainage ditch. Ponding of water at or near the point where the rain fell. Flooding is a longer term event, it may last days or weeks.
  •  Flash flood: A flood caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than 6 hours. It can also occur even if no rain has fallen, for instance after a levee or dam has failed, or after a sudden release of water by a debris or ice jam. The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water-content all determine the intensity and impact caused by flash flood. 

Also Read: Small peninsular rivers flowing towards East

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