Context: The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) has recently flagged the issue of illegal transportation of manganese ore leading to massive loss of revenue in Odisha.
About the news
In November 2022, the Ministry of Steel and Mines had alerted the Odisha Government about the under-reporting of grades of chromite and manganese ores.
It had recommended the State Government come up with Standard Operating Procedure for preventing loss of revenue due to declaration of higher-grade ores as lower grade.
What is under–reporting?
Under-reporting of grades of minerals is a serious issue and causes loss to State exchequer by way of lower collection of various payments such as auction premium, royalty, district mineral foundation funds and national mineral foundation trust.
Responsibility to frame laws:
As per Section 23C of MMDR Act, State Governments are empowered to make rules for preventing illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals.
It is the responsibility of the State Governments to establish the correct grade of mineral being dispatched and change action premium, royalty and other payments on the correct grade of mineral.
As per ule 45(7)(b) and (c) of the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules (MCDR), 2017, the state government can suspend licence / permit in case it is found that the person or the company engaged in trading or storage or end-use submits incomplete or false information in monthly or annual returns – the trading companies have managed to go with impunity without submitting any timely returns.
Odisha's Mineral Resources
Odisha is a mineral-rich State having 96.12% of the country’s chrome ore, 51.15% bauxite reserve of India, 33.61% of hematite iron ore and 43.64% of manganese.
Manganese ore containing 25% Mn content and below is considered to be low grade and are generally priced much lower.
Auctions are finalised and mines are leased out on the basis of highest bid premium per tonne of ore offered by the private bidders.
The price of ore with less than 25% Manganese content is ₹3,228 while the same for ore containing Manganese content over 46 % is ₹20,407.
If the Manganese ore is low grade, the leaseholders pay lesser royalty to the National Mineral Exploration Trust and District Mineral Fund.
About Manganese:
It is a hard, gray-white metal, which is very brittle, and fairly reactive. It is naturally found in a variety of minerals, but never on its own.
It is one of the most common elements in Earth's crust and is widely distributed across the planet's surface.
It is mainly associated with Dharwar system.
It is found in the Earth's crust at a concentration of 1000 ppm, making it the 12th most abundant element.
It is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro alloys.
It is vital to human and animal life in metabolic functions.
Many alloys containing manganese are used in steel production, glass making, and even to make the aluminium in soda cans thinner and stronger.
Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese. Major mines in Odisha are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
Context: Shilabhattarika, the celebrated Sanskrit poetess of Ancient India, has recently been the subject of new research by researchers at the Pune-based Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI), which is home to the largest collection of manuscripts and rare books in South Asia. They claim to have shed new light on her by identifying her as the daughter of the renowned Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshin II of Badami (in modern Karnataka).
Findings from the copper plates
Information about the literary past
The copper plate gives critical details to the literary history of the Chalukyas, in addition to providing information on the geography and politics.
Marked change in the Historiography of the Badami Chalukyas
It had provided earliest concrete historical proof of Shila-Bhattarika's status as a poetess, who made a name for herself in the historically male-dominated field of classical Sanskrit literature.
The new research has put Shilabhattarika's life in the 7th century CE instead of the prevailing belief that placed her as the wife of the 8th-century Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva.
Shilabhattarika was a Chalukyan princess who may have been Pulakeshin II's daughter.
Pulakeshin II, who ruled from 610 to 642 CE, is known for having notably defeated Harshavardhan of Kanauj in a battle that took place in close proximity to the Narmada River in 618 CE.
Reconstruction of the Past
Archaeologists, linguists, and orientalists employ copper plates, which frequently have inscriptions of hereditary grants made by kings, to recreate the past.
A copper-plate charter with five copper plates from the era of Vijayaditya, the Badami Chalukyan king (696-733 CE) has been deciphered.
A copper ring with a Varaha (boar) seal serves as the binding element of the charter. The Varaha seal served as the royal seal of Badami Chalukyas. A Sanskrit text written in late-Brahmi script was included in the charter.
According to a preliminary interpretation of the plates, Vijayaditya gave the village of Sikkatteru to the Vedic scholar Vishnusharma in the month of Magha, Shaka year 638.
The plates also revealed that Mahendravarma, son of Shilabhattarika, the daughter of "Satyashraya," had asked Vijayaditya to make the grant. Pulakeshin II was the only Badami Chalukyan ruler who was solely known by the title "Satyashraya," which can be translated as "patron of truth."
Additionally, evidence points to Shilabhattarika's marriage to Dadiga, a prince from Talakkad's Ganga lineage.
Shila-Bhattarika
A Sanskrit poetess from the ninth century.
In the accounts of Rajashekhara:
Shilabhattarika has been lauded for her delicate compositions by the Sanskrit poet-critic Rajashekhara, court poet of the Gurjara-Pratiharas (9th–10th century CE).
Rajashekhara claims that the Panchali style (one of the four primary literary styles, the other three are Vaidharbhi, Gaudi, and Lati) can be seen in the writings of Shilabhattarika and perhaps in a few of the works of the poet Bana from the seventh century.
The 15th-century anthology Subhashitavali contains a lyric attributed to Rajashekhara that states that Panchali style preserves "a balance between words and meaning."
In Sharngadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology, she and three other female poets are lauded, in the following sentences: Poetesses like Shilabhattarika, Vijja, Marula, and Morika are well-known for their poetic brilliance and erudition. These women are proficient in all academic fields, have engaged in disputes with other academics.
Subjects in her poetry: It is known that she wrote at least 46 poems, some of which deal with "love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons, insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines."
The deciphering of the plates also sheds light on how, Shilabhattarika might have developed the level of poetry-writing expertise that put her on par with the most esteemed male poets of the day.
Durvinita, a well-known ruler of the Western Gangas, was Shilabhattarika's grandfather-in-law. He was also an accomplished composer who had patronised Bharavi, the author of the classical epic Kiratarjuniya.
Context: The large parts of country have logged temperatures that are up to 10°C lower than normal due to rains. An uncharacteristically cooler start to the summer, which is likely to persist for a few more weeks in several parts of the country, may hurt the arrival of the crucial monsoon season, weather scientists have said, at a time when the rainy season is expected to anyway be sapped by the Pacific warming phenomenon El Nino.
How lower temperatures are going to affect monsoon?
Relative thermal differences create pressure differences which play very significant role in the onset of monsoon.
More heating over northwest India helps with the onset of monsoon. When the ground heats up, especially in heatwave prone parts of northwest India (which includes Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi), it creates an area of low pressure. There is something called the heat low which forms over northwest India.
Hence low temperatures over NW part will lower the advance of monsoonal winds.
What is heat low? What are its impacts on monsoon rainfall?
During the northward march of sun in northern hemisphere, the continent surrounding the Arabian Sea begin to receive large amounts of heat; not only in the form of radiation from sun, but also flux of heat from the earth’s surface into atmosphere.
As a result of this large input of power, trough of low pressure forms over this region.
Intense heat low acts as suction devise for moist air along the monsoon trough and to some extend related to good monsoon over India.
During weak heat low monsoon rainfall over India is greatly affected and results in deficient or scanty rainfall over vast area of country.
What is the role of monsoon trough?
Monsoon Trough is an elongated low-pressure area which extends from heat low over Pakistan to Head Bay of Bengal.
This is one of semi-permanent feature of monsoon circulation.
Monsoon trough may be a characteristic of east west orientation of Himalayan ranges and north south orientation of Khasi-Jaintia Hills.
Generally eastern side of monsoon trough oscillates, sometimes southwards and sometimes northwards.
In contrast, the northward migration of this trough leads to break monsoon condition over major part of India and heavy rains along foothills of Himalayas and sometimes floods in Brahmaputra river.
Shifting positions of monsoon trough
Impacts on distribution of rainfall across India
• When we say that the trough is in normal position, that means it passes through Ganganagar, Allahabad, Calcutta and Head Bay.
• This gives good rain to Central India.
• As a effect of low formation and it’s passage along the trough, the strong wind currents form over the west coast.
• These currents are blocked by Sahyadri mountains resulting in formation of offshore trough.
• Hence due to this offshore trough west of coast of India receives good rain.
• When the trough shifts to the south of it’s normal position, than the monsoon conditions are active giving excessive rainfall in central India and over the west coast of India due to offshore trough.
• This position is best for monsoon condition giving rain to all over Peninsular India.
• When the trough shifts to north of normal position it means that it shift to foothills of Himalayas giving good rain to Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and to all Northeast states of India.
• This condition is known as “Break Monsoon” where rainfall activity over rest of India ceases.
Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated India's first water metro in Kerala's Kochi which will connect 10 islands around the city in Malabar coast through battery-operated electric hybrid boats.
Waterways - Kochi Scenario
The Kerala backwaters are a network of brackish lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (Known as Malabar Coast) of Kerala state in southern India. Kochi is the largest city in the south Indian state of Kerala. Kochi is less vulnerable to storm surges or cyclones compared to cities on the eastern coast of the country. The city sits within a complex estuarine system comprising Lake Vembanad and the many rivers flowing into the lake, including the Periyar and Muvattupuzha rivers.
Inland water ways India Scenario
India has approximately 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprise of rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. Navigable waterways are a fuel-efficient, environment friendly and cost-effective mode of transport. Despite the inherent advantages, the share of Inland waterway transport (IWT) in India is currently estimated to be only around 2% in comparison to 35% in Bangladesh and 20% in Germany.
Initiatives
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI): Statutory authority created under the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) Act, 1985 for regulation and development of Inland Waterways.
National Inland Navigation Institute (NINI): Setup by IWAI to develop human resources for Inland Water Transport sector
National Waterways Act, 2016: Under this act, Parliament has declared 111 National Waterways which cover a total length of 20300 Kms and spread across 24 States.
Sagarmala Program: Promote port-led development through 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways
Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP): Capacity augmentation of navigation on National Waterway-1 with the technical and financial assistance of the World Bank.
Central Road and Infrastructure fund (CRIF): Set up under the CRIF Act, 2000 and administered by Finance Ministry. The money for this fund is raised through the cess on petrol and high-speed diesel. The fund can be used for various social and physical infrastructure projects, including inland water transport.
International Cooperation such as Kaladan Multi- modal Transit Transport Project, Treaty of Transit between India and Nepal, agreement between India and Bangladesh for use Chaogram and Mongla Ports for transit movement of Indian Goods.
Some important operational National Waterways in India
S.no.
National Waterways
Details of waterways
States
1
National Waterway 1
Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River System (Haldia - Allahabad)
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand & West Bengal
2
National Waterway 2
Brahmaputra River (Dhubri - Sadiya)
Assam
3
National Waterway 3
West Coast Canal (Kottapuram - Kollam), Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals
Kerala
4
National Waterway 4
Krishna River (Vijayawada – Muktyala)
Andhra Pradesh
5
National Waterway 5
Dhamra-Paradio via Mangalagadi to Pankopal
Odisha
6
National Waterway 8
Alappuzha- Changanassery Canal
Kerala
7
National Waterway 9
Alappuzha-Kottayam – Athirampuzha Canal
Kerala
8
National Waterway 16
Barak River
Assam
9
National Waterway 27
Cumberjua River
Goa
10
National Waterway 68
Mandovi River
Goa
11
National Waterway 86
Runarayan River
West Bengal
12
National Waterway 97
Sunderbans Waterways
West Bengal
13
National Waterway 111
Zuari River
Goa
Ports & Shipping and Inland Waterways
India has a coastline spanning about 7,500 km, forming one of the biggest peninsulas in the world. Around 90 per cent of India’s external trade by volume and 70 per cent by value are handled by 12major ports and 205 non-major ports operate on India’s coast. Yet, roads and railways continue to be the dominant mode for cargo movement. Despite being the most cost-effective and efficient mode, water transport accounted for mere 6 per cent of freight transport in India in 2016-17.
Constraints before inland water ways
Modal mix: Roads (54 per cent) continue to be the dominant mode of transporting cargo, followed by rail (33 per cent). Transportation of cargo through waterways – shipping and inland water – accounts for a minuscule modal share (6 per cent) despite it being the most cost effective and efficient mode.
Draught levels: Most Indian container handling ports lack the capability to handle large container vessels due to inadequate depth; a minimum draft depth of 18 metres is needed to enable mother vessels to dock at ports.
Connectivity to ports: Weak hinterland connectivity between production centres and gateway ports
Transhipment port: A large percentage of containers in India are currently transhipped through other ports, such as Colombo (just south of India), Singapore (East) due to the absence of a transhipment port in the country. This has led to additional costs and delays due to the feeder voyage from India to the hub port.
Capital for inland vessels: At present, the cost of capital is very high and makes IWT freight uncompetitive.
Technical issues in inland waterways: The varying and limited depths due to the meandering and braiding of alluvial rivers and the erosion of their banks causing excessive siltation, lack of cargo earmarked for IWT, non-mechanized navigation lock systems and insufficient unloading facility at terminals hinder the use of IWT by shippers.
Way forward
Open up India’s dredging market: At present, the Dredging Corporation of India (DCI) and a limited set of private vendors serve the Indian dredging market, limiting competition.
Expedite the implementation of Sagarmala to modernise ports.
Enhance last mile connectivity to inland waterways: IWT should be integrated to multimodal/ intermodal connectivity. Inland terminals with proper road and/or rail connectivity and seamless transfer of goods from one mode to the other are important for an efficient logistics supply chain.
Facilitate access to capital for inland vessels: Financing for inland vessels could be made part of priority sector lending by banks. Categorizing inland vessels as infrastructure equipment will further ease access to capital issues for a sector where capital investments and operational costs are high.
Address technical and regulatory constraints in inland waterways to ease movement of inland vessels- Detention of a vessel without a valid reason should not be allowed; A clear directive needs to be issued for security of inland vessels, crew and cargo; Strengthen existing Inland Water Transport Directorates or Maritime Boards or set them up in states where they do not exist to ease the IWT business and to ensure efficient regulation and facilitation of IWT for cargo movement.
Streamline the governance of inland waterways: Currently, inland waterways are governed by multiple authorities including the Central Inland Water Corporation Limited (CIWTC Ltd), port authorities and state governments. Streamlining the regulatory structure and bringing an overarching body to oversee Inland Water Transport such as the IWAI will bring more consistency in the rules and strategy of the sector.
Develop measures for year-round navigation: Currently, due to weather conditions, several inland waterways are only serviceable during a part of the year. The seasonality of this mode of transport reduces its adoption. Efforts should be made to develop deeper stretches of the river, i.e., at least 2.5 m to 3 m.
Context: Kilimanoor Palace Trust has decided to put the last unfinished painting of Raja Ravi Verma (Parsi lady) for the public display. He died on 02 October 1906.
About Raja Ravi Verma:
Birth: Kilimanoor, Kerala
Learning: he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen
Specialisation: Oil and water paintings. He focused on realised expression and skin tone. Varma combined European realism with Indian sensibilities. He was inspired from Indian literature to dance drama.
Achievements: Three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.
Role towards masses: He opened a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894 to take his art to masses. His lithographs increased the involvement of common people with fine arts and defined artistic tastes among common people.
Important work:
Shakuntala
Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair
There Comes Papa
Galaxy of Musicians
Damayanti talking with a swan
Maharaj Shivaji
Legacy
2014 Indian Hindi-language film, Rang Rasiya (English title: Colours of Passion) explores Varma's inspiration behind his paintings.
Early Life: He was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, Akbar's uncle and tutor, and after Bairam Khan was assassinated, Akbar had the child brought to him and arranged for his upbringing.
Career:
He was one of Akbar's Navratans and also served in Jahangir's court. His political and military career began with Akbar's Gujarat campaign.
Emperor Akbar nominated him as Governor of Gujarat in 1575.
He was a composer who created couplets about Lord Krishna since Akbar's wife, Jodha, revered Lord Krishna.
Akbar bestowed the title Mirza Khan upon him. He used Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit in his poetry.
Over the years, his 700-odd couplets have become a significant feature of Hindi school textbooks.
He was also a leading translator of his time, having translated Babur's autobiography from Turkish to Persian.
Khane-E-Khana
Rahim Khan is credited with funding the creation of attractive structures like as canals, tanks, and gardens. The most impressive of his works is the tomb he made for his wife, Mah Banu, in 1598. It was the first Mughal tomb erected specifically for a woman.
Features:
Material used: The tomb is made of red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
Different architectural styles: It is an arch-shaped structure and is decorated using the structure of an inverted lotus. Other styles include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern.
Ornamentation: The tomb has been ornamented with diverse motifs including those seen in other mausoleums as well as those found in Hindu architecture like the peacock and Swastika.
Humayun’s Tomb
Significance of Tomb:
Built in 1570, it is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
The tomb has also been documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
The structure is considered to be an inspiration for the most well-known example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal.
Commissioning
Many scholars have argued that it was Haji Begam, Humayun’s widow who had commissioned this mausoleum.
However, according to Akbar Nama, written by Emperor Akbar’s official biographer Abu’l Fazl, Haji Begam was on a pilgrimage to Mecca during much of the construction period of the tomb. This has been confirmed by both Abu’l Fazl and Father Monserrate, a Jesuit priest who resided in Emperor Akbar’s court during the early 1580s. The monument was built by Emperor Akbar.
Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent.
It was designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
Features:
Persian Influence:
It was the first structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand, was introduced in India. Persian style is once again evident in this complex in the Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden layout based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in The Holy Quran.
Hybrid of Persian and Indian Architectural styles
Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a distinct Indian architectural feature.This combination of Persian and Indian architectural styles works beautifully together and this makes Humayun’s Tomb a great example of a hybrid of styles of two separate cultures.
Four distinct octagonal units separated by four recesses make up the mausoleum, with the entrance located in the recess which is located in the centre of the southern facade.
Contrast is one of the key elements: While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble.
Dormitory of Mughals: A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first floor. The large corner rooms as well as the numerous cells at the plinth level are a clear indication that the structure was originally designed to accommodate several graves. Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there.
Significance: For the patron of this tomb, Akbar, there were two purposes behind building this great structure, to commemorate his father’s legacy and to make a political statement.
Context: Bengaluru witnessed a unique celestial phenomenon called ‘Zero Shadow Day’ on April 25. In this all the vertical objects in the city will not have a shadow for a short period of time.
What is Zero Shadow Day?
It is a day on which the Sun does not cast a shadow of an object at solar noon, when the sun will be exactly at the zenith position (the highest point in the sky).
The Zero Shadow Day is restricted to locationsbetween the tropics, and so places north of Ranchi in India are out of it.
For every point on Earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, there are two Zero Shadow Days a year.
Why does a Zero Shadow Day happen?
Movement of the Sun from south to north from winter solstice to summer solstice (Uttarayan)and back from north to south (Dakshinayan) happen because Earth’s rotation axis is tilted at an angle of roughly 23.5° to the axis of revolution around the Sun.
The Sun’s location moves from 23.5°N to 23.5°S of Earth’s equator and back. All places whose latitude equals the angle between the Sun’s location and the equator on that dayexperience zero shadow day, with the shadow beneath an object at local noon.
The Earth’s rotation axis is inclined at 23.5 degrees to the plane of its revolution around the Sun, which is why we have seasons. This also means that the Sun, in its highest point of the day, will move from 23.5 degrees south of the celestial equator to 23.5 degrees north of the equator (Uttarayan), and back again (Dakshinayan), in a year. The northern most and southern most points are the two solstices, and the crossing of the Sun across the equator are the two equinoxes.
What is an equinox?
During the equinox, the sun crosses the plane of Earth’s equator, making nighttime and daytime (roughly) equal length all over the world.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the spring equinox, or vernal equinox, occurs around March 21, when the sun moves northward across the celestial equator.
The autumnal equinox occursaround September 22 or 23, when the sun crosses the celestial equator going south.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the reverse.
What is a solstice?
A solstice is one of the two times of the year when the positioning and tilt of Earth relative to the sun results in the most amount of daylight time or the least amount of daylight time in a single day.
Technically, a solstice is one of the two the exact moments in the year when the sun reaches its northernmost point (around June 21, when the North Pole tilts closest to the sun) or southernmost point (around December 22, during the winter solstice) from Earth’s equator.
The solstices are traditionally considered to mark the start of summer and winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs in June and the winter solstice occurs in December.
Context: As a step towards making policies for the judicious use and conservation of water, the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of water resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation has taken the “first census of water bodies(2018-2019)” under the centrally sponsored scheme, “Irrigation Census” in convergence with the 6th Minor Irrigation Census for 2017-18.
The objective of the census of water bodies is to develop a national database for all water bodies by collecting information on all important aspects of the subject including their size, condition, status of encroachment, use, storage capacity etc
What is waterbody?
The census defines a waterbody as “all natural or man-made units bounded on all sides with some or no masonry work used for storing water for irrigation or other purposes
Example industrial, pisciculture, domestic/drinking, recreation, religious, ground water recharge etc
Waterbodies are usually of various types known by different names like tank, reservoirs, ponds and bundhies etc.
A structure where water from ice-melt, streams, springs, rain or drainage of water from residential or other areas is accumulated or water is stored by diversion from a stream, nala or river will also be treated as waterbody.
Highlights of the first census of waterbodies
India has 24.24 lakh waterbodies like ponds, tanks and lakes, with West Bengal accounting for the most (7.47 lakh) and Sikkim the least (134)
Out of total number of waterbodies- 97.1% (23,55,055) are in rural areas and only 2.9% (69,485) in urban areas.
59.5 per cent (14,42,993) of waterbodies are ponds, followed by tanks (15.7 per cent i.e. 3,81,805), reservoirs (12.1 per cent i.e. 2,92,280), water conservation schemes/percolation tanks/check dams (9.3% i.e. 2,26,217), lakes (0.9% i.e. 22,361) and others (2.5% i.e. 58,884)”.
West Bengal has the highest number of ponds and reservoirs, whereas Andhra Pradesh has highest number of tanks. Tamil Nadu has the highest number of lakes and Maharashtra is the leading state with water conservation schemes.
West Bengal’s South 24 Parganas has been ranked as the top district having the highest (3.55 lakh) number of waterbodies across the country. In addition to West Bengal, six other states have over one lakh waterbodies, while four states and UTs account for less than 1,000 waterbodies each.
The census also collected data on encroachment of waterbodies for the first time. 1.6% waterbodies out of all the enumerated waterbodies are reported to be encroached, out of which 95.4% are in rural areas and remaining 4.6% in urban areas.
55.2% (13,38,735) water bodies are under private ownership whereas 44.8% (10,85,805) water bodies are in the public domain
Context: According to the recent ‘Steel Outlook 2023-24’ report released by Deloitte – raw material availability will be the key challenge for the steel industry.
Steel Industry
India became independent in the middle of 20th century and looked to become self-reliant under its newly adopted model of a mixed economy. Simultaneous development of the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors was necessary to achieve the goal at hand. Steel acted as a vital link between these sectors, serving as both a raw material and intermediate product. The extensive usage of steel in various complex industries that deal with reactive and non-reactive elements is due to its high corrosion resistance.
The manufacturing sector benefits significantly from the properties of steel, such as immense strength, low weight, durability, and ductility, which come at a low cost. India's economic growth owes much to the immense contribution of steel, as evident from the similar growth patterns of steel production and GDP in the country. This dependence on steel is highlighted by the rise in national consumption of finished steel, which increased from 6.5 MT in 1968 to 98.71 MT in 2018.
Facts about Steel Industry:
Steel industry contributes slightly more than 2% to the GDP of the country.
The steel industry employs nearly half a million people directly and two million people indirectly.
The output effect of steel on Indian economy is approximately 1.4x with an employment multiplier of 6.8x.
World Steel Association, estimated that for every two jobs created in the steel industry, 13 more jobs are created across the supply chain.
Currently India, is the world’s second largest producer of crude steel.
India was a net exporter of finished steel in the year 2022.
Production in India:
Growth Prospects of the Indian Steel Industry:
In the last 10-12 years, India's steel industry has experienced significant growth fuelled by consistent domestic demand. Production has surged by 75% while the domestic steel demand has increased by approximately 80% since 2008.
Government introduced the National Steel Policy in 2017, which envisions the growth trajectory of the Indian steel industry till 2030–31.
Features of National Steel Policy 2017:
Steel-making capacity is expected to reach 300 million tonnes per annum by 2030–31.
Crude steel production is expected to reach 255 million tonnes by 2030–31, at 85% capacity utilisation.
Production of finished steel to reach 230 million tonnes, assuming a yield loss of 10% for conversion of crude steel to finished steel – that is, a conversion ratio of 90%.
With 24 million tonnes of net exports, consumption is expected to reach 206 million tonnes by 2030–31.
Per capita steel consumption is anticipated to rise to 160 kg.
An additional investment of INR 10 lakh crore is envisaged.
Challenges of Steel Industry:
Finance: Steel is a capital-intensive sector and around INR 7,000 crore is required to set up 1 tonne of steel-making capacity through the greenfield route. The cost of financing any expansion or new steel capacity is usually through borrowed capital. In India the cost of finance is extremely high compared to the cost of finance in countries like China, Japan and Korea. Moreover, steel demand is cyclical and during a downturn, the return on investments gets eroded.
Logistics: Indian steel makers face significant challenges in managing their logistics requirements, which can be arduous and expensive. This is primarily due to the nature of the raw materials required for steelmaking, such as iron ore and coal, which are both bulk minerals. Steel itself is also a bulk commodity, which makes transportation of both raw materials and finished steel to demand centres a difficult task. Despite railways being the preferred mode of transportation for steel makers, they encounter significant infrastructure limitations that add to the complexities of managing logistics for Indian steel makers.
Tax, duties and cess: Government has recently lowered corporate tax rates to 25%, there are certain non-creditable taxes, duties and cesses, specifically paid by the steel sector, which reduce the competitiveness of Indian steel products in the international market.
Raw materials: India's rich deposits of iron ore and coal are offset by the country's insufficient reserves of coking coal. To achieve its goal of 300 million tonnes of steel-making capacity, as outlined in the National Steel Policy, India plans to rely heavily on the blast furnace method, which necessitates the use of coking coal. However, India's reliance on imports from Australia to meet its coking coal demands is subject to fluctuations in supply and price due to unpredictable weather patterns.
Environment and energy consumption: Increasingly, environmental concerns are taking centre stage and the Indian steel industry is not immune to this trend. The steel industry is energy-intensive and is the second biggest consumer of energy globally. This leads to a higher carbon footprint and also affects the immediate environment.
Context: The Hakki Pikki tribe has captured national headlines after 31 members of the tribe were left stranded in Sudan where war suddenly broke out. The 31 had reached Sudan on a routine business trip to sell Ayurvedic medicines when fighting broke out among military factions in the country.
About Hakki Pikki tribe
According to SPPEL (Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages) established by Ministry of Education (Government of India), ‘Hakki-Pikki’ is one of the major tribal communities in Karnataka. The population is predominantly found in Shivamogga, Davanagere and Mysuru districts of Karnataka.
In Kannada, the word ‘Hakki’ stands for ‘bird' and ‘Pikki’ stands for the verb ‘to catch’. Therefore, the community is known as the ‘bird catcher,’ which is their traditional occupation.
According to the 2011 census, the population of Hakki-Pikki is 11,892. After their trade of bird hunting was outlawed under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Their traditional habitat was taken away when the government established wildlife sanctuaries and national parks to conserve forests.
They are also known for knowledge of traditional and herbal medicine in high demand in African countries as they are less expensive than allopathic medicines. The popularity of the medicines turned the once bird-hunters to global traders of herbal medicine.
The Hakki-Pikkis are said to be a matriarchal group.
Despite being surrounded by Dravidian languages and living in southern India, the community speaks an Indo-Aryan language. Their mother tongue was designated 'Vaagri' by scholars. They communicate in 'Vaagri' at home but speak in Kannada when conducting daily business.
UNESCO has listed 'Vaagri' as one of the endangered languages.
The community is known for the strange names they give for their children. A father of a newborn often names his child based on the first thing that comes to his mind. The community has members with names such as Congress, Mysore Pak, Cycle etc.
Context: Plastic trash is abundant in our urban refuse, rivers, and forests, from the slopes of the highest peaks to the depths of abyssal trenches. A new study by researchers from Canada, the Netherlands, and the U.S. has reported that coastal lifeforms have also colonised plastic items in the ocean.
Debate on Anthropocene epoch
This is the name some scientists have proposed for a new period in history characterized by the influence of one species on the planet’s geology, ecosystems and even its fate- none other than Homo sapiens.
Scientists are still figuring out when this epoch really began; some include the first nuclear weapon test and rapid industrialization after the Second World War.
For some, this age began with the manufacturing of plastic rubbish, which is widespread in urban waste, rivers, and woods, from the slopes of the highest peaks to the bottoms of abyssal trenches.
This got established from a study published on April 17, by researchers from Canada, the Netherlands, and the U.S. They have reported that coastal lifeforms have colonized plastic items the in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
What is a gyre?
A gyre is a large system of rotating ocean currents.
There are five major gyres, which are large systems of rotating ocean currents. The ocean churns up various types of currents. Together, these larger and more permanent currents make up the systems of currents known as gyres.
There are five major gyres: the North and South Pacific Subtropical Gyres, the North and South Atlantic Subtropical Gyres, and the Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre.
In some instances, the term “gyre” is used to refer to the collections of plastic waste and other debris found in higher concentrations in certain parts of the ocean. For Example- North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG).
About North Pacific Subtropical Gyre(NPSG)
It is located just north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean.
It consists of the Kuroshio, North Pacific, California, and North Equatorial currents and moves in a clockwise direction. These currents flow adjacent to 51 Pacific Rim countries.
About Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Inside North Pacific Subtropical Gyre(NPSG), just north of Hawai’i, lies a long east west strip where some of the debris in these currents has collected over the years.
The eastern part of this is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Great Pacific Garbage Patch as per one estimate, 1.6 million sq. km big and more than 50 years old. It contains an estimated 45,000 1,29,000 metric tonnes of plastic, predominantly in the form of microplastics.
The Findings of the study
The tsunami off the Japanese coast in 2011 contributed to the debris in this garbage patch.
Researchers had found debris washing ashore on the West coast of North America containing live lifeforms originally found in Japan.
Researchers studied plastic debris from the eastern part of the NPSG and they found that 98% of the debris items had invertebrate organisms. They also found that pelagic species (species of the open ocean) were present on 94.3% of them and coastal species on 70.5%.
The relevance of the findings
The introduction of a vast sea of relatively permanent anthropogenic rafts since the 1950s” has given rise to a new kind of “standing coastal community” in the open ocean”, called as neo pelagic community.
According to research “that while coastal species have been found on human made objects in the open ocean before, they were always considered to have been “misplaced” from their intended habitats.
The neo pelagic community, on the other hand, is not misplaced but lives on plastics items in the garbage patch, including reproducing there.
The finding recalls a study published on April 3, in which researchers reported that polyethylene films had chemically bonded with rocks in China. This, in turn, is reminiscent, of the “anthropoquinas” of Brazil (sedimentary rocks embedded with plastic earrings) and the “plastiglomerates” of Hawai’i (beach sediment + organic debris + basaltic lava + melted plastic).
About Ocean currents
They are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density.
Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.
Types of Currents
Based on depth
Surface currents
Sub Surface currents
Found up to 400 m of depth.
Beyond 4oo m depth.
Constitute around 10% of the total water in ocean.
90% of the total water.
Formed at lower latitudes as higher temperature reduces the density,expands the water and hence the water floats on the surface.
Mainly formed at higher latitudes as lowertemperature increases the density and cause them to sink.
Based on Temperatures
Warm Currents
Cold currents
Bring warm water into cold water areas
Bring cold Water into warm water areas.
Observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres)
Found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (bothhemispheres).
In the northern hemisphere they arefound on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.
Found on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
Thermal expansion and floatation drive these currents.
Thermal contraction and sinking drive these currents.
Factors Affecting Currents
Originating factors
Earth’s rotation: the rotational force of the earth causes movement of ocean water near the equator in opposite direction to the west to east rotation of the earth and thus Equatorial currents are generated.
Oceanic factors: Temperature, salinity and density differences are responsible for expansion, floatation and sinking of water. E.g. – Labrador current moves as sub surface currents from pole towards equator.
Atmospheric factors: Winds drive ocean current in direction in which they move. Rainfall and evaporation create level differences and thus moves the water.
Modifying factors
Direction, shape and configuration of coastline: currents flow parallel to coastline. equatorial current after being obstructed by Brazilian coast gets bifurcated into two branches and then moves along the coast.
Bottom reliefs: North Atlantic drift is deflected to the right when it crosses Wyville Thompson ridge.
Coriolis effect: deflective force affects the direction. Currents flowing from north pole towards equator deflects towards right.
Seasonal changes: They alter the direction of motion. E.g. - Indian ocean currents show regional shifts under the influence of monsoonal winds.
Temperature & salinity affecting Ocean circulation:
Temperature and salinity affect the density of water, resulting in water moving up or down through the ocean layers and moving as currents around the ocean.
Salinity increases the density of ocean water. This denser water sinks and moves as subsurface current whereas less saline water moves towards greater saline water as surface current. Ex: The current flowing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via Gibraltar Strait is caused by salinity difference.
Due to high temperature in the equatorial region the water density decreases because of greater expansion of water particles whereas the density of sea water becomes comparatively greater in the polar areas. Consequently, water moves due to expansion of volume from equatorial region of higher temperature to polar areas of relatively very low temperature. Ex: The Gulf Stream and Kuroshio warm currents move from equator towards north due to the temperature difference.
As warm water flows northwards it cools and some evaporation occurs, which increases the amount of salt. Low temperature and a high salt content make the water denser, and this dense water sinks deep into the ocean. The cold, dense water slowly spreads southwards, several kilometers below the surface. Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface and warms in a process called “upwelling” and the circulation is complete. Ex: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
Significance of ocean currents
Geomorphic
Ocean current along with waves erode, modify and develop coastal as well as submarine landforms.
Longshore currents carry along with themselves vast quantities of material and sediments.
Currents help to move eroded debris and deposit it as silt, sand, and gravel along the coasts
Desert formation: Cold Ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west coast regions of the tropical and subtropical continents.
Climatic
Manage global climate by transporting excessive heat from equator towards pole.
Modify the coastal climate. E.g.- Gulf stream brings heat to the north-western Europe and lead to moderate conditions.
Phenomenon like El-Nino and La-Nina are associated with oceanic currents.
Currents along with the wind lead to regional climatic changes. E.g.- Currents along the Indian coast impact the monsoon.
Rainfall and fogs are also associated with oceanic currents.
Ecological
Distribute oceanic heat and balances the temperature conditions.
Carry nutrients and food to organisms that live permanently attached in one place and carry reproductive cells and ocean life to new places. E.g.- Upwelling Benguela current brings the nutrients to the coast of Africa
Oceanic gyres are known to trap pollutants thus causing garbage patches. Ex. Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Economic
Commercial fishing grounds are formed where warm and cold current mix. E.g.- Labrador current mixing with Gulf stream near newfoundland.
Aids as well as hinder navigation. Current support ships moving in the same direction, but it blocks their way when they carry large amount of ice bergs along with them, especially the colder currents.
Currents offer a vast potential to be transformed into energy sources.
Social
Play an important role in determining settlements in a coastal region.
Impact health of population by altering climatic conditions.
Context:India is set to overtake China to become the world’s most populous country by the middle of 2023, according to data released by the United Nations. The report says that contrary to the alarm bells about exploding numbers, population trends everywhere point to slower growth and ageing societies.
Factors that determine population growth
Infant mortality: Empirical correlations suggest that High IMR level leads to greater desire for children. Ex: IMR is the lowest at 15 in Kerala and the highest at 73 in Uttar Pradesh.
Early marriage increases likelihood of more children.
Level of education: Fertility usually declines with increase in education levels of women.
Use of contraceptives: According to NFHS III (2005-06), only 56% of currently married women use some method of family planning in India.
Son-meta preference: Phenomena where parents continue to produce children until the desired number of sons are born is another reason for high birth rates
Economic factors: Industrialisation accompanied by Urbanisation had implications for fertility decline.
The family lost its function as an economic unit, in the sense that it ceased to be a producing unit and became only a consumer unit. With the introduction of laws which prohibited child labour and making of education compulsory, the economic usefulness of children to their parents was drastically reduced. In fact, they became a liability because of the increasing costs and lengthening duration of education. At the same time, there were declines in mortality, especially infant and child mortality; more children survived and the burden of binging them up fell entirely on the nuclear family.
provision of old-age security, etc., which were originally shouldered by the family, were taken over by the State in many countries; children, therefore, were no longer the only source of old-age security.
Determinants of population change
A commonly accepted theory defines 4 clear Stages of population growth:
Stage 1: Typically seen in less developed countries where birth rates are high but a large number of people die of preventable causes leading to a stable population.
Stage 2: Death rates fall steeply as deaths from preventable causes are reduced by better food supply and improved public health, but birth rates remain high due to high fertility, poor social development and limited access 10 health and contraceptive services. This often leads to a spurt in population.
Stage 3: Birth rates fall but population continues to grow because there are a large number of people in the reproductive age group due to the high fertility of the previous generations. (Population growth momentum)
Stage 4: Countries achieve a stable population once again with low birth and low death rates but at a higher level of social and economic development. Population is stable but higher than in stage one.
This transition from a stable population with high mortality and high fertility to a stable population with low mortality and low fertility is called demographic transition. India is currently at the third stage, with some of the States and Union territories already into stage 4.
The National Population Policy (NPP), 2000 adapted by the Government of India states that 'the long-term objective is to achieve a stable population. In this context, let us look into the relevance of existing National Population Policy.
Focus of the Existing population policy
Population control was the major focus of the National population policy unveiled in 2000.
The immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care.
The medium-term objective is to bring the TFR to replacement levels by 2010, through vigorous implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies.
The long-term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.
However, with changing demographic trends there is a need to change the focus of the population policy.
Need for shift of focus of National population policy
TFR reduced: As per NFHS 5, the country's overall fertility fell below the replacement level of two children per woman. (TFR below 2.1). The present population growth is due to “population momentum” -- population continue to grow because there are large number of people in the reproductive age group due to high fertility rate of the previous generations. India is going to achieve stable population within a few decades even without active focus on population control.
Ageing population: According to a report by the Ministry of Statistics in 2018, the number of citizens over the age of 60 jumped 35.5 per cent, from 7.6 crore in 2001 to 10.3 crore in 2011. This is an all-time high since 1950, and is almost twice the rate at which the overall population grew. In the same period (2001-2011), India’s overall population grew by 17.7 per cent. This shows that ageing will emerge as a key social challenge in the future.
In this context, active focus on population control will prove to be counter-productive. India can learn from China’s failed experience of enforcing Stringent population control measures, that resulted in ageing population and shrinking workforce.
Skewed sex ratio: small family norms created a high preference for male children, which impacted child sex ratio.
Changes needed
There is a need to change the discourse of population policy from population control to ensuring that the population is happy, healthy, productive to reap the benefits of Demographic dividend.
It is estimated that by 2050, there will be more people older than 60 years than those below 15 years. The share of the population over the age of 60 is projected to increase from 8 per cent to nearly 20 per cent in 2050. The new population policy should focus on management of ageing population
In the backdrop of declining Child sex ratio, the new population policy should actively focus on balancing the sex ratio.
Though the overall fertility rate of India has come down, the demographic transition has not been uniformed across the states. Some states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu achieved replacement level of TFR much earlier than other states. So, the new population policy should take into account the variations in the demographic composition of the states.
