GS Paper 1

Lithium Reserves in India

About 5.9 Million Tonnes of Lithium Reserves have been discovered in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (First in India). It is discovered in the Salal-Haimana area of Reasi District.

Lithium Distribution:

Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.
According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), there are around 80 million tonnes of identified reserves globally as of 2019.

Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile make up the “lithium triangle.” The three countries, along with Peru, contain about 67% of proven lithium reserves and produce about half of the global supply, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
The Salar de Uyuni salt flat in Bolivia is the world's single-largest lithium resource, and is visible from space

Physical and Chemical properties of Lithium (atomic number 3)

It belongs to an alkali metal group, lightest of the solid elements (can float on water). It is soft, white and lustrous.
It has the lowest density of any metal.
It has high specific heat which is the calorific capacity. Other properties are its enormous temperature interval in the liquid state, high thermal conductivity.
It is also found in brine deposits and as salts in mineral springs.
It constitutes about 0.002 percent of Earth’s crust.
It is produced by electrolysis of a fused mixture of lithium and potassium chlorides.

Uses and application of Lithium:

Among minerals, lithium offers one of the highest energy-to-weight performance—a lithium-ion battery’s energy density is 260-270 Wh/kg, compared to a lead-acid battery’s 50-100 Wh/kg.
Used as a scavenger (remover of impurities) in the refining of such metals as iron, nickel, copper, and zinc and their alloys.
Used as an initiator of polymerization in the production of synthetic rubber.
It is also extensively used in the production of other organic chemicals, especially pharmaceuticals
Lightweight lithium-magnesium alloys and tough lithium-aluminium alloys, harder than aluminium alone, have structural applications in the aerospace and other industries.
Most extensive use of Lithium is in rechargeable batteries (cell phones, laptops, e-mobility etc).

Note: lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable while lithium batteries are single-use.

Benefits of such discovery to India;

Decrease imports: As of now, India is importing all its lithium requirements (95% coming from Hong Kong > China > Indonesia > Singapore > Korea).
Save foreign exchange: In the near future imports would fall further (saving foreign exchange).In last three years, imports of Lithium and Lithium ion has reduced by 8-10%.
Employment: Mining and exploration would further enhance the job creation in the reserve areas.
Industrial hub: It would developed battery industry (a sunrise sector) in India.
Exports: With development of battery industry, India could enter the global supply of lithium ion batteries (export promotion). It would help India in gaining faster momentum in the electronics and digital devices market globally.
Reduce production cost: Replacing expensive imports of lithium with domestic cheaper alternatives would reduce the cost of production in battery industry and make it more competitive.

Potential of Lithium in India:

Expected reserves in: Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, Mandya and Yadgir districts of Karnataka, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Rajasthan.
India has emerged as one of the largest producer, consumer and exporter of mobiles phones (second largest producer in 2021). Lithium ion batteries are the backbone of mobile phone industries. Domestic lithium would push India further ahead in this race.
Government in 2021 approved the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for manufacturing of Advance Chemistry Cell (ACC) in the country. The scheme envisages establishing a competitive ACC battery manufacturing set-up in the country (50 Giga Watt hour-GWh). This PLI scheme will facilitate reduction of import dependence of ACC battery.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) has decided to transfer its own in-house lithium ion (Li ion) cell technology to successful Indian industries and start-ups.
The government has allowed 100 percent foreign direct investment (FDI) in electric mobility and encouraged domestic manufacturing of battery packs. Due to this measure, LiB technology has overtaken lead-acid batteries in mobile and stationary applications.

Why is India lagging behind in Lithium?

Natural availability of Lithium in India is the least (almost insignificant)
Research and exploration in the lithium is at nascent stage.
India has very limited participation in the exploration of lithium. Most of the current exploration of Lithium is conducted as per the Geological survey of India.
Till 2021, i.e. rolling out of production linked incentive, there was no dedicated policy for lithium battery development in India.

Way-forward:

Creation of additional demand in the automobile sector.
Opening the exploration and mining for the private sector under regulatory framework.
Ease of exports of Lithium-ion batteries.

Archaeological survey of India is looking towards bringing back artefacts belonging to the medieval History of Jammu and Kashmir that were lost or stolen previously. Among these includes the objects stolen from Martand Temple.

ABOUT MARTAND TEMPLE

It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Sun God located near Anantnag in Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (Union Territory), India.
According to Kalhana in Rajatarangini, Martand Sun Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD. Lalitaditya belonged to the Karkota dynasty.
Dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism. Surya is also known by the Sanskrit language synonym Martand.
The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a zeal to Islamise the society under the advice of Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad Hamadani.
Other Sun Temples in India: Sun Temple at Konark (Odisha), Sun Temple at Modhera (Gujarat).

Temple architecture:

It blended the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.
Primary shrine in its centre and surrounded by 84 smaller shrines.
Temple walls are depicted with the images of lord Vishnu and river goddess such as Ganga and Yamuna.
Material: Lime mortar was used with huge blocks of grey limestones.

ABOUT KARKOTA DYNASTY

Duration: 625 − 855 CE
Region: Kashmir Valley
Founder: Durlabhavardhana
Succeeded by: Utpala dynasty (Avanti Varman was the founder)
Patronised the both Hinduism (Vaishnavite) and Buddhism (ruins of Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara could be found).
Sources for the dynasty: Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Nilamata Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Chronicles of Xuanzang.
Coins: based on the Kushan style (image of king standing or Gods on obverse) with Sharada script. Coins were always inscribed in the name of Kidara I on the reverse. They were made using the mixed metals.
Lalitaditya commissioned numerous gold and silver images for temples and monasteries across faiths, and his span is considered to be the zenith of Kashmiri sculpture.

India treasure trove and Antiquities Abroad

There has been high profile official move to ensure the return of lost heritage from abroad. In October 2021, India successfully got back as many as 307 antiquities to India valued at nearly $4 million.

Definition of an antiquity:

The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, define an antiquity" as "any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship, any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave; any article object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages; any article, object or thing of historical interest that "has been in existence for not less than one hundred years"
For manuscript, record or other document which is of scientific, historical literary or aesthetic value, the duration is not less than seventy-five years."

Related laws in India:

In India Item-67 of the Union List, Item- 12 of the State List, and Item-40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country's heritage.
Before Independence, an Antiquities (Export Control) Act was passed in 1947 to ensure that "no antiquity could be exported without license."
In 1958, The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was enacted (AMASR Act).
The government enacted The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, which was implemented from April 1, 1976.

About the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act:

The Antiquities And Art Treasures ACT, 1972: This Act is enacted to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art treasures, to prevent smuggling of and fraudulent dealings in antiquities.
Important Sections:
Section.3: The Act states, "it shall not be lawful for any person, other than the Central Government or any authority or agency authorised by the Central Government in this behalf, to export any antiquity or art treasure.
Section.5: Antiquities to be sold only under a licence.
The Act also states ‘No person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a licence. The licence is granted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Section.14: Any person who owns controls or is in possession of any antiquity shall register the same before the registering officer and should obtain a certificate.

Section.25: If any person exports or attempts to export any antiquity or art treasure is liable for punishment for a term not less than 3 months which may extend to 3 years and with fine.

Archaeological Survey of India:

The first systematic research into the subcontinent's history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was founded by the British Indologist William Jones on January 1784. The most important of the society's achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.

Present Status: The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture. Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance. These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, step-wells, and rock-cut caves. The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.

International Convention:

The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the- Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defined "cultural property as the property designated by countries having "importance for archaeology, prehistory history, literature, art or science."
Following the UNESCO convention in 1970, guidelines have been issued globally for museums, which states that; ‘When acquiring an object, collected whether by purchase or donation or any other way, museums should exercise due diligence in verifying the object's history. If a museum is acquiring - an object, the museum must verify whether the object was lawfully obtained, lawfully exported and/ or imported’.
The UNESCO 1970 declaration stated that, requesting Party shall furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return. The first thing in order to prove the ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police.

Provenance of an antiquity: Provenance is the history of ownership and documentation of either purchased or acquired pieces. An antique's provenance can add substantial value, as it can attribute ownership in the past to a famous or important historical figure.

Angkor wat Temple

India is currently working on the restoration project of 12^th Century sites at the Angkor Temple in Cambodia.

About the Angkor Temple

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world.
Literally means ‘City Temple’.
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu (protector in Cambodia). However previous kings of Khmer dynasty were Shaivite.
Patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II (Khmer empire), whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.
Duration: 1116-1150 C.E.
It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next.
Carvings in the temple shows eight different stories of Hindu mythology (e.g. Amrit Manthan).
Material used: Grey sandstone.
Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site.

About the Khmer Dynasty:

Also known as Angkorian Empire or Khambuja.
Duration: 802-1431 CE
Founder: King Jayavarman II
Angkor was their capital city.
Important contribution: Angkor Wat, Angkor City and Bayon Buddhist temples.

Rural Urban Dichotomy

The different nature of rural and urban spaces in the country, ranging on all different dimensions including governance, environment, education, health, infrastructure and development, is the rural-urban dichotomy in principle. It is economic, cultural, social, historical and well as political in nature.

Reasons for Rural-Urban dichotomy

Economically

Lack of formal credit institutions in rural areas makes it difficult to invest in capital formation.
- Lack of industrialisation
- High seasonal and disguised unemployment
- Failing APMC regime
- Concentration of capital in cities
- Occupational mobility is higher in urban areas
- Booming startup culture in urban areas

Social reasons

Rural Indian society tends to be more patriarchal than urban setup
- Caste discrimination more rampant in rural areas
- Girls’ education upto a limited extent in rural areas
- Urban areas tend to modernise on lines with western culture more frequently
- Liberal values are promoted in urban settings compared to rural areas

Historical reasons

Old cities were establishments of kings, ministers and nobles in medieval times and residences of rich traders, aristocrats and British officers in modern times
- Urban areas were nodal points of trading and big marketplaces

Need to reduce rural-urban dichotomy

Reducing this dichotomy will result in a ‘rural-urban continuum’ which means the less and almost negligible difference between rural and urban areas. An example is Kerala which has had a high level of this continuum for many years.

It would lead to infrastructural development in rural areas.
- Physical infrastructure will get a boost by integrating rural areas with value supply chains and freight corridors. The Sagarmala project, National Waterways project and Golden Quadrilateral have the potential to bring regions into the mainstream.
- For financial infrastructure, digital banking needs to be pushed in rural areas, along with penetration of POS and ATMs at the grassroots level.

There are 3 crore houses required in rural areas and 1.2 crore houses required in urban areas. Schemes like PM Aawas Yojana and Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHC) have given a push in this regard.
India’s expenditure on healthcare is just 2.1% of GDP (2021-22 Union Budget). To improve this in both rural and urban areas, PM Jan Arogya Yojana, National Rural/Urban Health Mission, and Rashtriya Bal Swasth Karyakram is underway.
Literacy rate in urban areas is 87.7% while that of rural areas is 73.5%. To fill this gap, education is promoted through Mid-Day Meal Scheme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and PM Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI).
It will result in economic freedom of the rural population from the evil of informal credit and debt trap. For this RBI has unveiled the Payments Vision 2025 which would lead to better financial inclusion and participation. Centre has also announced a bank recapitalisation scheme by infusing Rs. 15000 Crore in weak PSUs.
It will result in a reduction of social evils like caste discrimination and dowry etc.
It will lead to a rise in political awareness among the population.

Challenges in achieving rural-urban continuum

Lack of infrastructure and investment in rural regions
Unwillingness of political leaders to bring about a social change
Failure in policy implementation at the rural level
Low number of dedicated schemes to achieve the continuum
Migration of rural population in cities makes the development of villages more challenging

Way forward

Achieving the rural-urban continuum must be one of the key points in policy-making, given the Amritkaal, the 17 SDGs and the global climate crisis. Striving for this continuum will result in multifaceted growth and fulfilment of multidimensional goals.

We must look forward to the German model – where villages are designated sub-sectors of production and services and trained for that, which results in internal as well as external consumption and acts as a capital expenditure multiplier.

Migration in India: Current Issue and Challenges

National Sample Survey (NSS) Multiple Indicator Survey 2020-21 highlights the migration trends of Indians

What is migration?

Migration in India: Current Issue and Challenges

The National Sample Survey defined migrants as those who had ever spent at least six straight months in a village/town/country different from their place of residence, i.e., where they were surveyed.

More on migration:

Migration is the geographic movement of people across a specified boundary various reasons especially social, economic, political reasons. Along with fertility and mortality, migration is a component of the population change.

The term “in migration” and “out migration” are used for migration within a country and are comparable to the terms “immigration” and “emigration” used in international migration.

Patterns of Migration:

Internal migrant flows can be classified on the basis of origin and destination.

Rural to Rural
Rural to Urban
Urban to Rural
Urban to Urban

Factors for migration:

Push Factors	Pull Factors
-Lack of employment -Caste Discrimination -Poor availability of basic amenities e.g., Sanitation, Housing -Lack of Healthcare and educational facilities -Natural Disasters e.g., Cyclones, Landslides	-Better job opportunities and wages -Healthcare facilities e.g., Multi-specialty hospitals -Urban lifestyle - Liberty and Free society -Quality education -Industrial ecosystem

Status of Migration in India as per NSS 2020-21 Survey:

One in three Urban Indians is a ‘migrant’ – but mostly intra-state.
Among migrants, 55% have moved between villages – mostly women moving after marriage.
Marriage is a larger driver of migration than jobs for women.
Jobs are the biggest reason of migration from men.
Himachal Pradesh and Telangana have the highest share of job-related migrants in their total urban male population.
Delhi has the highest share of persons (21.3%) who have come from outside its territory.

Issues faced by migrants:

Lack of social security and health benefits and poor implementation of minimum safety standards law
Lack of portability of state-provided benefits especially food provided through the public distribution system (PDS)
Poor implementation of protections under the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 (ISMW Act)
Lack of access to affordable housing and basic amenities in urban areas

Steps taken by Government for the welfare of Migrants:

e-SHRAM portal, a National Database of the Unorganised Workers has been launched for registration of unorganised workers including migrant workers. The main objective of the e-SHRAM portal is to create a national database of unorganised workers seeded with Aadhaar. It is also to facilitate delivery of Social Security and welfare Schemes to such workers.
Jharkhand's first survey of migrants - aims to map the major sectors of engagement for migrants workers, find social security benefits and identify the health hazards.
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY) and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY) launched in 2015 provide for life & disability cover due to natural or accidental death.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana caters to the housing needs to eligible beneficiaries.

Way Forward:

A favourable legislative and policy framework is the need of the hour to facilitate orderly, safe, and responsible migration and mobility of people (SDG 10.7).

Same Sex Marriage

Recently, the Centre, in an affidavit in the Supreme Court, has frowned upon samesex marriage while invoking the “accepted view” that a marriage between a biological man and woman is a “holy union, a sacrament and a sanskar” in India.

Problem faced by LGBTQRIV+ Community:

Family disruption
Lack of understanding and proper communication about sexual orientation and gender identity can lead to fighting and family disruption that can result in an LGBT adolescent being removed from or forced out of the home.
Many LGBT youth are placed in foster care, or end up in juvenile detention or on the streets, because of family conflict related to their LGBT identity.
These factors increase their risk for abuse and for serious health and mental health problems like, increase attempt to suicide, chances of drug addiction, indulging in criminal activities, etc.
Mental Health Issues
This is caused by lifelong dissonance, deep-rooted stigma, discrimination, and often abuse, that the community experiences. It often leads to extreme distress and poor self-worth, resulting in self-hate and suffering.
Sexual orientation and gender identity are rarely discussed in our social, educational or familial environments, and if ever done, these discussions are stigmatizing.
It is difficult to find friends and family who understand what the person feels.
Political parties and religious leaders kept away from the LGBT movement

Victim of Hate Crimes and Violence

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender people and those perceived to be LGBT are regularly targeted as victims of hate crimes and violence.

LGBT people experience stigma and discrimination across their life spans, and are targets of sexual and physical assault, harassment, and hate crimes.

Barriers to Health Care

A large majority of the psychiatrists in India still consider diverse sexual orientations and gender identities as a disorder and practice ‘correctional therapy’.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people are more likely to experience intolerance, discrimination, harassment, and the threat of violence due to their sexual orientation, than those that identify themselves as heterosexual.
In the labor market, a majority of LGBT people continue to hide their sexual orientation or to endure harassment out of fear of losing their job.
Particularly vulnerable are young LGBT people who experience estrangement from family and friendship networks, harassment at school, and invisibility, which can lead in some cases to underachievement at school, school drop-out, mental ill-health, and homelessness.
Discrimination not only denies LGBT people equal access to key social goods, such as employment, healthcare, education, and housing, but it also marginalizes them in society and makes them one of the vulnerable groups who are at risk of becoming socially excluded.

Challenges for LGBT Elders

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) face a number of particular concerns as they age.
They often do not access adequate health care, affordable housing, or other social services that they need due to institutionalized heterosexism.
Most LGBT elders do not avail themselves of services on which other seniors thrive.
Lack of family support system as enjoyed by other elderly people.

Landmark judgements and related issues

In 2000, Law Commission was the first to recommend decriminalizing Section 377.
Naz Foundation vs. Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2009): The Delhi High Court decriminalized homosexual acts involving consenting adults. The Court held that Section 377 offended the guarantee of equality enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution, because it creates an unreasonable classification and targets homosexuals as a class. Discrimination is the antithesis of equality and that it is the recognition of equality which will foster the dignity of every individual.
Suresh Kumar Koushal Case (2013): Supreme Court overturned the previous judgment by Delhi High Court (2009).