Context: A recent study published in “Earth and Planetary Science Letters” suggests that Earth may have once had rings similar to those of Saturn.
Major highlights of the study:
Scientists from Monash University, Australia analysed 21 crater sites on Earth from the Ordovician period (488-443 million years ago) and found that all impacts occurred near the equator, which is unusual since asteroid impacts usually occur at random latitudes. This suggests the presence of a ring over Earth's equator during that period.
This ring would have formed around 466 million years ago when an asteroid passing too close to Earth broke apart due to its gravity, and created a debris-laden ring around the equator. Over time, the debris from the ring fell to Earth, with larger pieces forming craters near the equator.
The ring over Earth’s equator would have had a profound impact on the Earth’s climate. The axial tilt of Earth relative to the Sun would mean that the rings would have shaded the winter hemispheres and increased solar flux to the summer hemispheres, potentially contributing to global cooling. Notably, Earth experienced significant cooling around 460-445 million years ago, coinciding with the peak of the Hirnantian Ice Age. However, further research and modelling are needed to confirm the connection.
Roche limit:
The Roche limit is the closest distance at which a satellite can approach its primary body (e.g., a planet) without being torn apart by the tidal forces exerted by the larger body.
In a two-body system, such as a planet and its satellite, two key forces act on the smaller body:
Internal Gravity of the Satellite: This is the cohesive force that holds the satellite together, resisting external forces.
Tidal Force from the Larger Body: This is the gravitational pull of the larger body (planet), which stretches the satellite and tries to pull it apart, especially along the line of gravitational force between the two.
When a satellite orbits beyond the Roche limit, its internal gravity is strong enough to resist the tidal forces, allowing it to maintain its structural integrity and orbit stably around the planet. E.g., Our Moon
In the case of Earth, our moon is safely located far beyond the Roche limit, which is why it remains intact and orbits without disintegrating.
However, if the satellite crosses within the Roche limit, the tidal forces of the planet become stronger than the satellite's own gravity, causing it to disintegrate. The resulting debris from this disintegration forms a ring around the planet, much like the rings we see around Saturn and other gas giants.
Context: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Jammu & Kashmir were ranked as the top three performers on the State Food Safety Index 2024.
Key findings of State Food Safety Index 2024:
Kerala has, for the second time in a row, topped the sixth State Food Safety Index (SFSI) 2024 and has achieved more than 100 per cent of its inspections target in FY24, improved its food-testing infrastructure and organised special drives to increase the number of license-holders and registrations, among other achievements.
Tamil Nadu has got a “significant number of full-time designated food safety officers.
Jammu and Kashmir got third position in the Index while Gujarat secured fourth position in the Index.
Nagaland was given special acknowledgement among the northeastern states as the index said that the hilly state showed overall progress in improving the food safety ecosystem compared to the previous year.
Eat Right campaign, the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana, and the promotion of millets as important initiatives the centre took to ensure safe and good food.
About State Food Safety Index (SFSI):
Released by: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
Released on: June 7 on the occasion of World Food Safety Day.
1st report: Since 2019.
Parameters: Human resources and institutional data , compliance, food testing infrastructure, training and capacity building, and consumer empowerment. In the 2023 index, a new parameter ‘Improvement in SFSI Rank’ was added
Objective: To foster healthy competition and catalyse positive change in the food safety ecosystem throughout the country, ultimately ensuring the provision of safe and wholesome food to all residents.
About FSSAI:
Body: Statutory body has been established under Food Safety and Standards , 2006. It works as an independent authority and attained a special status. The FSS Act took 7 older acts into one umbrella.
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, is the Administrative Ministry for the implementation.
Headed by: Non-executive chairperson, appointed by the Central Government, either holding or has held the position of not below the rank of Secretary.
Objective: To establish a single reference point for all matters relating to food safety and standards, by moving from multi- level, multi- departmental control to a single line of command.
Function:
Framing of regulations to lay down food safety standards
Laying down guidelines for accreditation of laboratories for food testing
Providing scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government
Contributing to the development of international technical standards in food
Collecting and collating data regarding food consumption, contamination, emerging risks, etc.
Disseminating information and promoting awareness about food safety and nutrition in India.
Context: A recent study published in ‘Astronomy & Astrophysics’ reveals that Elon Musk's Starlink satellites are disrupting the work of astronomers. Experts argue that this growing issue underscores the urgent need for regulations governing satellite operators, similar to those in place for controlling radio pollution from ground-based sources like cell-phone towers.
The impact of Starlink Satellites on Radio astronomy:
Starlink, a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, currently has over 6,300 active satellites orbiting Earth at an altitude of approximately 550 km.
While these satellites are instrumental in delivering high-speed internet to remote areas, they are also a source of unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR), commonly referred to as ‘radio noise.’
This interference poses significant challenges to radio astronomers, as it disrupts their ability to observe celestial objects from Earth.
Understanding Radio astronomy and Radio noise:
Radio astronomy is a specialized branch of astronomy that focuses on studying celestial bodies by detecting radio frequencies, which are much higher in wavelength and lower in frequency than the visible light detected by optical telescopes.
Unlike optical telescopes, which rely on visible light, radio telescopes are designed to capture radio waves emitted by objects in space.
However, much like how bright visible light can overwhelm a viewer’s vision-akin to the glare of oncoming car headlights-radio frequencies can similarly ‘blind’ radio astronomers.
Cees Bassa, a researcher at the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy (ASTRON), explained that the radio noise from satellites is making it increasingly difficult to study the faint signals from distant objects in the universe.
‘Blinding’ scientists means that the eyes are collecting too much light to see anything clearly.
The growing challenge of UEMR:
The study found that Starlink’s second-generation satellites-though currently accounting for less than a third of the overall network-emit UEMR at levels that are 32 times brighter than their first-generation counterparts.
This is a worrying trend, especially since the first-generation satellites had already raised concerns regarding radio leakage.
The situation could worsen further as the satellite industry continues to expand. With advancements in technology making satellite launches cheaper, estimates suggest that up to 100,000 satellites could be orbiting Earth by 2030.
As of June 2023, the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) reported the presence of around 11,330 satellites in orbit.
The growing number of satellites will only increase the risk of UEMR and radio interference for astronomers.
Need for regulatory oversight:
These developments underscore the urgent need for regulations governing satellite operators, much like the existing regulations that control radio pollution from ground-based electronic sources such as cell-phone towers.
Currently, astronomers rely largely on good faith agreements with companies like Starlink to minimize interference.
However, this informal approach may not be enough as the number of satellites and the intensity of UEMR increase.
In the absence of stringent regulations, the increasing UEMR from satellite constellations could pose an existential threat to radio astronomy, blinding telescopes to the faint signals that scientists rely on to explore the universe.
About Starlink Project:
It is the world's first and largest satellite constellation using a Low Earth orbit to deliver broadband internet capable of supporting streaming, online gaming, video calls, and more.
It delivers high-speed, low-latency internet to users all over the world. This system is ideally suited for rural and geographically isolated areas where internet connectivity is unreliable or non-existent.
The satellites are equipped with Hall thrusters, which are used to manoeuvre in orbit, maintain altitude, and guide the spacecraft back into the atmosphere after their missions. Hall thrusters generate an impulse using electricity and krypton gas.
It operates on a satellite internet service technology that has existed for decades. Instead of using cable technology to transmit internet data, a satellite system uses radio signals through the vacuum of space.
It offers unlimited high-speed data through an array of small satellites that deliver up to 150 Megabits per second (Mbps) of internet speed.
It uses Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites and a phased array antenna to help keep its performance intact during extreme weather conditions.
In 2019, SpaceX initiated the launch of these satellites into space.
Unlike conventional internet providers, it operates without the need for ground infrastructure. Users only require a small satellite dish or a receiver device, similar to satellite TV, to access high-speed internet.
It can withstand extreme cold, heat, hail, sleet, heavy rain, gale-force winds, and even rocket engines.
Context:Centre to invest Rs 6,000 crore in smart farming with AI, drones, and data to boost crop yields
Precision Farming
Precision farming, also known as precision agriculture, is a modern farming management strategy that uses technology to observe, measure, and respond to variability in crops and fields. This approach aims to optimize agricultural production by tailoring farming practices to specific conditions within a field, thereby improving efficiency and sustainability.
Key technologies in precision farming include:
GPS and GNSS: These systems provide accurate positioning, allowing for precise mapping and management of fields.
IoT Devices: Sensors and connected devices gather real-time data on soil conditions, weather patterns, crop health, and equipment performance.
Drones: Used for aerial surveys, capturing high-resolution imagery and data for detailed field analysis.
Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Equipment like seeders and sprayers that adjust the amount of inputs (e.g., water, fertilizers) based on data collected.
Challenges Associated with Conventional Farming
Resource Inefficiency: Conventional methods often lead to overuse or underuse of resources like water and fertilizers.
Environmental Impact: Traditional farming practices can have significant negative effects on the environment, including soil degradation and water contamination.
Climate Vulnerability: Farmers relying on conventional methods are more susceptible to the impacts of climate change and weather unpredictability.
Limited Technological Integration: Conventional farming often lacks the integration of advanced technologies such as AI, drones, and IoT, which can enhance farming efficiency and sustainability.
Benefits of Precision Farming
Increased Efficiency: Utilizes resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides more effectively.
Enhanced Production: Improves both the quality and quantity of crop yields.
Sustainability: Helps in insulating farmers from climate change and other uncertainties.
Support for Farmers: Provides financial aid through the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF), including interest subvention of 3% on loans for technology adoption.
Development Centers: Establishment of 22 Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) to test and adapt technologies for local conditions.
Government measures to boost precision farming
Investment: The Centre plans to invest Rs 6,000 crore in the Smart Precision Horticulture Programme under the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) scheme.
Coverage: The initiative will cover 15,000 acres over five years (2024-25 to 2028-29) and benefit around 60,000 farmers.
Current Infrastructure: The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) supports projects related to smart and precision agriculture, offering loans for technological solutions in farm practices.
CoEs Expansion: The number of Centres of Excellence (CoEs) is expected to reach 100 in the next five years, complementing existing CoEs under the Indo-Israel Agriculture Project.
Geographical Spread: PFDCs are established across various states and central agricultural institutions in India, including Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and others.
Context: According to the Economic Survey 2023-24, India needs to create nearly 7.85 million jobs annually in the non-farm sector to accommodate the growing workforce. Therefore, a country with a population of 1.4 billion cannot rely solely on the services sector and will need all sectors of the economy to contribute to job creation.
Why Has India Struggled to Accommodate its Growing Workforce?
Lower Growth of Manufacturing Exports from India: While India’s services exports constitute 4.3% of the world’s commercial services exports, goods exports barely account for 1.8% of the global goods market, resulting in low job generation in the manufacturing sector.
Decline in Export-related Jobs: Direct employment linked to exports peaked at 9.5% of total domestic employment in 2012 but fell to 6.5% in 2020.
Limited participation in Global Value Chains (GVCs) is one reason India has struggled to generate sufficient trade-related jobs, according to the World Bank. Around 70% of international trade involves GVCs, but despite rapid economic growth, India’s trade in goods and services has decreased as a % of GDP, and its participation in GVCs has declined over the past five years.
India’s participation in GVCs has been declining due to issues such as difficulties in procuring raw materials, high transport costs and rise in average tariffs from 13% in 2014 to 18.1% in 2022.
High import tariffs on key intermediate inputs and non-tariff barriers in export markets have raised production costs, making Indian producers less competitive in international markets compared to countries like Vietnam, Thailand, and Mexico.
Service Sector-Driven Growth: Over the past two decades, India’s economic growth has increasingly been driven by the services sector.
But the expansion of the services sector has coincided with a noticeable decline in traditional industries such as apparel and footwear, which provide livelihoods for millions of low-skilled workers.
The stagnation in manufacturing has exacerbated the divide between high-skilled and low-skilled jobs.
Dominance of High-Skilled Service Sector: This is due to dominance of the service sector and high-skill manufacturing in India’s export basket.
India has emerged as a key market for multinational companies to establish data analytics and software development centres, known as Global Capability Centres (GCCs), to leverage the large pool of qualified IT engineers in the country.
Since these sectors are less suited to absorbing large portions of the Indian workforce, job creation due to trade has diminished.
Slowdown in IT Services Sector: The IT services sector, a bellwether of Indian skilled employment, has recently seen a slump in hiring. Leading companies who are major recruiters of young Indians, have witnessed a significant drop in their workforce in 2024 compared to 2023, with their collective headcount reducing by more than 61,000 individuals.
Lack of Skill Development: Only 16% of India’s labour force have undergone some form of skill training. Hence, insufficient vocational skills and low education levels among the workforce reduces their employability. Only 45% of graduates are considered employable according to the India Skills Report.
What are the Measures Taken by the Government?
PM MITRA Scheme: With an aim to boost scale in the Indian textile sector, the Centre in 2023 had approved the setting up of seven PM Mega Integrated Textile Region and Apparel (PM MITRA) Parks to develop world-class infrastructure with an outlay of Rs 4,445 crore for a period up to 2027-28.
Setting Up of New Industrial Smart Cities: Last month, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi had also approved setting up of 12 industrial smart cities under the National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP) with an estimated investment of Rs 28,602 crore.
Reduction in Tariff: In the FY25 Union Budget, the government announced tariff reductions on various items, including medical equipment, mobile phones and related parts, critical minerals, solar energy products, marine products, leather and textiles, precious metals, electronics, petrochemicals, and telecom equipment.
Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP): The Government is implementing PMEGP for assisting entrepreneurs in setting up new units in the non-farm sector. It aims to provide employment opportunities to traditional artisans/ rural and urban unemployed youth at their doorstep. Since 2018-19 to 30 January 2024, estimated employment generated (no. of persons) are 37.46 lakhs.
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission: (DAY-NULM): The Mission aims to reduce poverty and vulnerability of the urban poor households by enabling them to access self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in an appreciable improvement in their livelihoods on a sustainable basis. From 2018-19 to 30 January 2024, estimated number of skill trained candidates placed under DAY- NULM are 5.48 lakhs.
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): PMMY is being implemented by the Government for facilitating self-employment. Under PMMY, collateral free loans up to ₹10 lakh, are extended to micro/small business enterprises and to individuals to enable them to set up or expand their business activities. Around 47.7 crore loans were sanctioned under the scheme as on 29 March 2024.
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): PMMY is being implemented by the Government for facilitating self-employment. Under PMMY, collateral free loans up to ₹10 lakh, are extended to micro/small business enterprises and to individuals to enable them to set up or expand their business activities. Around 47.7 crore loans were sanctioned under the scheme as on 29 March 2024.
Creating Large Scale Employment (Way Forward)
Identifying Skilling Needs through decentralised community action. This can help enumerate all those wanting employment in a community register and making it the basis of finding skill providers and employers.
Converging initiatives for education, health, skills, nutrition, livelihoods, and employment (at the local government level) with women’s collectives to ensure community accountability. Employment does not improve in isolation. All human development indicators achieve better when they devolve and converge.
Introducing need-based vocational courses/certificate programmes alongside undergraduate programmes in every college. This will greatly improve employability on scale by making graduation programmes employable.
Investing in Industrial Training Institutes (ITI), polytechnics as these technical institutions can also work as a hub for feeder schools. Schools must develop an equivalence framework for academic and vocational inputs in terms of credits and hours. The focus should be on States/districts with the least institutional structure for vocational education.
Introducing enterprise and start-up skills through professionals in high schools: Schools need to introduce technology and enterprise as a subject at the upper primary/high school-level onwards. It is important that experimentation and innovation with an understanding of business processes are a part of the regular school curriculum. Visits by professionals to schools can impart finishing skills to students.
Having a co-sharing model of apprenticeships with industry is critical as far as manufacturing sector opportunities or even the services sector is concerned. Skilling costs must be shared with potential employers as standalone government-funded skilling is not always the best way forward.
Streamlining working capital loans for women-led enterprises/first-generation enterprises to enable them to go to scale. While efforts to create comprehensive credit histories of every woman borrower are underway (Reserve Bank Innovation Hub), technology can be a great enabler in going to scale.
Starting a universal skill accreditation programme for skill providing institutions, and let the state and industry jointly sponsor candidates for courses. Skill providers can be accredited after a rigorous assessment process. Candidates can be co-sponsored by the state and employers.
Apprenticeships on scale can facilitate the absorption of youth in a workplace. The scale must go up. The focus must be on skill acquisition and the government’s condition for employer subsidies in any form must always be for wages of dignity on successful completion of apprenticeship.
Context: Port Blair has been renamed ‘Sri Vijaya Puram’ by the Government of India in an effort to move beyond its colonial legacy. The new name pays tribute to the region’s historical ties with the Srivijaya Empire. This renaming also symbolizes the triumph of India's freedom struggle, recognizing the unique and vital role the Andaman and Nicobar Islands played in that historic fight for independence.
Introduction:
Port Blair, the gateway to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was named after Archibald Blair, a naval surveyor and lieutenant in the Bombay Marine.
Blair was the first to conduct a detailed survey of the Andaman Islands, a crucial factor in the city’s establishment.
Archibald Blair’s early career and survey missions:
Blair began his service in the Bombay Marine in 1771, embarking on numerous survey missions across the coasts of India, Iran, and Arabia.
His work extended into various regions, including the Chagos Archipelago, Diamond Harbour near Calcutta, and along the Hooghly River.
These early missions earned him a reputation as a skilled surveyor, leading to his involvement in a mission to the Andaman Islands.
Survey of the Andaman Islands and naming of Port Cornwallis:
In December 1778, Blair departed from Calcutta with two ships, the Elizabeth and the Viper, to explore the Andaman Islands.
His expedition, lasting until April 1779, navigated the west coast and subsequently the east coast of the islands.
During this survey, Blair discovered a natural harbour, which he initially named Port Cornwallis, after William Cornwallis, then Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army.
Later the island was renamed after him.
Recognizing the strategic importance of this harbour, Blair reported his findings to the East India Company (EIC), who were impressed by the potential of the location.
Colonization of the Andaman Islands:
Following Blair’s discovery, the EIC decided to colonize the islands to establish a safe harbour to monitor and counter Malay pirate activities.
Port Cornwallis would also serve as a refuge for shipwrecked sailors and as a shelter for British officers during hostilities with other powers.
As part of the colonization process, several convicts were transported to the islands to perform unpaid labor, and the region became a penal colony.
Decline of the first colony:
In December 1792, for strategic reasons, the colony was shifted to the northeast part of the Andaman Islands, and the new settlement was named Port Cornwallis.
However, this new colony did not last long, as the settlers faced severe disease outbreaks, resulting in numerous deaths.
Port Blair and the revival of penal colony post-1857 revolt:
The Revolt of 1857 changed the course of Port Blair's history.
The British, now burdened with a large number of Indian prisoners, decided to renovate and resettle Port Blair as a penal colony.
Many of these prisoners were given life sentences, with some being hanged, and others succumbing to disease and the harsh conditions of the settlement.
With the rise of the Indian Independence Movement, the British constructed a vast cellular jail in 1906, now infamously known as Kaala Paani.
This jail housed numerous Indian freedom fighters, including Veer Damodar Savarkar, becoming a symbol of British colonial oppression.
Blair’s exploration and discovery were instrumental in shaping the colonial history of the Andaman Islands.
Certain facts about Port Blair
Port Blair, now officially known as Sri Vijaya Puram, serves as the capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India situated in the Bay of Bengal.
It functions as the headquarters of the South Andaman district.
Port Blair is home to several strategic military installations. Indian Navy's major naval base, INS Jarawa, is located here, along with air and sea bases operated by Indian Coast Guard, Andaman and Nicobar Police, and Andaman and Nicobar Command-the first integrated tri-command of the Indian Armed Forces, comprising the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
In Indian freedom struggle movement:
Netaji Subas Chandra Bose escaped British surveillance in Calcutta on January 16, 1941, and returned to Indian soil nearly three years later, arriving at Port Blair Aerodrome on December 29, 1943.
On 30 December 1943, Netaji hoisted the national flag for the first time on Indian soil, at Port Blair, symbolizing the fulfilment of his promise that the Indian National Army (INA) would stand on Indian land by the end of 1943. This momentous visit also marked the declaration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the ‘first liberated territory of India.’
To commemorate this significant event, a Sankalp Smarak (Memorial of Resolve) was dedicated to the nation on December 29, 2021 (78 years after Bose's historic arrival in the Andamans).
From 1943 to 44 during World War II, this territory served as the headquarters of the Azad Hind government under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The island at the time was liberated from British rule by Japan which captured it during World War II. British forces eventually regained control of the islands in October 1945.
History of Engagement of Imperial Chola with Andaman Islands and Srivijaya:
During the 11th century, the powerful Chola emperor, Rajendra I, used the Andaman Islands as a naval base to launch a significant military campaign against the Srivijaya Empire (southern Sumatra), located in present-day Indonesia.
Strategic importance:
According to inscriptions found at Thanjavur dated to 1050 CE, the Cholas referred to the Andaman Islands as Ma-Nakkavaram (great open or naked land), which is believed to have contributed to the modern name of Nicobar under British rule.
The islands’ geographic location made them an ideal staging ground for naval expeditions aimed at Southeast Asia.
His attack on Srivijaya was a remarkable event, reflecting the Chola Empire’s strength and its influence in the region.
Invasion of Srivijaya:
The Chola invasion of Srivijaya was unique in India’s otherwise peaceful interactions with Southeast Asia.
For nearly a millennium, Southeast Asian states had come under the strong cultural influence of India, but this military campaign marked a rare instance of direct conflict.
Reasons for invasion:
The Srivijaya Empire may have attempted to disrupt Chola trade routes with the East, which prompted Rajendra I’s military response.
It is also believed that Rajendra I sought to extend his digvijaya (conquest of all directions) to Southeast Asia, thereby enhancing his imperial glory.
The attack on Srivijaya was also part of the Chola’s broader expansionist ambitions, which also included conflicts with other South Indian empires and Sri Lanka.
Outcome:
Rajendra I’s naval campaign against Srivijaya resulted in significant victories.
According to inscriptional records, he captured Srivijaya’s king, Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, and seized valuable treasures from the Buddhist empire, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jewelled war gate of Srivijaya.
The control over the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia gave access to a major commercial hub.
The conquest gave the Cholas control over important maritime trade routes.
This victory not only marked the height of Chola naval power but also demonstrated the empire’s capacity to influence events far beyond the Indian subcontinent.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, through their association with Rajendra I’s naval expeditions, gained a significant role in India’s maritime strategy and historical narratives.
About Rajendra Chola I (reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE):
Introduction:
Rajaraja I appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent, marking the continuation of the Chola dynasty.
For two years, they ruled jointly, with Rajendra actively participating in campaigns, especially against the Western Chalukyas.
These efforts extended the Chola Empire's boundaries to the Tungabhadra River, securing its northern frontier.
Conquest of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka:
One of the major achievements during Rajaraja’s reign was the attack on Madurai, forcing the Pandya rulers to flee to Sri Lanka.
Rajendra I continued this campaign, successfully conquering Sri Lanka and reclaiming the Pandya crown and jewels.
This victory further solidified Chola dominance over the Pandyas and Sri Lanka.
Northern expeditions:
After ascending the throne in 1014 CE, Rajendra launched a significant campaign into northern India, extending the Chola influence beyond the Godavari River.
His forces secured key victories, leading to the construction of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, commemorating the northern conquests.
Western Chalukya campaigns:
Rajendra I continued his father’s campaigns against the Western Chalukyas, successfully sacking their capital, Kalayani.
The dwarapala statue from Kalayani, installed at the Darasuram temple, is a lasting symbol of these victories.
Rajendra I assumed titles such as Mudikonda Cholan, Gangaikondan, and Kadaramkondan to reflect his military triumphs and scholarly achievements. His reign marked the zenith of Chola power, extending from South India to Southeast Asia, cementing the Chola Empire as one of the most powerful in Indian history.
Context:In December 2022, the Humboldt Forum Museum in Berlin, Germany, unveiled an intricately designed red sandstone gateway, a 1:1 replica of the original East Gate of Sanchi's Great Stupa. At nearly 10 metres tall, 6 metres wide, and weighing around 150 tonnes, this reproduction reflects the detailed craftsmanship of the ancient structure. Its significance was highlighted by a visit from India's External Affairs Minister, S. Jaishankar, emphasizing the ongoing cultural dialogue between India and Germany.
Stupa
A stupa is a commemorative monument usually containing sacred relics of the Buddha or other venerable saints.
The archetypal/typical stupa is a hemispherical structure, whose origins can be traced to pre-Buddhist burial mounds found in India.
The Sanchi complex was in a state of profound disrepair when it was first encountered by British officer Henry Taylor in 1818.
This discovery led to a renewed interest in the site, which was subsequently formally surveyed and excavated by Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in 1851.
The restoration of the site to its current condition was overseen by ASI Director-General John Marshall during the 1910s, with crucial financial support from the Begums of Bhopal.
The most recent construction in Sanchi can be dated to as late as the twelfth century CE.
The Great Stupa is one of the oldest standing stone structures in India, believed to have been built over the Buddha’s relics.
The development of the Sanchi complex was supported by patronage from Vidisha’s mercantile community.
The Great Stupa and Sanchi's other Buddhist monuments were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1989.
The Sanchi Stupa is featured on the reverse side of the ₹200 Indian currency note to highlight its significance as a cornerstone of Indian cultural heritage.
Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka:
The Sanchi Stupa was originally commissioned by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
The initial design of the stupa featured a simple hemispherical brick dome constructed over the relics of the Buddha.
This early form was crowned with a Chatra, a symbolizing high rank, intended to honour and protect the sacred relics of Buddha.
Ashoka’s wife Devi was a merchant’s daughter from nearby Vidisha and a native of Sanchi, oversaw the construction.
Expansions:
In the 1st century BCE, significant enhancements were made to the original stupa.
Four elaborately carved Toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade (railing or barrier supported by a series of vertical posts) encircling the structure were added.
These additions marked the stupa’s transition from its Mauryan origins to a more ornate and decorative phase.
Structural developments:
Subsequent rulers, particularly the Shungas and Satavahanas, expanded and embellished the stupa.
During the Shunga period, the stupa was significantly enlarged with stone slabs, increasing its size to nearly twice its original diameter.
The dome was flattened near the top and crowned with three superimposed parasols, set within a square railing, symbolizing the Dharma, or Wheel of the Law.
The high circular drum supporting the dome was designed for circumambulation (Pradakshinapath) and accessible via a double staircase, complemented by a stone balustrade enclosing a second pathway at ground level.
The railings surrounding Stupa 1, dating to around 150 BCE or 175–125 BCE, are composed of plain stone slabs with dedicatory inscriptions.
These railings, though made of stone, mimic a wooden prototype, evident from the slanted joints resembling those in wood rather than vertical cuts typical of stonework.
The railings also feature short donor inscriptions in Brahmi script, with additional inscriptions added during the Gupta Period.
Satavahana contributions:
The Satavahana Empire, under the rule of Satakarni II, conquered eastern Malwa from the Shungas, gaining control over the Sanchi site.
The Satavahanas are credited with constructing the ornate gateways around the original Mauryan and Shunga stupas.
The 1st century BCE saw the introduction of highly decorated gateways, which were also coloured.
An inscription in Brahmi script, the Siri-Satakani inscription, commemorates the donation of one of the top lintels of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of King Satakarni II, reflecting the ongoing patronage and cultural significance of the site.
Gateways of the Great Stupa:
The Great Stupa at Sanchi is renowned not just for its hemispherical dome crowned with a chhatra (parasol) but also for its intricately carved ornamental gateways or toranas.
These gateways, constructed in the first century BCE during the Satavahana dynasty, serve as remarkable illustrations of Buddhist art and iconography.
The Stupa is surrounded by four toranas, each oriented towards one of the cardinal directions.
These gateways are composed of two square pillars topped with capitals, which support a superstructure.
The pillars and lintels are adorned with elaborate bas reliefs and sculptures depicting scenes from the Buddha’s life, stories from the Jataka Tales, and other Buddhist motifs.
1. Southern gateway:
The Southern Gateway, the first of the four to be erected, is situated directly in front of the steps leading to the stupa’s terrace.
The Northern Gateway, the second to be constructed, is the best-preserved of the four.
It retains most of its original ornamental figures and provides a clear view of the artistic style used in all the gateways.
This gateway features panels that narrate various events from the Buddha’s life.
A notable atypical panel depicts foreigners making a dedication at the Southern Gateway.
3. Eastern gateway:
(Eastern Gateway)
The Eastern Gateway, constructed third, is particularly famous in Europe due to its plaster cast, created by Lieutenant Henry Hardy Cole in the late 1860s. This cast was widely distributed and displayed across Europe, including at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The upper lintel of the Eastern Gateway represents the seven Manushi Buddhas, with the historical Buddha being the latest.
The middle lintel depicts the Great Departure, where Prince Siddhartha leaves Kapilavastu.
The lower lintel portrays Emperor Ashoka visiting the Bodhi tree.
Decorative elements include shalabhanjika (fertility emblems represented by a yakshi grasping a tree branch), elephants, winged lions, and peacocks.
4. Western gateway:
The Western Gateway, the last of the four to be built, follows the same structural design as the other gateways, with two square pillars, capitals, and a superstructure of three architraves.
Context: Mumbai-based Pharmaceuticals has announced that the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has approved its new eye drop, which has been “specifically developed to reduce dependency on reading glasses for individuals affected by presbyopia.”
About presbyopia:
It is an age-related condition in which the eyes gradually lose the ability to focus on nearby objects.
People usually start to develop presbyopia at around the age of 40.
The clear lens sits inside the eye behind the coloured iris. It changes shape to focus light onto the retina, allowing us to see objects. At a young age, the lens is soft and flexible, easily adjusting its shape, enabling people to focus on objects both near and far.
However, after the age of 40, the lens becomes more rigid and cannot change shape as easily, makes it harder to read, thread a needle, or perform other close-up tasks.
The common symptoms of presbyopia include blurred vision at normal reading distance and eye strain or headaches when performing tasks that require close focus.
It can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery.
Context – A critically endangered species, the elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata), was spotted in Haryana’s Damdama area during a research survey in the Aravallis.
Key facts related to elongated tortoise:
The species, also called the Sal forest tortoise, normally occurs in open deciduous forest patches, including Sal (Shorea robusta) and evergreen forest habitats, dry thorn forests, and savannah grasslands.
The species is found in the Asian countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam.
In and around India, it is found in the Manas-Bhutan transboundary landscape, Corbett-Rajaji-Nepal Terai landscape, and northeast Myanmar and northeast Bangladesh transboundary landscape. There is an isolated population in Odisha also (Chhotanagpur region).
Over 90 percent of the habitat of the critically endangered elongated tortoise falls outside the protected area (PA) network in the Indian subcontinent.
In India, the Sal forest tortoise is one of the 29 species (24 turtles + 5 tortoises) of freshwater tortoise and turtles.
It is listed in Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
This perhaps the only tortoise species in the Indian subcontinent that has the largest geographical distribution. However, everywhere it is rare.
Context: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has exempted export-oriented green hydrogen projects from its domestic solar module manufacturer list (ALMM), allowing them to use cheaper imported solar modules.
Major Highlights:
The ALMM (Approved List of Models and Manufacturers) is a registry of domestically produced solar modules approved by the Indian government to promote the use of locally made products in solar energy projects.
By granting the exemption to export-oriented green hydrogen projects from ALMM, the MNRE allows green hydrogen projects set up for export purposes (in Special Economic Zones or Export-Oriented Units) to use imported solar modules instead of the more expensive domestic ones.
This exemption is intended to reduce the production cost of green hydrogen, making it more competitive with cheaper, carbon-intensive grey hydrogen. The lower costs can help green hydrogen producers compete globally and drive export growth.
In addition to cost-reduction measures, MNRE is supporting the green hydrogen sector through initiatives like the SIGHT programme, with Rs 17,490 crore allocated for electrolyser manufacturing and green hydrogen production.
The ministry has also waived transmission charges for 25 years and exempted green hydrogen projects from prior environmental clearance. Further, it has notified 73 green hydrogen standards for production and application of Green hydrogen.
Hydrogen as an alternative fuel
Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
Owing to its clean combustion, producing only water as a byproduct, makes it an attractive option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change. Thus, Hydrogen is gaining significant attention as a potential alternative fuel.
Ways of using Hydrogen as a fuel:
Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Fuel cells based on Hydrogen and Oxygen. Produces Water as a by-product.
Hydrogen CNG (Used as transportation fuel): Mixture of hydrogen and CNG in a fixed ratio, enables Hydrogen being used as fuel in conventional engines. HCNG increases the efficiency of combustion of CNG and is less polluting.
Types of Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. Hydrogen is an invisible gas. Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.
Some common types of Hydrogen
Grey hydrogen: Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.
Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS).
Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.
Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.
Pink Hydrogen: Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind).
Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.
Utility of Hydrogen fuel
Abundant in nature and highly efficient. E.g., Hydrogen is two to three times more efficient than petrol.
Hydrogen is a versatile fuel which can be transported as gas by pipelines or in liquid form like LNG and can be transformed into electricity by fuel cells.
Strengthen energy security by being a direct replacement of fossil fuels.
Green hydrogen can be stored for a long period and can be used when renewable energy is not available for power generation with stationary fuel cells or hydrogen-ready gas turbines.
Green hydrogen is a clean fuel which can decarbonise a range of sectors including iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation.
Facilitate acceleration to the green economy. Presently, hydrogen is used in the refining industry, ammonia making, methanol manufacturing, steel making industries etc.
Challenges in using Hydrogen as a fuel
High production cost: Majority of hydrogen at present is extracted by energy-intensive processes like breaking down fossils, electrolysis of water etc. which adds to the cost of production of Hydrogen. Further, Hydrogen needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored), which needs scaling of technology and makes its ‘prior-to-use-cost’ extremely high.
Extraction causes pollution: Production of grey hydrogen is responsible for around 830 million-tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.
Safety of hydrogen fuel tanks: Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive in nature, it is colourless, odourless, and its flames are not visible by naked eyes.
Storage capacity requirement: India has insufficient storage capacity for the current state of domestic consumption.
Lack of operational fuelling station infrastructure is a big barrier to adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. It would require large-scale investments in underground piping and underground caves and filling stations.
National Hydrogen Mission
The National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in January 2023, with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2023-24 to FY 2029-30.
Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
The scheme envisages generation of hydrogen from green power sources with a target of 5MMT production capacity of Green Hydrogen per annum.
Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Way Forward
Development of technology to produce "green" hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector.
Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production.
Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, A minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries.
Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., In Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.
Context: The legal action initiated by the French authorities against Pavel Durov impinges on the protection that is accorded to social media platforms across jurisdictions under a provision known as “safe harbour”.
What are ‘Safe Harbour’ Rules?
Since social media platforms are generally understood to be crucial tools of free speech, safe harbour is viewed as a basic tenet of enabling freedom of expression on these platforms.
The basic premise of safe harbour protection is: since social media platforms cannot control at the first instance what users post, they should not be held legally liable for any objectionable content that they host, provided they are willing to take down such content when flagged by the government or courts.
Legal Protection in India
Section 79 of Information Technology Act, 2000 it classifies social media platforms as intermediaries and broadly shields them from legal action over the content that users post.
However, this protection extends to companies operating in India with some caveats.
Under The Information Technology Rules, 2021, social media companies with more than 5 million Indian users have to appoint a chief compliance officer who can be held criminally liable if the platform does not adhere to a takedown request, or violates other norms.
Hence, certain officials from the social media company in question can be legally prosecuted if the platform violates laid-down rules.
Context: Wheat is grappling with production challenges despite increasing consumption, while rice is experiencing a surplus issue, causing the two cereals to diverge significantly in their circumstances.
Scenario of wheat and rice production and export of India
Rice Surplus:
Export Data: India exported 21.21 million tonnes (mt) of rice in 2021-22, 22.35 mt in 2022-23, and 16.36 mt in 2023-24.
Stock Levels: As of August 1, 2024, rice stocks were at an all-time high of 45.48 mt.
Export Data: Wheat exports fell from 7.24 mt in 2021-22 to 0.19 mt in 2023-24, with a ban on exports since May 2022.
Stock Levels: Central pool stocks of wheat on August 1, 2024, were at 26.81 mt, the lowest in recent times.
Usually, rice stocks are below that of wheat at this time of the year.
This is because wheat is harvested and marketed during April-June, whereas the main kharif rice crop comes in only from October.
The last three years have been unusual, with rice stock levels on August 1, at the tail-end of the crop marketing year, being higher than that of wheat.
Production constraints
Rice:
Geographical Spread: Cultivated across 16 states including Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and others. Grown in both rabi and kharif season
Water Dependency: Limited primarily by water availability, with Telangana significantly increasing its rice output due to improved irrigation and support prices.
Wheat:
Geographical Concentration: Grown mainly in eight states, with the top four states (UP, MP, Punjab, Haryana) contributing over 76% of the output. Wheat has a single rabi cropping season.
Climate Sensitivity: Vulnerable to changing climate conditions such as shorter winters and fluctuating temperatures, affecting production.
Divergence in Consumption: Wheat vs. Rice
Wheat Consumption Trends: Current Consumption Levels:
Characteristics: Known for its fine texture, softness, and longer shelf life, but lacks dietary fiber, minerals, B vitamins, and proteins.
Consumption Trends:
Increasing Use of Processed Wheat: With rising incomes and urbanization, the consumption of wheat in processed forms like maida is growing.
Data Gaps: Exact figures for processed wheat consumption are not available, but the trend indicates a significant increase.
Rice Consumption Trends:Current Consumption:
Limited Innovation: Processing and convenience food innovations for rice have been relatively minimal.
Common Products: Includes traditional dishes such as idli, dosa, murukku, puffed rice (murmura), puddings, and biryani.
Consumption Dynamics:
Less Diversification: Unlike wheat, rice has not seen significant growth in processed forms or new food products.
Wheat: Increasing consumption, especially in processed forms like maida, driven by rising incomes and urbanization. Consumption is significant both in traditional whole-grain forms and processed products.
Rice: Consumption remains stable with limited diversification into processed products and convenience foods.
Policy Implications
Wheat Policy Considerations: Current Consumption Patterns:
South India: Wheat is a staple, consumed in some form at least once daily.
Consumption: Domestic consumption does not match the production levels, leading to surplus.
Export Restrictions:
Export Ban: Current ban on exports of white non-basmati rice should be lifted.
Duties and Floor Prices:
Parboiled Non-Basmati Rice: Remove the 20% duty.
Basmati Rice: Eliminate the $950/tonne floor price on shipments.
Stock Management:
Action Required: Immediate policy changes are needed to prevent unmanageable excess stocks.
Wheat: Requires a shift in policy to address rising consumption and production issues, including improving yields and adapting to climate change. The trend suggests India may need to import wheat soon.
Rice: Needs policy adjustments to manage surplus, including lifting export bans and duties to balance production and consumption.
