The Indian Express

SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket

Context: In a rare event, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Rocket recently suffered a failure in its upper stage engine that left 20 Starlink internet satellites in a low, non-survivable orbit. The rocket’s second stage experienced a liquid oxygen leak, and failed to complete a second, short engine burn needed to place the satellites in the correct/intended orbit.

Falcon 9 Rocket has been the workhorse of SpaceX, and till date has launched successfully 364 times, carrying astronauts, payloads for SpaceX's commercial clients and thousands of Starlink satellites to orbit.
The last time a Falcon 9 experienced a serious incident was when the rocket blew up on the launchpad in September 2016.

About SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket

The SpaceX Falcon 9 is a partially reusable two-stage rocket that can propel both satellites and astronauts into a variety of orbits.
- It can lift up to:
  - 22,800 kg to Low Earth Orbit (an altitude of 2000 km or less).
  - 8,300 kg to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).
Designed and manufactured by: SpaceX

Key Features:

The rocket hastwo stages.
- The first stage or booster stage comprises nine Merlin engines (a family of rocket engines developed by SpaceX) which use RP-1 (rocket-grade kerosene) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants.
- The second stage consists of a single Merlin engine.
Reusability: The first stage of the rocket is reusable. It is capable of re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere and landing vertically on Earth after separating from the second stage. This significantly reduces the cost of access to space.

Notable Missions of Falcon 9:

Starlink: Falcon 9 is the workhorse for deploying SpaceX's Starlink satellites, aimed at providing global internet coverage.
CRS Missions: Falcon 9 has been used extensively for NASA's Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) missions to the International Space Station (ISS).
Crew Dragon: It launched the first commercial spacecraft (Cew Dragon/ Dragon 2) capable of carrying astronauts to the ISS and LEO. The Polaris Dawn mission is the planned private human spaceflight mission scheduled to be launched in July 2024, using the Falcon 9 rocket.
- Crew Dragon is a spacecraft developed and manufactured by SpaceX as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Program.
- It can carry up to seven astronauts. For NASA missions, it typically carries four astronauts and some cargo.

NITI Aayog’s SDG India Index

Context: According to the NITI Aayog's 4^th edition of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) India Index 2023-24, India's overall Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) score increased to 71 in 2023-24, compared to 66 in 2020-21.

About SDG India Index

NITI Aayog’s SDG India Index: Sustainable Development Goals

The SDG India Index, which evaluates progress made across 16 goals on a scale of 1 to 100, and if a State/UT achieves a score of 100, it signifies it has achieved the targets. The higher the score of a State/UT, the greater the distance covered to the target.
Assesses sustainable development across states on the basis of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).
The latest SDG India Index, now in its fourth edition since its inception in 2018, uses 113 indicators to evaluate the performance of each state aligned to the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation’s (MoSPI) National Indicator Framework (NIF).

Key finding of the report:

Overall SDG score for the country is 71 for 2023-24, significant improvement from 66 in 2020-21 and 57 in 2018.
Kerala and Uttarakhand as the best performing states with a score of 79 points each followed by Tamil Nadu, Goa and Himachal Pradesh , while Bihar emerged as a laggard with 57 points, followed by Jharkhand at 62 points. While Chandigarh took the top spot among Union Territories.
Significant progress in Goals 1 (No Poverty), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), 13 (Climate Action) and 15 (Life on Land)
Goal 13 (Climate Action) records highest increase in score from 54 in 2020-21 to 67 in 2023-24 followed by Goal 1 (No Poverty) from 60 to 72
While goals like “Gender Equality” (Goal 5) and “Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution” (Goal 16) saw the smallest increase in points.
Gender Equality goal received the lowest score of 49 points among all goals, recording a marginal increase of 1 point from 2020-21.
“Reduced Inequalities” (Goal 10) was the only goal to record a reduction in points to 65 in 2022-23 from 67 in 2020-21.

Why does ISRO want to venture into planetary defence?

Context: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) stated that the asteroid Apophis will pass by Earth at a distance of 32,000 km in 2029. The Indian space agency might send its own spacecraft, or collaborate with other space agencies. ISRO intends to develop capabilities in planetary defence-an area it has so far not entered. A mission to study an asteroid would be the first step towards building a programme aimed at preventing celestial bodies from colliding with Earth with potentially catastrophic consequences.

An alarming asteroid

When Apophis was discovered in 2004, scientists thought there was a 2.7% chance of a collision with Earth-the highest probability of any large asteroid hitting Earth in the recent past.
Initial observations showed that if not in 2029, Apophis could hit Earth in 2036 or 2068.
A collision with Earth could cause large-scale damage.
However, subsequent observations showed these initial fears to have been unfounded.
This is close enough to be visible to the naked eye, and at a distance at which some communication satellites operate.

Apophis Asteroid

Apophis is about 340 meters in width.
The orbit of Apophis crosses the orbit of Earth. It completes an orbit around the Sun in a little less than one Earth year (about 0.9 years). This places it in the group of Earth-crossing asteroids known as ‘Atens,’ those with orbits smaller in width than the width of Earth's orbit.
Apophis is classified as an S-type, or stony-type asteroid made up of silicate (or rocky) materials and a mixture of metallic nickel and iron.
It is a remnant from the early formation of our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago.
It originated in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Over millions of years, its orbit was changed primarily so that it now orbits the Sun closer to Earth. As a result, Apophis is classified as a near-Earth asteroid, as opposed to a main-belt asteroid.

Asteroid:

A minor planet, an object that is neither a true planet nor an identified comet.
They are rocky, metallic, or icy bodies with no atmosphere.
Of the roughly one million known asteroids, the greatest number are located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in a region known as the main asteroid belt.
Asteroids are generally classified to be of three types: C-type, M-type, and S-type. These describe asteroids with carbonaceous, metallic, and siliceous compositions, respectively.
The first close-up observation of an asteroid was made by the Galileo spacecraft.

Threats from space

Thousands of Asteroids enter the Earth’s atmosphere every day. Most are very small and burn up in the atmosphere due to friction and some of the larger ones burn and show up as fireballs in the sky.
In some cases, unburnt fragments make it to surface, although they are not large enough to cause much damage.
Once in a while, however, asteroids do cause damage.
- In 2013, a 20-metre-wide asteroid entered the atmosphere and exploded about 30 km above a Russian town, releasing energy.
- While most of this energy was absorbed by the atmosphere, shock waves travelled to the ground, flattened trees, damaged buildings, and injured 1,491 people.
- Worryingly, the asteroid was detected only after it entered the atmosphere.
- This was in part because it came from the direction of the Sun, and was hidden by its glare.
A planetary defence programme seeks to track and neutralise these threats.

Planetary defence programme

NASA launched a spacecraft that crashed into an asteroid named Dimorphos, and changed both its shape and its trajectory.
- Dimorphos did not pose a threat to Earth, and was circling the Sun some 11 million km away from our planet.
- The Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft, or DART, was launched in 2021 and intentionally impacted Dimorphos in September 2022, successfully altering its orbit by crashing into it.
Asteroids are yet to be studied in detail, and very few missions have been dedicated to them.
This is why the approach of Apophis has generated huge interest among space agencies around the world.
- NASA has already redirected one of its Space-craft, one that previously studied the asteroid Bennu, to track Apophis.
- After successfully completing its mission to gather a sample of asteroid Bennu in September 2023, OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security – Regolith Explorer) was renamed OSIRIS-APophis EXplorer (OSIRIS-APEX).
- The spacecraft was sent to study Apophis during the asteroid's 2029 Earth flyby.

Asteroid Bennu:

It is a near-Earth asteroid that was discovered in 1999.
It is about 500 meters.
Bennu is classified as a carbonaceous asteroid, which means that it is rich in carbon and other organic molecules.
In 2016, NASA launched the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft to study Bennu and collect a sample of its surface material.
The OSIRIS-REx spacecraft arrived at Bennu in 2018 and spent two years studying the asteroid.

Inequality among caste

Context: India has made remarkable strides in lifting millions out of multidimensional poverty, yet inequality among various caste groups persists.

Despite the Constitution’s abolition of caste discrimination and the launch of affirmative action programmes, the shadow of caste continues to shape economic realities.

Disparities in consumption patterns among different socio-economic groups

According to the World Inequality Lab:

In 2022-23, while STs accounted for 9 per cent of the population, their consumption share stood at only 7 per cent.
Similarly, SCs constituted 20 percent of the population and their consumption share was 16 per cent.
The OBCs accounted for 43 per cent of the population, their consumption share of 41 percent.
General category accounted for 28 percent of the population, their consumption share of 36 percent.

These findings underscore the persistent disparities in the distribution of consumption across various social groups. Despite minimal fluctuations over time, SCs and STs consistently lag behind people from the General and OBC categories.

The overall Gini coefficient decreased from 0.359 in 2017-18 to 0.309 in 2022-23, indicating a reduction in overall income inequality during this period by 0.050.

Key Areas Impacted by caste:

Employment opportunities: Discrimination in hiring and occupational segregation often restrict lower-caste individuals to menial and low-paying jobs.
Education: While affirmative action policies have improved access to education for lower-caste individuals, disparities in the quality of education received still exist. Between 2017-18 and 2021-22, the SC category growth in number of students enrolled in higher educational institutes is 25.43% (ministry of education report).
- Higher dropout rates among lower-caste students are attributed to economic pressures, social discrimination, and a lack of support systems. Over 8,000 students from the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, OBC, and minority communities have dropped out of technical institutes, including IITs, IIMs, IIITs, NITs, and IISERs, in the last five years up to 2023 (Ministry of Education).
Income disparities: On average, individuals from lower castes earn less than their upper-caste counterparts. SCs/STs earned significantly lesser than their non-SC/ST counterparts. (Deshpande and Sharma)
Entrepreneurship: Lower-caste entrepreneurs often face difficulties in securing loans and investments due to discriminatory practices by financial institutions.

Efforts should concentrate on augmenting income generation and consumption abilities among the lower deciles, particularly within the ST and SC communities. This is also essential for fostering social harmony and economic stability across society. Continued monitoring of trends and targeted interventions addressing specific socio-economic challenges faced by different groups are necessary to ensure sustained progress towards greater economic equity.

Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves

Context: The President of India, Droupadi Murmu visited Udayagiri caves, situated in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.

About Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves:

The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the Hathigumpha inscription.
They have a number of finely carved caves built during the 1st century BCE.
Most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain ascetics during the reign of King Kharavela.
- Kharavela was a monarch of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, who ruled during the second or first century BCE.
- The kingdom of Kalinga was invaded by Ashoka in 262-261 BCE.
- The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from the Maurya Empire sometime after Ashoka's death.
- Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.
The rock cutting activities continued till the time of the Somavamsis of tenth-eleventh century A.D.
Most of the caves consist of a row of cells with portions opening into the courtyard. The doorway of cells has pilasters on either side with crowning animal figures and arches, decorated with flowers, creepers and animal motifs.
Udayagiri means 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are called called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions.
The most important was Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery.
Other important caves include Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri Gumpha, Bagha/ Vyaghra Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha.
The Caves are also listed as one of the Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.
- Under the Adarsh Smarak initiative, the selected places are provided with additional facilities like wi-fi, cafeteria, interpretation centre, Braille signages and illumination among other things.
- The scheme was launched in 2014 for providing improved visitor amenities, especially for the physically challenged.

Some important Caves at Udayagiri:

Rani Gumpha ‘Cave of the Queen’:

Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
This cave is double storeyed.
The upper portion of the central wing has relief images depicting the victory march of a king.
Many of the cells have carved Dwara Pala images.

Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha:

Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha are double storeyed.
Manchapuri cave depicts two male and two female figures worshipping the Kalinga Jina that Kharavela brought back from Magadha.
Kalinga Jina had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda and its restoration was considered to be a great achievement of Kharavela.
There are three inscriptions: one inscription talks about the chief queen of Kharavela, and the other two refer to Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or brother of Kudepasiri.

Ganesha Gumpha:

The cave is named for the carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. It would have been carved in the later period.
The carved figures of Dwara Palas are found at the entrances.

Hathigumpha:

It is a large natural cave with an inscription carved out in Brahmi Script by King Kharavela which is the main source of information about him.
The cave is known as Hathi Gumpha due to its exquisite carvings of elephants.

Bihar, Andhra Pradesh likely to demand for special category status (SCS)

Context: The talks over special category status for the states of Bihar and Andhra Pradesh have once again gained momentum after the victory of the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance (NDA) in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

About Special Category Status (SCS):

It is a classiﬁcation granted by the Centre to assist the development of States that face geographical or socioeconomic disadvantages.
Also to safeguard the interest and aspirations of certain backward regions or to protect cultural and economic interests of the tribal people or to deal with the disturbed law and order in some parts of India.
It was introduced in 1969 on the recommendation of the Fourth Finance Commission (FC).
The criteria for SCS are based on Gadgil Mukherjee formula:
- Hilly and diﬃcult terrain
- Low population density and/or sizeable share of tribal population
- Strategic location along international borders
- Economic and infrastructural backwardness and
- Nonviable nature of state ﬁnances.
The 14th and 15th Finance Commissions have increased the devolution of divisible pool funds to states from 32% to 41%. However, 14^th FC did not consider special category states in its recommendations even 15^th FC made no mention of the SCS.
14^th FC proposed the continuation of higher grants and lower cost sharing for central government and centrally sponsored projects.

Constitutional provision of SCS:

The Indian Constitution does not provide for 'special category states.' However, states have special provisions under Articles 371, 371-A to 371-H, and 371-J.

States under SCS:

Assam, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttarakhand, and Telangana, have been designated as special category states.

Why are Bihar and Andhra Pradesh demanding Special Category Status?

Bihar: Bihar has been asking for it ever since the mineral-rich Jharkhand was carved out of it back in 2000.
- Bihar has been ranked as the poorest state in India, according to the Centre's ‘Multidimensional Poverty Index’ (MPI) report. It is estimated to have nearly 52% of its population, without having proper access to requisite health, education and living standards.
- While the state meets most of the criteria for the Special Category Status, it does not fulfil the criteria of hilly terrain and geographically difficult areas.
Andhra Pradesh:
- After its bifurcation in 2014, Andhra Pradesh has also seen many of its political leaders demanding a Special Category Status on the grounds of revenue loss due to the city of Hyderabad going to Telangana.

Benefits provided to SCS:

For Special Category States 90% of the Central assistance is given as grant and 10% as Loan. In the case of Non-Special Category States, however only 30% of NCA is given as grant and 70% as Loan.
Special packages are purely discretionary. They may be need-based, but the need is not the proximate reason for granting a special package, which is an additional grant under Article 282, which falls under ‘Miscellaneous Financial Provisions’.
Tax sops such as concession on Customs duty, income tax and corporate tax etc. for industrial development.
Special category states can carry forward unspent money from one financial year to the next without it lapsing.

Benefits for Special category status:

To preserve cultural identity (Goa).
To address socio-economic and infrastructural backwardness (Bihar).
To compensate for the loss of taxation rights under the GST mechanism.
To provide special support for recovery and resilient infrastructure due to frequent natural calamities, such as earthquakes, floods, or cyclones (Odisha).
To enhance infrastructure for national security, particularly in areas near international borders (Rajasthan).

Challenges associated with SCS:

It places an additional economic burden on the center and fosters a culture of economic dependency among states.
Granting special status to one state often prompts similar requests from other states.
It will weaken the foundations of fiscal federalism, as it will result in diverting national resources away from other States, which too may have pressing needs.
May be driven by political motives instead of objective criteria and become a tool of political bargaining.

Way forward

Recommendations of Raghuram Rajan Committee:

Suggested "multi-dimensional index" of backwardness is proposed, based on per capita consumption according to National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) data, poverty ratios, and other measures aligned with the multi-dimensional approach to defining poverty in the 12th Five-Year Plan.
States that score 0.6 and above on the Index may be classified as "least developed"; States that score below 0.6 and above 0.4 may be classified as "less developed"; and States that score below 0.4 may be classified as "relatively developed".
Each state should get a basic fixed allocation and an additional allocation depending on its development needs and development performance.
Design specialized programs that address the needs of vulnerable groups with a focus on preserving their cultural identities.

Dengue

Context: With the onset of monsoon and flooding in Delhi-NCR, the city has reported more dengue cases in 2024 as compared to the previous five years. However, the figure can be attributed to better reporting, including from private laboratories.

Dengue disease:

Dengue is a viral illness caused by the dengue virus, which is an RNA virus from the Flavivirus genus.
Dengue is more common in tropical and subtropical regions.
Transmission:
- The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bites of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
- There is no evidence that dengue can be transmitted directly from person to person through casual contact, coughing/sneezing, or sexual contact.
- Rare cases of vertical transmission (from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth) have been reported, but this is not a common mode of spread.
Symptoms: Fever, headache, nausea, muscle/joint pain, rash, and potentially hemorrhagic complications.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment or vaccines available for dengue, only supportive care. The primary public health focus for controlling dengue is on mosquito population control and preventing mosquito bites.

Mudras in Buddhism

Context: ‘Abhaya Mudra’, the gesture depicted with raised open palm that is commonly understood as conveying reassurance and a freedom from fear was invoked by the Leader of Opposition in his speech in Lok Sabha. The Abhaya Mudra is commonly associated with Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.

Introduction

It is one of the major religions of the world that originated from the Indian subcontinent and has now spread to large parts of South-east Asia.
The origin of Buddhism is attached to the story of Siddhartha who came to be known as Buddha.
Gautam Buddha was born at Lumbini (in present Nepal) in 563 BC as Siddhartha Gautam.
At the age of 29, he left his house to find the truth of life and he wandered as an ascetic.
At Gaya (Bihar), he attained enlightenment (Nirvana) under a pipal tree and became the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
After attaining Nirvana, he gave his first sermon to his five companions at the Deer Park in Sarnath near Varanasi. This event was called Dharma-chakra-pravartana (Turning the wheel of Law).
Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (Malla Mahajanapada) in Uttar Pradesh in 483 BC.

Mudras in Buddhism

In the Buddhist context, it refers to “hand and arm gestures made during the course of ritual practice or depicted in images of buddhas, bodhisattvas, tantric deities, and other Buddhist images”.
Mudras are most commonly associated with visual depictions of the Buddha with different gestures conveying different moods and meanings, signifying the subtle manifestations of the Buddha’s states of realisation.
The earliest depictions of the Buddha in physical form date to roughly around the turn of the first millennium.
Depictions started appearing in the Gandhara art from the northwestern edge of the Indian subcontinent (present day Pakistan and Afghanistan), which drew on Hellenistic influences (Greek) and later in the art of the Gupta period, in the Gangetic plains.
In the earliest depictions of Buddha, four mudras can be found:
- Abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness)
- Bhumisparsha mudra (Earth-touching gesture)
- Dharmachakra mudra (gesture of the wheel of dharma)
- Dhyana mudra (gesture of meditation).
With the evolution of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, and the proliferation of Buddhist artwork outside India, hundreds of mudras entered Buddhist iconography.

About Abhaya Mudra

The Abhaya mudra is typically formed with the palm of the right-hand facing outward at shoulder height and the fingers pointing up and the index, second, or third finger touches the thumb, with the remaining fingers extended upward.
In Buddhist tradition, the Abhaya mudra is associated with the Buddha immediately after he attained Enlightenment, ‘portraying a sense of the security, serenity, and compassion that derive from enlightenment’
This gesture identifies the moment when Shakyamuni (the Buddha) tamed the mad elephant, thus illustrating the Buddha’s ability to grant fearlessness to his followers. The elephant calmed down immediately, went down on her knees, and bowed her head to the Buddha.
This is why the Abhaya mudra is also seen as a ‘gesture of protection’ or ‘gesture of granting refuge’.

Other Mudras in Buddhism:

Dharmachakra Mudra

It is also called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma' that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha's life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
It is shown with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward.

Dhyan Mudra

It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra.
It is shown with the help of two hands which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hands resting on each other.)

Bhumisparsa Mudra

This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’ which represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment
It is shown with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.

Varada Mudra

This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
It is shown with the help of both the hands with the palm of the right hand facing forward and fingers extended and the left-hand palm placed near omphalos with extended fingers.

Karana Mudra

This gesture signifies the warding off evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other fingers.
The karana mudra expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Vajra Mudra

This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolizes the five elements of nature, i.e. air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
It is shown with the help of the right fist, left-hand forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.

Vitarka Mudra

It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
It is shown by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like to Abhaya Mudra and varada mudra but in this Mudra the thumbs touching the index fingers.

Abhaya mudra in Hindu religion:

Over time, the Abhaya mudra appeared in depictions of Hindu deities, and the Buddha himself was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth avatar of the Puranic god Vishnu.
Hindus came to regard the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu between AD 450 and the sixth century.
The first mention of the Buddha avatar came in the Vishnu Purana (400-500 CE).
As multiple traditions, practices, and cultural influences mingled in the great melting pot of the Hindu religion, manifestations were seen in art and visual depiction of gods.
The Abhaya mudra was seen in the depictions, most commonly of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Ganesha.

Mark Rutte Appointed as secretary general of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Context: NATO appointed Mark Rutte as its next secretary-general putting in charge of the world’s biggest security organisation at a critical time for European security as war rages in Ukraine.

About NATO:

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance of European and North American nations.
Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., in 1949.
NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties.
During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union.
The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia and Africa.
NATO's main headquarters are located in Brussels, Belgium, while NATO's military headquarters are near Mons, Belgium.
Founding Members: These joined together on April 4, 1949, to form NATO. NATO initially included 12 North American and Western European nations.
- Belgium
- Canada
- Denmark
- France
- Iceland
- Italy
- Luxembourg
- Netherlands
- Norway
- Portugal
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Most recently, Sweden joined the alliance in 2024.
The secretary general of NATO:
- The Secretary General is the chief civil servant of the NATO.
- The officeholder is an international diplomat responsible for coordinating the workings of the alliance, leading NATO's international staff, chairing the meetings of the North Atlantic Council and most major committees of the alliance.
- The secretary general however, does not have a military command role; political, military and strategic decisions ultimately rest with the member states.
- Term: Four years which can be extended repeatedly.

Global Gender Gap Index, 2024

Context: In the 2024 edition of the Global Gender Gap Index, India ranks 129th out of 146 countries surveyed, positioning it 18th from the bottom.

Key findings of Global Gender Gap Index’24:

The 2024 Index shows that while no country has achieved full gender parity, 97% of the economies included in this edition have closed more than 60% of their gap, compared to 85% in 2006.
- It will take 134 years, until 2158, to achieve full gender equality, which is five generations past the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target.
Iceland (93.5%) is again ranked 1st and has been leading the index for a decade and a half. It also continues to be the only economy to have closed over 90% of its gender gap.
Southern Asia ranks seventh among eight global regions, with a gender parity score of 63.7 per cent, an improvement of 3.9 percentage points since 2006.
However, six out of the seven economies in this region, including India, are ranked below the top 100. Only Bangladesh, for the first time in the region, has achieved a double-digit rank of 99.
India's performance in Southern Asia is particularly troubling. In 2024, India closed 64.1% of its gender gap, ranking third lowest in the region, just ahead of the Maldives and Pakistan. India’s overall rank is 129th, marginally lower than last year (127).
The decline is mainly attributed to slight decreases in ‘Educational Attainment’ and ‘Political Empowerment’ as women's representation in India's political sphere remains low, with only seven women in the newly formed council of ministers, and just two holding cabinet positions. However, despite the overall decline, there was a minor improvement in ‘Economic Participation and Opportunity.’

About Global Gender Gap Index:

It is an annual report highlights the current state and evolution of gender parity.
It was first introduced by the World Economic Forum in 2006.
It is the longest-standing index tracking the progress of numerous countries’ efforts towards closing these gaps.
It presents a picture of the current state and evolution of gender parity across four indices: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment.

Filling the voids in farms

Context: In the recently formed NDA cabinet under Modi 3.0, Shivraj Singh Chouhan's appointment to head both the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoA&FW) and the Ministry of Rural Development is a strategic move.

During his tenure, Madhya Pradesh achieved impressive economic growth, with an overall GDP growth rate of 7% annually and agricultural GDP growth rate of 6.8% per annum from 2005-06 to 2023-24.

This growth surpassed national averages significantly, demonstrating his effective leadership in fostering inclusive development.

Challenges and Strategies Ahead

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity Amid Climate Change
- Chouhan faces the critical challenge of boosting India's agricultural GDP growth to over 5% annually while increasing farmers' incomes.
  - Increasing expenditure on agricultural R&D and extension services to at least 1% of agri-GDP.
  - Promoting resilient farming practices and heat-resistant crop varieties to mitigate climate risks.
  - Implementing water-efficient technologies to ensure sustainable water use ("more crop, per drop").

Reforming Agricultural Markets and Trade Policies
- To improve farmers' access to global markets and ensure fair prices for their produce, Chouhan must advocate for:
  - Revising policies that hinder export opportunities, such as lifting bans on exports like onions and easing restrictions on rice exports.
  - Collaborating with other ministries to establish efficient value chains for high-value agricultural products, leveraging private sector partnerships and models like the AMUL cooperative.

Overhauling Fertiliser Subsidy Policy
- A significant structural reform Chouhan should pursue is the transfer of the fertiliser subsidy from the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilisers to MoA&FW:
  - Directly transferring fertiliser subsidies to farmers' accounts to empower them in choosing fertiliser types.
  - Gradually freeing fertiliser prices while promoting the use of bio-fertilisers and natural farming methods.
  - Implementing digital fertiliser coupons to facilitate this transition and reduce environmental impact.

Conclusion

Shivraj Singh Chouhan's appointment as the head of MoA&FW and Ministry of Rural Development is pivotal in addressing the rural distress evident from recent electoral setbacks. His track record in Madhya Pradesh demonstrates a proactive approach to agricultural growth and rural prosperity. By focusing on innovation, market reforms, and sustainable practices, Chouhan can play a transformative role in realizing Prime Minister Modi's vision of doubling farmers' incomes and ensuring robust rural development across India.

Why is the success of China’s sample return lunar mission significant?

Context: China’s Chang’e-6 became the first spacecraft to bring back samples from the far side of the Moon to the Earth.

Timeline of Chang’e-6:

The Chang'e-6 probe was successfully launched from China on a Long March-5 rocket on May 3, 2024.
The lander descended on the Moon’s surface on June 1 and spent two days collecting rocks and soil from one of the oldest and largest of lunar craters — the 2,500 km-wide South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin — using a robotic arm and drill.
- The lander then launched an ascent module that transferred the samples to the Chang’e-6 orbiter that was orbiting the Moon.
On June 21, the orbiter released a service module that brought back the samples to Earth. The Chang'e-6 probe returned to Earth on June 25, bringing back the first-ever samples from the far side of the moon.
Aim: The sample return mission aims to collect and return samples from the far side of the Moon to Earth for analysis. The sample can be rocks or soil or even some molecules.

Is this the first time a spacecraft has brought lunar samples to Earth?

Back in July 1969, the US Apollo 11 mission brought 22 kg of lunar surface material, including 50 rocks, to Earth.
In September 1970, the Soviet Luna 16 mission — the first robotic sample return mission — too, brought pieces of the Moon to Earth.
In December 2020, China’s Chang’e-5 brought back 2 kg of lunar soil.

All these samples came from the near side of the Moon.

Note:
- China is the only country to achieve a soft-landing on the far side of the Moon. In 2019, its Chang’e-4 mission landed on the far side and explored the Moon’s Von Karman crater with the help of a rover.
- Difficult terrain, giant craters, and the difficulty in communicating with ground control made it technically challenging to land a spacecraft on the far side that never faces the Earth.

Facts about the Moon:

The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, meaning that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. This side is known as the near side, while the opposite side is called the far side or the "dark" side (although it does receive sunlight).
- The Moon takes roughly the same amount of time to complete one full orbit around the Earth as the Moon takes to complete one full rotation on its axis.
- As a result, one side of the Moon always faces the Earth, while the other side (far side) faces away from Earth. Thus, we can see only one side of the Moon.

Near side and Far side of the Moon have strikingly different appearances:

Near side:

The near side is characterised by large, dark basaltic plains called maria (dark spots), which are believed to have formed from ancient volcanic eruptions. These maria cover about 31% of the near side and are less common on the far side.
The near side also has fewer impact craters compared to the far side.

Far side:

The far side is more heavily cratered and lacks the extensive maria (dark spots) found on the near side.
The far side has a thicker crust and is more mountainous, with the highest elevations on the Moon. It has a thicker crust by almost 20 km.
One of the most prominent features on the far side is the South Pole-Aitken basin, which is the largest known impact crater in the Solar System.

Why are sample return missions significant?

Lunar missions are exploring ways to stay for long on the Moon and to use its resources in situ.

Detailed analysis of samples:
- In situ robotic explorations — in which landers, orbiters, and rovers carry out experiments in space or on heavenly bodies — can carry only miniature instruments that are not very sophisticated or accurate and have limitations. For example, they cannot determine the origin or age of a rock.
- If the samples can be brought to Earth, the scientists can examine them using extremely sensitive laboratory instruments. They can study the chemical, isotopic, mineralogical, structural, and physical properties of extraterrestrial samples from the macroscopic level down to the atomic scale.
- The returned samples can be preserved for decades and can be examined by future generations using ever more advanced technology.
Insights into Moon:
- Samples collected from the SPA basin can reveal the timeframe for lunar cratering. The collision that created the basin may have excavated enough material from the Moon’s lower crust and upper mantle, which could give insights into the Moon’s history and its origin.
- An examination of the Chang’e-6 samples could throw up some answers on why the lunar far side is geologically different from the near side.
Lunar Resources:
- Far side might hold resources like water ice trapped in permanently shadowed craters. Ice can be harvested for water, oxygen and hydrogen — and the latter two can be used in a rocket propellant. These resources could be vital for future lunar settlements or exploration efforts.
- The samples can suggest ways to use lunar resources for future lunar and space exploration. For instance, lunar soil could be used to produce bricks to build future lunar research bases through 3D printing.
- Moon can be used in the near future as a launch pad to travel deeper into space and to other extraterrestrial bodies.

Note:

India’s Chandrayaan-4 mission, which is currently under development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), will also be a sample return mission.
Chandrayaan-3 landed about 600 km from the South Pole of the Moon in August 2023.