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Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Context: Following the unveiling of the statue of 9th-century king Mihir Bhoja as 'Gurjar Pratihar Samrat Mihir Bhoja' by district party leaders, leaders in Haryana's Kaithal expressed their protest by offering to resign. The controversy surrounding Mihir Bhoja's lineage has arisen before in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with both Gurjaras and Rajputs laying claim to his belonging in their respective communities.

About Mihir Bhoja

Mihir Bhoja (836 to 885 CE), was a highly successful and ambitious ruler in ninth-century India. At that time, the Gurjara-Pratiharas held dominion over a vast empire, stretching from Kashmir to Gujarat.
Mihir Bhoj ascended to power after succeeding his father, Ramabhadra. He also expanded his influence by conquering regions in the Deccan and Malwa.
Tripartite Struggle:
- During the ninth century, a major political struggle centered around gaining control of Kannauj, as it was believed that whoever ruled there would become the emperor of the country.
- This led to a tripartite conflict among the powerful entities of the time—the Gurjara-Pratihara, the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, and the Palas of Bengal. Among them, Mihir Bhoj emerged as the most successful.
- He secured territories of Gujarat and Malwa from the Gujarat-Rashtrakutas and further expanded his realm by conquering areas of Gorakhpur from the Palas of Bengal.

He was a devout follower of Vishnu and used the title of Adivaraha, which was inscribed on some of his coins.
His rule spanned a vast territory, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Narmada River, which included the present district of Etawah in Uttar Pradesh. Kannauj, which served as his capital during his reign, was known as Panchala.
Mihir Bhoja was a staunch adversary of the Arab invaders and maintained a formidable army, particularly renowned for its skilled cavalry. Following his rule, his son Mahendrapala I succeeded him.
Lineage:
- Originally, the Gurjars were a nomadic tribe in ancient India, initially spread across the regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat, and it is believed that Mihir Bhoja belonged to this tribe.
- However, historical records also suggest that he asserted Kshatriya status for himself. It was a common practice in ancient India for kings to claim Kshatriya lineage, as it was considered that only a Kshatriya (warrior) could rightfully ascend to the throne.
- The controversy surrounding the castes of ancient rulers in recent times is primarily a product of modern-day politics and does not have any direct bearing on historical accuracy.
- It is essential to approach these historical accounts with a critical perspective, considering the societal context and the evolution of social identities over time.

Military Career

Mihira Bhoja first consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan, before turning his attention against the old enemies the Palas and Rastrakutas.
He invaded the Pala Empire of Bengal but was defeated by Devapala. He then launched a campaign to conquer the territories to the south of his empire and was successful, thus Malwa, Deccan, and Gujarat were conquered.
The Pratiharas were defeated in a large battle in Ujjain by Rastrakutas of Gujarat however, retribution followed on the part of the Pratiharas, and by the end of his reign, Bhoja had successfully destroyed the Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Bhoja's feudatory, the‌ Guhilas chief named Harsha of Chatsu, is described as defeating the northern rulers with the help of the mighty elephant force, and loyally presenting to Bhoja the special ‘Shrivamsha’ breed of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand.
Besides being a conqueror, Bhoja was a great diplomat. The Kingdoms which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty include Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya, Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta, and Chandelas of Bundelkhand.
Bhoja's Daulatpura-Dausa Inscription, confirms his rule in the Dausa region. Another inscription states that ‘Bhoja's territories extended to the east of the Sutlej River.’
Kalhana's Rajatarangini states that the territories of Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north, and Bhoja conquered Punjab by defeating the ruling ‘Thakkiyaka’ dynasty.

Coins of Mihira Bhoja

Mihira Bhoja was commonly known by the epithet ‘Srimad-Adivaraha’, which refers to the fortunate primeval boar incarnation of Vishnu.
These coins feature a depiction of Adivaraha on the obverse side, where the God holds a solar wheel with spokes in his right hand, while in his left hand, there are other emblems such as a mace, lotus flower, and conch shell.
Additionally, under the feet of God, there is likely a two-headed serpent. According to Alexander Cunningham, these types of coins are found in both silver and copper.
It is believed that copper coins were originally coated with silver to circulate as silver coins. The presence of Adivaraha coins was noted by Thakkar Pheru in the 13th-century text ‘Dravya-Pariksha,’ who served as a mint master under Alauddin Khilji.

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

The Gurjara-Pratiharas, also known simply as the Pratiharas, ruled over western and northern India from the 8th century CE to the 11th century CE.
This dynasty witnessed a significant rise in its fortunes under the rule of Nagabhata I (730–760 CE), who successfully repelled Arab invaders.
The Pratiharas were particularly known for their generous patronage of art, sculpture, and temple construction.

Fusion of Rock Art

Rudragiri hillock located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, boasts a celebrated historical past and remarkable archaeological monuments. This site unveils a fascinating combination of prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic period and exquisite artwork from the Kakatiya dynasty.

More about the news

At the foothills of Rudragiri, five naturally formed rock shelters have been uncovered.
These shelters served as dwellings for people during the Mesolithic age approximately around 5000 B.C. They contain striking rock paintings from that era, which provide a fascinating glimpse into the past.
Two of these natural caves display remarkable murals dating back to the renowned Kakatiya dynasty. Despite being affected by the forces of nature over time, fragments of these paintings offer valuable insights into their creation during the 13th century A.D.
The paintings are adorned with a variety of colors derived from white kaolin and various pigments. They vividly depict captivating scenes from the epic Ramayana.
In the first cave, there is a narrative mural portraying the intense battle between the Vanara brothers - Vali and Sugriva.
The middle cave features a grand sketch of Hanuman, accompanied by sacred symbols such as the conch (Sankha) and the fire altar (Yagna Vedi).
Additionally, the third cave houses prehistoric rock paintings dating back to the Mesolithic era, providing a glimpse of the ancient artistic expressions from that time.

Early Rock Paintings in India

India boasts some of the earliest rock paintings dating back to the Upper Palaeolithic times.
The first discovery of rock paintings in India was made by archaeologist Archibold Carlleyle.
Remnants of these ancient paintings have been found on cave walls in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, and even the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand, particularly at Lakhudiyar, where the rock shelters along the River Suyal preserve these prehistoric artworks.

The Spectacular Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

One of the most remarkable sites of rock paintings in India is Bhimbetka, located in the Vindhya hills of Madhya Pradesh.
Discovered by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar.
The paintings at Bhimbetka depict a diverse range of themes, including daily life events, sacred and royal images, hunting scenes, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fights, honey collection, body decoration, and household scenes.

Classification of Bhimbetka Rock Art

The rock art at Bhimbetka has been categorized into various groups based on style, technique, and superimposition.
The drawings and paintings are classified into three historical periods: Period I (Upper Palaeolithic), Period II (Mesolithic), and Period III (Chalcolithic).

Mesolithic Paintings

During the Mesolithic period (Period II), the rock paintings at Bhimbetka feature a variety of themes, with hunting scenes being predominant.
The paintings depict groups of primitive men hunting animals with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows, and bows.
Some paintings show the hunters using traps and snares to catch animals. The hunters are depicted wearing simple clothes and ornaments, occasionally adorned with elaborate headdresses or masks.
The Mesolithic artists showed a mix of fear and tenderness for animals in their artwork.

Daily Life Depictions

The rock paintings at Bhimbetka also depict various aspects of daily life during the Mesolithic era.
Scenes of community dances, people gathering fruits or honey from trees, and women grinding and preparing food are common themes.
The artists painted men, women, and children engaged in various activities, giving a glimpse of what life was like for these ancient people.

Techniques and Colours

The artists at Bhimbetka used a wide range of colors, including white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green, and black.
White and red were particularly favored colors.
The paints were made by grinding various rocks and minerals, such as haematite for red and chalcedony for green.
The artists used plant fiber brushes for their artwork.
Surprisingly, these colors have survived thousands of years due to the presence of oxide on the rock surface, which helped preserve the paintings despite adverse weather conditions.

Location and Purpose of Paintings

The paintings were made on the walls and ceilings of rock shelters, with some found in places where people lived and others in areas with potential religious significance.
The elevated locations of some paintings suggest they were meant to be visible from a distance.
The paintings display pictorial quality and provide insights into the lives and beliefs of early human beings, showing a passion for storytelling and a portrayal of humans and animals engaged in the struggle for survival.

A Glimpse into Prehistoric Life

These prehistoric paintings offer valuable information about early human beings, their lifestyle, food habits, and daily activities.
They provide a glimpse into the minds of these ancient artists, reflecting their thoughts and perceptions.
The remains from the prehistoric period, including rock weapons, tools, ceramics, and bones, serve as witnesses to the evolution of human civilization, with the rock paintings being among the most significant legacies left behind by the primitive humans of that time.

About Kakatiya Dynasty

Early Kakatiya Dynasty rulers

The Kakatiya dynasty, known for ruling the eastern Deccan region from the 12th to the 14th centuries, had its roots traced back to Venna, who reigned from 800 to 815 AD.
Venna was believed to be a descendant of Durjaya, a legendary chieftain of the Andhra kingdom.
The Kakatiya lineage continued with Gunda I and Gunda II, about whom little information is available except for their rule from 815 to 865 AD.
During the early days, the Kakatiyas served as vassals to the powerful Rashtrakuta, which held significant influence over much of India during the 6th to 10th centuries AD.

Rise to Power and Independence

After the collapse of the Rashtrakuta kingdom, Gunda IV saw an opportunity to establish his family's independent rule.
He declared Kuravi as an independent principality, leading the Kakatiya dynasty towards self-governance.

Consolidation and Expansion

Ganapati, who ruled from around 1199 to 1262, focused on consolidating the kingdom and expanding its territories.
He led successful campaigns, bringing Telugu-speaking lowland deltas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers under his control.
The capital of Kakatiyas was Orugallu, now known as Warangal.

Rudrama Devi: A Remarkable Female Ruler

Rudrama Devi, succeeding Ganapati, was one of the few female rulers in Indian history.
She continued her predecessor's fortification efforts and repelled an attempted invasion by the Seuna dynasty (Yadava Dynasty).
She married an Eastern Chalukyan prince, Virabhadra, and later handed over the throne to her grandson, Prataparudra II.

Decline of the Kakatiya Dynasty

Prataparudra II faced challenges from the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji, who saw the wealth and potential of the Kakatiya lands.
Prataparudra II initially submitted to Alauddin but later asserted his kingdom's independence.
The subsequent conflicts with the Delhi Sultanate led to the fall of the Kakatiya dynasty.

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

Context: Several events have been scheduled to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the final ruler of Awadh, who possessed a remarkable appreciation for the arts. These activities comprise an exhibition, a heritage walk, and informative discussions.

About Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

Mirza Wajid Ali Shah, the final ruler of Awadh, held the position from 1847 to 1856.
His second wife Begum Hazrat Mahal, played a significant role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British East India Company, acting as the regent of Awadh.
Although his kingdom had been safeguarded by the East India Company under a treaty, it was annexed by the company in 1856.
Following the annexation, the Nawab was exiled to Metiabruz, a suburb of Kolkata, where he spent the rest of his life receiving a generous pension.

Wajid Ali Shah was not only a ruler but also a poet, playwright, dancer, and avid patron of the arts. He introduced Kathak, a significant form of classical Indian dance, as a court dance during a period when the Mughal influence was diminishing, primarily for recreational purposes.

As a Ruler of Awadh

The British East India Company had already annexed a significant portion of Awadh through a treaty signed with the Nawabs in 1801.
The company's actions had severely impacted the Awadh economy by burdening it with the costs of maintaining the Bengal Army and repeatedly demanding loans.
Wajid Ali Shah became the ruler of Awadh when the East India Company was determined to annex the prosperous kingdom, which was regarded as "the garden, granary, and queen-province of India."
Upon ascending the throne, he actively participated in the administration of justice, implemented reforms, and reorganized the military.
The British Resident of Lucknow, General William Sleeman, submitted a report highlighting alleged "maladministration" and "lawlessness" in Awadh. This report conveniently provided the British with the justification they needed for the annexation under the Doctrine of Lapse by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie.

Patronage to Music

Wajid Ali Shah patronized music, dance, drama, and poetry, but he was also a gifted composer himself.
Bahadur Hussain Khan, was one of Wajid Ali Shah's favorite musicians. The Nawab honored him with the title Zia-ud-Daulah.
He adopted the pseudonym ‘Akhtarpiya’ for his musical compositions. Under this name, he wrote poems, prose, and thumris.
His collections, Diwan-i-Akhtar and Husn-i-Akhtar, contain his ghazals.
Much of the knowledge about music in Nawabi Lucknow comes from the text Madanul Moosiqui ('The Mine of Music').
During his reign, complex ragas like hori and dhrupad were less emphasized, while easier raginis like tilak, pilu, sendura, khammach, bhairvi, and jhanjhauti gained popularity.
These raginis were favored by the king and easily understood by all sections of society, making them beloved by the common people.
There is a popular belief that Wajid Ali Shah was the creator of the light classical form known as thumri.
Wajid Ali Shah's innovative ideas and experiments in ghazals played a significant role in shaping the modern-day style of ghazals.

Patronage to dance

In ancient times, Kathak was originally performed as part of temple rituals.
It was under the artistic guidance and patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah that Kathak reached new heights.
During this period, Kathak was also extensively performed by courtesans, who developed the art form alongside its refinement in the court.
Their style of Kathak differed from the court style, often incorporating playfulness known as nakhra.
Wajid Ali Shah introduced two distinct forms of Kathak: Rahas and Raas.
Rahas was a choreographed dance form that incorporated acting, dancing, and music. It encompassed dramatic elements and portrayed different scenes, often with changing settings and locales.
On the other hand, Raas was a religious form of Kathak. Dhrupad, a form of classical music, was primarily sung during Raas performances, which began with its singing.
It was during Wajid Ali Shah's reign that the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak emerged. The Lucknow style of Kathak is characterized by graceful movements, elegance, natural poise, and a focus on abhinaya (expressions).
Wajid Ali Shah made Kathak the official court dance and also popularized it among the people.

Contributions to literature

The famous poet Mirza Ghalib received gracious patronage from Wajid Ali Shah.
Wajid Ali Shah himself was a prolific writer, utilizing a simple language that conveyed meaning to all, often incorporating Awadhi, the local dialect.
His most significant work, Sawat-ul-Qalub, comprises a collection of 44,562 couplets.
Among his notable works, the autobiographical Huzn-i-Akhtar holds great importance. It portrays the unfavorable and unceremonious treatment he faced at the hands of British authorities.
Another significant work by Wajid Ali Shah is Bani. It serves as a treatise on Music and Dance, offering insights into the mushairas (poetic gatherings) held at Matiya Burj (Calcutta).

Alluri Sitarama Raju and Rampa Rebellion

Context: The President of India Droupadi Murmu paid tribute to Alluri Sitarama Raju, the freedom fighter at the closing ceremony of his 125th birth anniversary celebrations in Hyderabad.

About Alluri Sitaram Raju

Alluri Sitaram Raju was an influential Indian revolutionary who played a significant role in the country's struggle for independence.
Born on July 4, 1897, in a modest middle-class family near the Coastal city of Visakhapatnam, Raju developed a strong sense of patriotism from an early age.
His dedication to the freedom movement and his efforts to improve the lives of the Adivasi communities left a lasting impact on Indian history.

Advocating for Adivasi Rights and the Freedom Struggle

Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's Non-cooperation movement, Raju initially encouraged the tribals to seek justice in local panchayat courts and boycott colonial courts.
However, these measures failed to alleviate their suffering. Determined to make a difference, Raju decided to reside in the Adivasi areas of the Eastern Ghats, specifically the forest region along Visakhapatnam and Godavari districts.
He dedicated himself to the Adivasis, who were living in dire poverty and facing exploitation by the police, forest officials, and revenue authorities. Raju provided much-needed support to the Adivasis through education and medical assistance, utilizing the knowledge he acquired during his extensive travels.
This region became the epicentre of his fight against the British rule. Raju learned from the Adivasis and combined their time-tested war methods with his own tactics, creating a formidable resistance against the British.
In August 1922, he launched the Rampa Rebellion, gaining substantial local support and successfully evading British authorities for an extended period.

British Response

Raju's armed struggle against the British frustrated the authorities to such an extent that they offered a reward for his capture, dead or alive.
Meanwhile, the British continued to inflict misery on the Adivasis. Seeking justice and fairness, Raju eventually surrendered, hoping for a fair trial in return.
However, on May 7, 1924, he was treacherously trapped and shot dead.

Legacy

Recognizing his courage and indomitable spirit, he was bestowed with the title "Manyam Veerudu" (Hero of the Jungle).
Every year, on July 4th, the Government of Andhra Pradesh commemorates his birth date as a state festival, honoring his contributions to the nation's freedom struggle.

The Rampa Rebellion:

The Rampa Rebellion, also known as the Manyam Rebellion, was a significant tribal uprising led by Alluri Sitarama Raju in the Godavari Agency of Madras Presidency, British India.
Spanning from August 1922 to May 1924, this rebellion marked a critical chapter in the fight against British colonial rule.

Causes of Unrest

The Rampa administrative area, encompassing approximately 700 square miles, was home to around 28,000 tribal inhabitants. These tribes relied on the ‘podu system’, where they burned sections of the forest each year for cultivation, ensuring their food requirements were met.
However, the British authorities sought to exploit the lands of the Godavari Agency for commercial purposes, disregarding the needs of the tribal communities.
With the implementation of the Madras Forest Act in 1882, the Adivasis' free movement in their forest habitats was restricted, preventing them from practicing their traditional podu agricultural methods.
The tribal people faced starvation as their economic situation deteriorated, exacerbated by forced labor demands for road construction and perceived biases in the legal system.

Convergence of Discontent

Simultaneously, the muttadars, who had been hereditary tax collectors and rulers in the hills, experienced discontent due to their loss of power and status under British rule.
Previously acting on behalf of the rajas, the rulers of the plains, the muttadars found themselves marginalized and controlled by the colonial administration.
Their shared grievances with the tribal hill people created a common ground for resistance against the British.

Alluri Sitarama Raju's Leadership

He harnessed the discontent of the tribal communities, combining anti-colonial zeal with accommodation for sympathetic muttadars.
Raju's followers comprised primarily tribal members, but he also garnered support from influential individuals within the muttadar class.
While some muttadars remained ambivalent, Raju's overarching vision of liberation from colonial rule united these disparate groups.

The Rebellion

The rebellion commenced in August 1922, taking the form of guerrilla warfare.
The tribal fighters, adept at navigating the challenging terrain, proved resilient against British suppression efforts.
The prevalence of diseases in the region, to which the tribal people had developed immunity, further hindered the colonial authorities' attempts to quell the rebellion.

Conclusion

The Rampa Rebellion, led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, stands as a testament to the determination of tribal communities and their fight against British colonial rule. This uprising highlighted the grievances caused by the imposition of laws that restricted traditional practices and disrupted the economic stability of the Adivasis. Although the rebellion ultimately faced suppression, it left a lasting impact on the collective memory of the struggle for independence in India.

Jagannath Yatra at Puri

Context: Jagannath Ratha Yatra has begun in Puri in the current month of Ashadh.

About the Jagannath Yatra

The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, is a magnificent Hindu celebration held annually in the city of Puri, Odisha, India. It is considered the oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition, taking place during the bright half of the lunar month of Ashadh, which typically falls in June or July.

The festival revolves around the worship of Lord Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna, and his siblings Balabhadra and Subhadra. During the Ratha Yatra, the three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple. The deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath temple (Bahuda Yatra)

The origins of the Ratha Yatra can be traced back to ancient texts such as the Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, and Kapila Samhita, which describe the grandeur of the festival. It is believed that participating in the Ratha Yatra and pulling the chariots grants immense blessings and spiritual purification.

The construction of the chariots is a significant part of the festival. Every year, the three chariots, named Nandighosa, Taladhwaja, and Darpadalana, are built anew using specific types of wood, such as phassi and dhausa. The skilled carpenters responsible for constructing the chariots have hereditary rights and privileges for this sacred task. The logs are collected near Puri after being set afloat as rafts in the river Mahanadi and are then transported by road to the city.

The chariots, adorned with vibrant decorations and intricate designs, stand tall on the Bada Danda, the Grand Avenue, near the eastern entrance of the Jagannath Temple. Each chariot has a charioteer, known as Sarathi, and is pulled by devotees with great enthusiasm and devotion. Alongside the chariots, nine Parsva devatas, painted wooden images representing various deities, add to the grandeur of the procession.

As the chariots begin their journey towards the Gundicha Temple, the air is filled with excitement and religious fervor. Devotees from all walks of life come together to pull the massive ropes, chanting the names of the deities and seeking their blessings. The procession moves along the bada danda, a two-mile stretch leading to the Gundicha Temple.

During the procession, the chariot of Lord Jagannath, Nandighosa, makes a significant stop near the crematorium of Bhakta Salabega, a Muslim devotee. This pause symbolizes the harmony between different faiths and pays tribute to the devotion of Salabega. It serves as a reminder of the all-encompassing nature of the divine.

On the return journey from the Gundicha Temple, the deities make a special halt near the Mausi Maa Temple, also known as Aunt's abode. They receive an offering of Poda Pitha, a type of pancake believed to be Lord Jagannath's favorite delicacy. This act of offering food to the deities signifies the bond between the devotees and the divine, fostering a sense of love and devotion.

The Ratha Yatra is not just a one-day event but a culmination of various rituals and festivities that span a period of 42 days known as Chandan Yatra or Sandalwood Festival. During this time, preparations for the chariot construction commence. The festival is divided into two halves - Bahar Chandan and Bhitar Chandan. Bahar Chandan involves colorful processions of representative images.

Rani Durgavati

Context: The martyrdom of Rana Durgavati was celebrated in Madhya Pradesh as part of an initiative to honour the contributions made by individuals from marginalized social and caste groups who may not have received widespread recognition.

Rani Durgawati's Early Life:

Rani Durgavati, ruled over the Gondwana kingdom from 1550 until 1564.
Born in the fortress of Kalinjar, located in the present-day Banda district of Uttar Pradesh.
Her father, Raja Salbahan of Ratha and Mahoba, was a descendant of the famous Chandelas.
She was married to Dalpat Shah, the son of King Sangram Shah of the Garha Kingdom, sealing an alliance between the Chandela Rajputs and the Rajgonds of the Garha-Mandala dynasties.
After the untimely death of her husband in 1550, Rani Durgavati took the reins of the Gondwana kingdom.

Rani Durgavati’s rule:

With the support of her trusted advisors, Diwan Adhar Kayastha and Man Thakur, she skillfully managed the administration, promoting peace, trade, and goodwill throughout her realm.
To strengthen her kingdom's defenses, Rani Durgavati decided to move her capital from the Singorgarh Fort to the strategically important Chauragarh Fort, nestled in the Satpura hill range. This relocation further fortified her position and prepared her kingdom for potential conflicts.
Rani Durgavati also undertook various developmental projects, including the construction of reservoirs like Ranital, Cherital, and Adhartal, for the benefit of her subjects.
She was a patron of learning and allowed Acharya Bitthalnath to establish a seat of the Pushtimarg Cult at Garha.
Under Rani Durgavati's rule, the boundaries of her kingdom were consolidated, and she led her army to quell rebellions. The majority of the population consisted of Gond tribesmen living in villages.
The kingdom's strength lay in its well-equipped army, comprising cavalry, war elephants, and a large infantry. During the period between 1555 and 1560, Durgavati repulsed the attacks of Baz Bahadur.

War with the Mughals (Battle of Damoh/Narrai):

In 1562, the Mughal Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Akbar, conquered Malwa, bringing the Mughal dominion closer to the borders of Rani Durgavati's realm.
As tensions escalated, Mughal general, Abdul Majid Asaf Khan, who had recently vanquished the ruler of Rewa, set his sights on Rani Durgavati's prosperous kingdom.
When news of the impending attack reached Rani Durgavati, she made a courageous decision to defend her kingdom, despite being outnumbered and outgunned by the Mughal forces.
Although her advisor, Diwan Beohar Adhar Simha (Adhar Kayastha), warned her about the strength of the enemy, she believed that it was better to die honorably than to live a life of disgrace.
Rani Durgavati positioned her forces in Narrai, a valley situated between a hilly range on one side and the Gaur and Narmada rivers on the other. In a valiant display of bravery, Rani Durgavati's son, Vir Narayan, joined the battle and pushed the Mughal army back thrice.
However, he was wounded and forced to retreat to safety. As the battle raged on, Rani Durgavati sustained severe injuries. Faced with the inevitability of defeat, Rani Durgavati took her own life on June 24, 1564.
Her act of self-sacrifice and unwavering determination in the face of overwhelming odds earned her the status of a martyr, and her martyrdom day is commemorated as ‘Balidan Diwas’ to this day.

Garha-Mandala Kingdom

The Garha Mandala or Garha Katanga, held the distinction of being the first major kingdom established by the Gond tribe and exerted significant control over Central India during its zenith.
It was founded by Jadurai, a Gond leader who ascended to the throne after overthrowing the Kalchuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandala, where he had previously served in the court.
Initially, the Garha-Mandala kingdom was a relatively small territory, and its early rulers focused on consolidating their authority.
Kharji (1440-1460) expanded the kingdom's army, and his grandson Sukhandas (1480-1500) incorporated Rajputs into both the military and administration.

Reign of Sangram Shah:

The kingdom experienced rapid expansion under the reign of Sangram Shah, who conquered territories such as the Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh, and most of the Satpura hills.
Sangram Shah captured 52 forts, leading to the construction of the Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur as a testament to his conquests.
He was also renowned as a patron of arts and literature and possessed extensive knowledge of Sanskrit, with one of his notable works being the Rasratnamala.
During his reign, the capital of the Garha kingdom was Singhorgarh.

Chandelas of Jejakabhukti

The Chandelas ruled in Central India during the 9th to 13th centuries.
Initially subordinate to the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chandelas emerged under Nannuka's leadership, ruling a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho.
Vakpati, Nannuka's successor, achieved victories against various adversaries, while his sons Jayashakti and Vijayashakti further consolidated Chandela’s power.
The Chandela territory was named ‘Jejakabhukti’ after Jayashakti, as per a Mahoba inscription.

Art and Architecture of Chandelas:

The Chandelas left a lasting legacy through their cultural accomplishments, including the construction of temples, water bodies, palaces, and forts.
The most renowned examples of their artistic and architectural prowess are the Hindu and Jain temples at Khajuraho.
Other important strongholds of the Chandelas were Jayapura-Durga (now Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (now Kalinjar), and Mahotsava-Nagara (now Mahoba).
Under the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga, and Vidyadhara, the Lakshmana Temple (c. 930-950 CE), the Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE), and the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were built, respectively.
These temples, following the Nagara architectural style, are considered prime examples of the highly developed style present in Khajuraho.
The Chandelas engaged in battles with neighboring dynasties, such as the Paramars and Kalachuris, and faced invasions from northern Muslim dynasties like the Ghaznavids and Ghurids.
The Chandela rule declined by the early 13th century due to invasions by the Chahamanas and Ghurids.

Neolithic-era celt found in Tamil Nadu

Context: In Poothinatham village, Tamil Nadu, the Department of Archaeology made a noteworthy discovery from the Neolithic period. This find is an ancient celt, crafted from Doloraid stone, which had a dual purpose as both a plough and an axe. This discovery holds great significance in shedding light on the practices and tools used during that time.

What is a Neolithic celt?

A celt, composed of stone, is an age-old instrument utilized for cutting and shaping. This adaptable tool served as an axe, chisel, or adze,
Application: Widespread uses throughout the Neolithic era in different fields such as woodworking, agriculture, and building.
A specific variation of the celt, referred to as a shoe-last celt, was a polished stone tool extensively employed during the early European Neolithic period. Its primary purpose revolved around the felling of trees and engaging in woodworking tasks.

Early Neolithic Cultures and the Beginning of Agriculture

The advent of agriculture and animal domestication during the Neolithic period marked a significant phase in Indian history.
The crucial era witnessed the emergence of Neolithic culture in various regions such as the Fertile Crescent in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges Valley in India, and China.
Surplus food production:
- Between 10,000 BCE and 5000 BCE, agriculture sprouted in these areas, leading to numerous cultural advancements.
- The domestication of animals and plants introduced a plentiful supply of grains and animal food.
- The fertile soil deposited by rivers contributed to agricultural growth, resulting in surplus grain production.
- The surplus food production played a pivotal role in the rise of early civilizations, as large villages were established, pottery developed, and permanent residences were constructed.
- Consequently, the cultural advancements of this era are commonly referred to as the Neolithic revolution.

The Neolithic Culture of North-Western India

The earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication in India can be traced back to the Neolithic culture in northwestern India.
Important Sites: Mehrgarh and Sarai Kala, which are presently located in Pakistan.
Mehrgarh:
- It has provided evidence of early Neolithic practices dating back to around 7000 BCE.
- During this time, the cultivation of wheat and barley was practiced, and sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated. Mehrgar culture predates the Indus Civilization.
- Phase I: The first cultural period of the Neolithic age at Mehrgarh spans from approximately 7000 to 5500 BCE. The people of this period did not employ pottery, but they cultivated six-row barley, wheat, and dates. These were semi-nomadic pastoral groups who constructed houses using mud and practiced the burial of the deceased.
- Phase II and III: The second period at Mehrgarh covers the time from about 5500 to 4800 BCE followed by the third period from 4800 to 3500 BCE. Pottery evidence is present during these periods, and terracotta figurines and glazed faience beads have been discovered. Long-distance trade was practiced, as indicated by the presence of Lapis Lazuli, a stone that is exclusively found in Badakshan. The abandonment of the town occurred after the rise of the mature phase of the Indus Civilization.

Significance of Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh stands out as an important site due to its provision of the earliest and most extensive evidence of cattle, sheep, goat, wheat, and barley domestication, a comprehensive combination of evidence unmatched elsewhere in the world.
Dentistry:
- In addition to agricultural and domestication practices, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh demonstrated knowledge of medicinal herbs and their use for health maintenance, an essential survival skill since prehistoric times.
- During the Neolithic period, people began consuming ground grain and cooked food, which gave rise to dental and other health issues.
- Notably, the earliest evidence of drilling a human tooth (belonging to a living person) has been discovered at Mehrgarh, offering a glimpse into early dental practices, which can be considered a precursor to dentistry.

Neolithic Culture of South India

The Neolithic cultures of South India primarily existed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, as well as the north-western part of Tamil Nadu. These sites exhibit a distinct feature of having ash mounds at their centers, surrounded by settlements.
Locations: Often situated near granite hills with access to water sources. They can be found in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri.
Some of the prominent Neolithic sites in South India include Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, and Hallur in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
Certain early Neolithic sites also exhibit the presence of ash mounds, such as Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh. These sites showcase layers of soft ash and decomposed cow dung.

Social Organisation

Due to limited evidence, understanding the social organization of Neolithic people poses challenges. However, they transitioned to living in settled or semi-sedentary communities.
It is possible that they organized themselves into tribes or similar social units.
The presence of small houses suggests the presence of nuclear families within these settlements.
The development of ceramics and beads indicates advancements in material cultural production.
Burials within houses were practiced, and in some cases, animal burials have also been discovered, suggesting the adoption of rituals and reverence for the deceased.
It is possible that they worshipped natural forces.
The evidence for art objects is limited, but the existence of terracotta images depicting cattle implies the presence of a fertility cult or similar beliefs.

Neolithic artifact from North-east India

Pottery of the Neolithic period

The early phases of the Neolithic era are referred to as A-ceramic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic due to the absence of pottery vessels.
Containers were crafted using unfired clay, leather, wood, stone, straw, and other materials. Traces of these unfired vases are challenging to find.
The earliest instances of hand-made pottery, which are considered visually appealing, can be traced back to the Early Neolithic period. These pottery pieces were typically burnished or monochromatic, featuring painted, incised, or impressed decorations.
The most elaborate examples of painted ornamentation are observed in the Middle Neolithic period.
Archaeologists speculate that the emergence of agriculture also gave rise to the need for durable and sturdy objects for water transport in irrigation systems, although the development of farming and pottery did not always occur simultaneously.
Moreover, the accumulation of grain surpluses such as sorghum, rice, and wheat would have been essential for the sustenance of larger civilizations, with pottery playing a crucial role in storing these surplus crops.

Khilji dynasty architecture

Context: During the renovation work at Siri Fort, conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), a tomb-like structure dating back to the 13th century was unearthed.

The Magnificent Siri Fort

Siri Fort, located in New Delhi, stands as a testament to the city's rich history and architectural prowess. It was built around 1303, during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, the second ruler of the Khilji Dynasty.

Defence against Mongol onslaught:

Alauddin Khilji, known for his dominion extension into Southern India, established Siri as the second city of Delhi.
The fort was strategically designed to mimic massive Turkish forts, serving as a seat of power during Alauddin's territorial expansion campaigns.
Its construction aimed to counter the frequent Mongol invasions of West Asia and protect Delhi from their onslaught.

Architectural Marvel and Strategic Design:

The fort is situated northeast of the iconic Qutub Minar and was meticulously planned and built with an oval-shaped layout.
The fort was a symbol of civic pride, housing the grand Hazar Sutan palace with its marble floors and exquisite stone decorations.
Unique additions like flame-shaped battlements, and bastions showcased the innovative architectural style of the Khilji’s.
Hauz Khas village was an extension of the fort, which was designed to meet the water needs of the army. The fort is currently in ruins and the only structure that remains is its boundary walls.

The Legacy of Siri:

Beyond Siri Fort, Alauddin Khilji’s vision extended to the fortifications of Jahanpanah, connecting Siri to the larger defence network. Siri was also known as ‘Darul Khilafat’ or the ‘Seat of the Caliphate’.
The fort's strength and grandeur attracted the attention of Timur, the Mongol ruler who invaded Delhi in 1398.
In his memoirs, Timur described Siri as a city surrounded by lofty buildings and formidable stone and brick fortifications.

Contributions and Destruction:

The craftsmen of the Seljuq dynasty played a significant role in shaping the architectural monuments of Delhi during this era.
Unfortunately, the decline of Siri Fort began with the removal of its stones and artifacts by local rulers for their buildings.
Sher Shah Suri, used materials from Siri to construct his city.

Khilji Dynasty Architecture

During the Khilji dynasty, which was the second Muslim dynasty ruling the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320, the Indo-Islamic architectural form was still in its formative stage but witnessed some progress in the late 13th century.

One of the key figures during this period was Ala-ud-din Khilji, who ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296. He emerged as a prominent patron of Islamic architecture and spearheaded crucial developments in the field.
His notable architectural endeavors included the expansion of the Qutb-mosque. The proportions of the minaret were doubled compared to those established a century earlier.
Another remarkable architectural achievement of this period is the Alai Darwaza, which was completed in 1305. It stands out for its inventive arches, walling techniques, dome support systems, and surface decorations. The Alai Darwaza incorporates indigenous features seamlessly into its design, skillfully merging Indian and Islamic architectural elements.
Jamaat Khana Masjid was built at the tomb of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, a renowned saint of the period, and was erected towards the end of Khilji rule.
Several other buildings were also constructed in the Qutb area, including a college and the tomb of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

About Alauddin Khilji

The Khilji dynasty held sway over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly thirty years. The dynasty was established by Jalalud din Firoz Khilji, and Alauddin Khilji eventually seized power and assumed the role of Sultan by eliminating his predecessor.

He conducted raids in the Deccan Peninsula, particularly in Deogiri, the capital of the state of Maharashtra, plundering their treasures.
In the initial years of his reign, Alauddin successfully repelled a major Mongol invasion at the Battle of Jaran-Manjur in 1298. This victory not only consolidated his power but also enhanced his reputation, ensuring stability during his rule.
To secure a trade route to Gujarat, Ayn-al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramar kingdom of Malwa. Despite facing strong resistance from the Rajput army, Multani emerged victorious and became the governor of the province.
Subsequently, in 1299, Nusrat Khan was dispatched to conquer Gujarat itself, defeating its Solanki king. Nusrat Khan looted the chief cities of Gujarat and desecrated temples, including the famous Somnath temple, which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century.
In 1308, Alauddin's trusted lieutenant, Malik Kafur, captured Warangal and overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River.
Alauddin Khalji's expansionist ambitions extended into South India. With the assistance of commanders like Malik Kafur, he launched campaigns to subdue various kingdoms, accumulating substantial war booty, known as Anwatan, from their conquests.
Alauddin's commanders collected spoils of war from the defeated kingdoms and paid a fifth of the loot (khums) to Sultan's treasury, strengthening the Khalji rule.
Despite his lack of formal education, Alauddin Khalji displayed a remarkable appreciation for art and education. His court attracted renowned figures such as Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi, who contributed to the cultural vibrancy of his reign.

Ranajit Guha, the unconventional historian

Context: Ranajit Guha, a distinguished historian who left an indelible mark on the field of Indian history, sadly passed away in April 2023. He was renowned for his significant contributions and was particularly influential within the Subaltern Studies group.

About Ranajit Guha

Famous works: A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, (Today, it is recognized as a classic in modern Indian history); History at the Limit of World-History; An Indian Historiography of India: A Nineteenth Century Agenda & Its Implications; Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India; Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India.
During the 1980s, he initiated a transformative approach to studying South Asia and the Indian subcontinent. He observed that the prevailing mainstream historical studies were inadequate for comprehending the complexities of the region's past.
This led to a shift away from the predominantly elitist approach to studying the history of the region. The new methodology, known as Subaltern Studies, emerged as an influential post-colonial and post-Marxist school of history.
Guha defined the term ‘subaltern’ as the demographic distinction between the overall Indian population and those identified as the elite.
As part of the project, he examined the landmark legislation of 1793 known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal. He posed a previously unasked question: How did the application of the 18th-century French economic doctrine of Physiocracy, aimed at creating entrepreneurial farmers in Bengal, result in the creation of the neo-feudal zamindari system?

Subaltern Studies

The term ‘subaltern’ draws inspiration from the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937). Initially, the term referred to peasants excluded from the industrial capitalist system.
The Subaltern historians departed from Gramsci's interpretation, arguing that the history of subaltern groups was autonomous from that of the dominant classes while acknowledging their subordinated status.
The Subaltern Studies examines non-elites and subalterns as agents of political and social change. They demonstrate a particular interest in studying the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, rather than solely focusing on highly visible actions such as demonstrations and uprisings.
In Indian context: Explores the dynamics of dominance and subordination within colonial systems, notably in India. Dissatisfied with the prevailing conventions of Indian history writing, a group of writers joined the collective and made significant contributions to its volumes.

Unveiling the Phases of Subaltern Studies

The Subaltern Studies project, renowned for its innovative approach to historical analysis, can be divided into two distinct phases.

Phase I of the Subaltern Studies:

Represented a radical departure from conventional Indian historiography, characterized by the confrontation between the elite and the subaltern.
The project aimed to break free from the economic determinism found in various Marxist theories and challenge the elitism of bourgeois-nationalist and colonial interpretations.
The project highlighted the distinctions between the politics of the people and elite politics, as elite mobilizations were vertical in nature and people's mobilizations took a horizontal form.
The elite mobilization tended to be legalistic and peaceful, whereas subaltern mobilization often exhibited a more spontaneous and confrontational nature.
Phase II, embracing discourse analysis in Subaltern Studies:

The second phase saw a significant change in its approach, influenced by postmodernist and post-colonialist ideologies that reshaped its trajectory.
The impact of postcolonial perspectives became evident, particularly in the works of Partha Chatterjee.
Chatterjee's influential book, ‘Nationalist Thought and Colonial World’ (1986), applied a postcolonial framework, which portrayed colonial power-knowledge as dominant and irresistible.
Over time, many other writers associated with Subaltern Studies moved away from Marxist ideology, leading to intellectual divergences within the group.

Critiques of the Subaltern Studies Project

Despite influential contributions to historiography, it has faced extensive criticism from various quarters. Critiques have emerged from Marxist, Nationalist as well as Cambridge School historians.

Scholars like, Javeed Alam argued that the autonomy of subaltern politics is based on the perpetuity of rebellious action, irrespective of whether the consequences are positive or negative.
This perspective neglects the historical trajectory of militancy and overlooks the implications of such theoretical constructs.

In the review essay by Sangeeta Singh, a critical picture is presented of Guha's understanding of the spontaneity of peasant rebellion. It was seen as a reflexive action, which is problematic, as it equated spontaneity with action based on traditional consciousness.
Guha's assertion about the centrality of religion in rebels' consciousness was viewed as supporting the British official view that downplayed the disruptive role of colonialism in rural and tribal structures.
Ranjit Das Gupta, argued that the project tended to focus on moments of conflict and protest while downplaying the dialectics of collaboration among subaltern groups.
David Ludden, pointed out its rigid theoretical division between ‘elite’ and ‘subaltern’ and its confinement of subaltern politics to the lower strata, thereby alienating subalternity from political histories of popular movements.

Despite the controversies, the project has undeniably made significant contributions to historical scholarship, reshaping our understanding of marginalized voices and challenging dominant narratives.

Mural in new Parliament

Context: Ministry of External Affairs characterized mural within recently constructed parliament building as a representation of expansion of the ancient Ashokan empire. The mural illustrates the Ashoka empire's growth and conveys concept of accountable and citizen-centred governance that Ashoka embraced and promoted.

About Mural Paintings

Murals are artworks displayed on solid structures, such as walls, and have rich and extensive history.
Spanned from 2nd century BC to 8th-10th century AD.
Murals are found predominantly within natural caves and rock-cut chambers.
Examples: Ajanta, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh caverns, Sittanavasal caves, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora.
Main Themes: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Features of Mural Paintings

Distinguishing feature lies in grand scale, as they surpass confines of traditional paper and are meant to adorn the walls of expansive structures, typically caves and temple walls.
Two notable qualities: organic integration with architecture and their significant public significance.
Mural paintings possess a truly three-dimensional nature, as they interact with and inhabit space they occupy.
To create vibrant pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings, natural sources like terracotta, chalk, red ochre, yellow ochre were blended with animal fat.
Subjects: human and animal figures, hunting scenes, family life, courtly settings, deities, and narratives from the Buddhist Jataka tales.

Examples of Mural Paintings

Ajanta Cave Paintings

Carved during 4th century AD from volcanic rocks, Ajanta caves comprise a remarkable collection of 29 caves.
Created over a span of four to five centuries under the patronage of the Mauryan Empire.
Caves no. 9 and 10 house murals from the Sunga period, while the rest belong to the Gupta period.
The cave walls showcase a combination of murals and fresco paintings, the latter being created on wet plaster.
In Cave 1, one can find paintings of several Bodhisattvas: Vajrapani (a protector and guide), Manjusri (a manifestation of Buddha's wisdom), and Padmapani Avalokitesvara (a symbol of Buddha's compassion).

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar-Kovil) Paintings

Situated in Tamil Nadu, these rock-cut caves are distinguished for their Jain temple paintings.
These murals bear a striking resemblance to artworks found in Bagh and Ajanta.
The thematic focus of paintings revolves around Jain Samavasarana (Preaching-hall), where Tirthankaras delivered sermons following their attainment of kevala-gnana (enlightenment).
Scholars have attributed caves to the Pallava period when King Mahendravarman I excavated the temple.

About Ashoka (Mauryan Emperor)

Ashoka, also known as Chakravartin Samrat Ashoka, was the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire from 268 to 232 BCE.
He was the son of Bindusara and grandson of the dynasty's founder, Chandragupta. During his father's reign, Ashoka served as governor of Ujjain, Central India and according to Buddhist legends, he suppressed a rebellion in Taxila.
He is credited with the construction of various stupas and viharas and notable ones are: Sanchi and Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh; Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh; Mahabodhi Temple, Barabar Caves and Nalanda Mahavihara in Bihar and Sannati Stupa in Karnataka, India.
Ashoka played a crucial role in dissemination of Buddhism throughout ancient Asia.

Kalinga War and conversion to Buddhism

According to Ashoka's inscriptions, he achieved victory over the Kalinga region in his eighth regnal year.
Edict 13 of Ashoka Rock inscriptions reveals deep remorse experienced by the king upon witnessing the devastation in Kalinga.
However, epigraphic evidence suggests that his transformation was a gradual process. For instance, Minor Rock Edict issued in the 13th regnal year, mentions that he had been a practicing Upasaka (lay Buddhist) for over two and a half years.

Third Buddhist Council

Convened in Pataliputra, under the patronage of Ashoka, around 250 BC.
Aimed to unite, various Buddhist schools and purify the Buddhist movement.
Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk, presided over the council.
Sthaviravada sect, which upheld the belief in the simultaneous presence of past, present, and future, was established as an orthodox school.
Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka (third Pitaka), which explains the tenets of Dhamma.
As a result of this Buddhist council, Ashoka dispatched Buddhist missionaries to various regions, including Gandhara, Kashmir, and Sri Lanka.

Edicts of Ashoka

Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as well as cave walls.
Language and Script: Mostly in Brahmi script and Magadhi and Prakrit languages; Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, and inscriptions in north-western Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
The geographical distribution of these edicts outlines the vast expanse of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka's rule, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra.
In one such inscriptions, lands beyond Ashoka's borders are mentioned, including Chodas (Cholas), Pandyas, Satiyaputa and Keralaputa (Chera).
Maski Inscription, Karnataka:

The site has a minor rock edict and was first edict of Ashoka containing the name Ashoka instead of ‘Devanampriya’ or ‘Piyadassi’.
The inscription was ‘dharma shasana’ which tells people to follow the tenets of Buddhism.

Kalsi Inscription, Uttarakhand:

The only place in North India where Ashoka has inscribed a set of fourteen rock edicts.
It reflects the policies for commitment to non-violence and restriction of war.
Kanganahalli inscription at Sannati, Karnataka:
An inscription in Brahmi script reading ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) and a sculpture of King Ashoka.

The edicts emphasize:

Ashoka's commitment to peace, righteousness, and justice, as well as his deep concern for welfare of his subjects.
By renouncing violence and war, and promoting peace and pursuit of dhamma (righteousness), Ashoka diverged from prevalent philosophy of statecraft.
Shows his efforts to spread and develop dharma throughout his kingdom.
Edicts mainly focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or philosophical dimension of Buddhism.

Reinterpreting the Santhal rebellion

Context: Australian historian Peter Stanley, in his book "Hul! Hul! The Suppression of the Santhal Rebellion in Bengal, 1855," sheds light on Santhal rebellion and provides a comprehensive account that challenges existing narratives.

Unveils unexplored perspectives: Stanley has examined British military records that have been underutilized in previous historical accounts and highlighted the lack of comprehensive studies on the Santhal rebellions.
Provides a comprehensive exploration: The research has provided a detailed account of the Santhal uprising, surpassing traditional histories that often overlook specific experiences and presents a more holistic view of the rebellion, giving voice to the Santhal people and their struggles against oppression.
Origins of Santhals and Motivations: Traces the origin of the Santhal people, migratory history, thus, establishing the context in which the rebellion occurred. The pivotal role of Sidhu and Kanhu has been highlighted, who claimed divine inspiration to fight against the zamindars and seek a resolution to their plight.
Oppressive zamindars: The writer has highlighted that the Santhals' primary adversaries were the oppressive zamindars who held economic control over the land. The rebellion began with the destruction of indigo factories, a powerful symbol of foreign landlords.
Visibility of victims: Stanley's account goes beyond the traditional focus on military engagements to shed light on the often-forgotten victims of the rebellion: Santhal women. By recounting instances of potential sexual harassment and assault by soldiers, the author highlights the vulnerabilities faced by Santhal women and the absence of justice for their suffering.
Rediscovering Santhal Poetry: The author has incorporated Santhal poetry throughout the book. These verses capture the essence of the rebellion and the struggles endured by the Santhal communities. They provide a glimpse into the emotional and cultural landscape of the Santhals during and after the ‘Hul’.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856)

Following the Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the British East India Company gained control over Indian provinces, including Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
In 1793, Governor-General Lord Cornwallis implemented the Permanent Settlement System in Bengal and Bihar.
Permanent Settlement granted hereditary and lifelong rights to zamindars, who paid a fixed amount to the British government annually.
It resulted in widespread dissatisfaction among the local population and the exploitation of peasants.

Factors responsible

The uprising was fuelled by a multitude of factors that pushed the Santhals to their breaking point.

Forced relocation and exploitation:
- The Santhals, an agrarian tribal community dependent on forests for their livelihood, were encouraged to settle in the Damin-i-Koh region (now part of Jharkhand) established by the East India Company in 1832.
- They soon discovered that the area was ruled by zamindars, who were tax-collection agents with significant economic power.
- The motive behind this relocation was to meet the demand for agricultural labor in areas where the population had significantly declined due to the devastating Bengal Famine of 1770.
Exploitation by merchants and moneylenders:
- Exploitative practices such as false measurements, usury, and fraudulent lawsuits perpetuated their subjugation and kept them trapped in cycles of debt bondage.
- The exploitative systems of bonded labor, known as "kamioti" and "harwahi," made it practically impossible for the Santhals to repay their debts.
Tyranny of zamindars and capitalist agriculture:
- Extraction of exorbitant rents from their meagre earnings.
- Those employed in indigo plantations faced gruelling labour for meagre wages.
- The oppressive economic conditions disrupted their traditional way of life and further plunged them into poverty.
Ineffectual redress and neglect by British administration:
- The Santhals sought redressal through petitions to the British government and recourse to the courts, hoping for relief from their dire circumstances.
However, they were met with disappointment and indifference at every turn.
Eruption of Social Banditry and Popular Uprising:
- As a result of extreme oppression and neglect, social banditry emerged in 1854.
- Led by figures such as Bir Singh Manjhi, a group of Santhals targeted moneylenders and zamindars, redistributing their spoils among the impoverished Santhals.

The Santhal Rebellion Unfolds

The 'Hul,' as this momentous insurrection was known, was led by four brothers from Bhagnadihi village: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu.
Under their leadership, around 60,000 Santhals mobilized with traditional weapons.
Despite the rebellion primarily being associated with opposition against the British, it actually originated as a revolt against the exploitation perpetrated by Indian 'upper' caste zamindars, moneylenders, merchants, and darogas (police officials), collectively referred to as 'diku,' who had established dominance over the economic aspects of Santhal life.

Impact of the Santhal Rebellion

The uprising prompted the British government to pass the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act in 1876, providing some protection to tribal members against exploitation.
The region between Bhagalpur and the Rajmahal hills in Singhbhum district was separated and designated as Santhal Pargana which was declared a non-regulation district.
The Santhal Rebellion shed light on the harshness of the zamindari system imposed by the British East India Company on the local indigenous populations.
It also exposed the exploitative practices of moneylenders, who took advantage of the Santhals' unfamiliarity with monetary systems and charged exorbitant interest rates on loans.
The rebellion had a profound impact on the Santhali identity and resistance against persecution, contributing to the establishment of the state of Jharkhand in 2000.

The Santhal community

Origin and Migration: The Santhals are believed to have originated from the Champa Kingdom in northern Cambodia. They led a nomadic life in the past but eventually settled in the Chhotanagpur Plateau. Towards the late 18th century, they migrated to the Santhal Parganas of Bihar and later expanded into Odisha.
The third largest Scheduled Tribe in India after the Gond and Bhil and primarily consists of agricultural people. They are predominantly located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, and West Bengal.
Compared to other tribal groups in these states, the Santhal population has a relatively high literacy rate. They speak the Santhali language, which has its own script called Ol Chiki, recognized in the Eighth Schedule of the constitution.

SAVITRIBAI PHULE

Context: Maharashtra Chief Minister directed to initiate a probe into a website that allegedly posted derogatory content against pioneering 19th-century educationists.

Savitribai Phule

She was from the Mali community and was born on January 3, 1831, in Maharashtra’s Naigaon village.
At the tender age of 10, she was married to 12-year-old Jyotirao Phule, a man of social reform himself, who believed that women must be educated. He began to home-school Savitribai. Later, Jyotirao admitted Savitribai to a teacher’s training institution in Pune.
She was an exponent of female education, equality, and justice who took on the caste system with her revolutionary ideals and strived to dismantle the elite-controlled education system.

Contributions of Savitribai Phule in Education:

In 1848, Savitibai and Jyotiba established the first-ever school for girls in Bhidewada of which Savitribai was the headmistress.
In 1853, they established an education society that opened more schools for girls and women from all classes, in surrounding villages.
Savitribai and Jyotirao broke social barriers, paving the way for women's emancipation in a time when female education was unheard of.
Known as modern India’s first female teacher and in 1852, she was declared the best teacher in the state by the British government.

Role as Social Reformer

Savitribai started the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (‘Home for the Prevention of Infanticide’), a childcare centre for sexually exploited, pregnant widows, and rape victims facing discrimination.
She also adopted a child of a widow, Yashwantrao.
In 1852, she started the Mahila Seva Mandal to fight for the rights of women.
She organized a strike against barbers in Pune and Mumbai, putting pressure on them to stop shaving the heads of Brahmin widows.
She is often referred to as the mother of Indian feminism.
In 1873, Savitibai and Jyotiba started ‘Satyashodhak Marriage’, a rejection of Brahmanical rituals where the marrying couple takes a pledge to promote education and equality.
In 1868, she along with her husband set up a well in their backyard to allow people from the oppressed classes to drink water.
In 1897, following the Bubonic plague, Savitribai set up a clinic in Hadapsar to attend to the victims of the plague.

Literary works

She published two collections of poems - Kavya Phule(Poetry’s Blossoms) was published in 1854 and Bhavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (The Ocean of Pure Gems), in 1892.

Her most iconic poem is titled 'Go, Get Education' and was intended to encourage women to educate themselves as the best means of fighting inequality.