History

All (4265)Current Affairs (4243)Mains Practice (77)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

Uttaramerur Model of democracy

Context: The Prime Minister of India made reference to the Uttaramerur inscription located in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu during a discussion on India’s democratic history.

Uttaramerur

Situated in present-day Kanchipuram district, southeast of Chennai, Tamil Nadu. It was established during the reign of Nandivarman II, a Pallava king who ruled around 750 A.D.
Over the years, Uttaramerur was successively governed by the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Sambuvarayars, Vijayanagara Rayas, and Nayaks.
Historical temples: The village boasts three significant temples: the Sundara Varadaraja Perumal temple, the Subramanya temple, and the Kailasanatha temple.

Significance of Uttaramerur Inscription (920 A.D.)

Uttaramerur contains multiple inscriptions, with the most important one dating back to the rule of Parantaka I (907-953 AD).
This particular inscription on the walls of the village assembly (mandapa), provides comprehensive information about the functioning of the elected village assembly.
According to scholars, village assemblies might have existed before the time of Parantaka Chola, but it was during his rule that the village administration underwent significant refinement and became a well-operating system through the implementation of elections.

Local Elections

A comprehensive account of the operations of the Sabha (village assembly) is provided in the inscription The Sabha consisted exclusively of brahmans and comprised specialized committees responsible for various tasks. It also outlines the process of selecting members, qualifications, responsibilities and basis of disqualifications.

Constituting Sabha: There would be 30 wards, and individuals residing in these wards would gather to choose a representative for the village assembly.

Qualifications

Age group: Male, above 35 but below 75
Possession of Land and a house
Knowledge of mantras and Brahmanas from the Vedic corpus.
Exception: If the person had learned at least one Veda and four Bhashyas, exception was made regarding land ownership.

Disqualifications

Not submitting accounts while previously serving in a committee,
Committing any of the first four of the five 'great sins' (killing a brahman, drinking alcohol, theft, and adultery), associating with outcastes, and consuming 'forbidden' dishes.

Election Process

The entire selection process, under the guidance of priests was conducted through an elaborated lottery draw in the inner hall of the assembly building (mandapa).
The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on Palm leaf tickets and placed in a pot (Kudavolai).
The oldest member of the assembly assigned a boy to randomly select a slip.

Responsibilities:

There were several important committees within the Sabha, each with its specific functions, which included:

Annual committee (an executive committee that required prior experience and knowledge)
Committee for supervision of justice (overseeing appointments and addressing wrongdoings)
Gold committee (responsible for the village temple's gold)

The assignments of the committees lasted for 360 days, after which the members retired.
It was important for the member to maintain accurate accounts, as any discrepancies could disqualify Sabha members.

Right to recall:

The villagers had the right to recall elected representatives who failed in their duties.
The committee for Supervision of Justice was responsible for this duty and with the assistance of an arbitrator, it conducted another selection following the prescribed process.

Imperial Cholas (c. 850 – 1200 CE)

According to the records, after the Sangam age, the Cholas remained as the subordinates of the Pallavas in the Kaveri region.
Vijayalaya (850-871 CE), conquered the Kaveri delta from the Muttariyar Dynasty. He founded the city of Thanjavur and established the Kingdom.
The copper plate inscriptions of Vijayalaya’s successors trace the Cholas’ lineage back to Karikala (most renowned Chola ruler during the Sangam age).

Successors of Vijayalaya

Parantaka Chola was instrumental in territorial expansion of the kingdom and also is credited with strengthening the governance of the Chola empire.
As dominant kingdom:

Rajaraja I (985–1014) (credited for Brihadeeswara temple in Thanjavur) and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044), conducted successful naval expeditions reaching Sri Vijaya (in maritime Southeast Asia).
They solidified the achievements of their predecessors and established Chola dominance throughout peninsular India.

Chola Administration

Monarchy: The governance during that period was led by a hereditary monarchy.

Addressed with titles: Peruman or Perumagan (great man), Chakkaravarti (emperor) and Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three worlds).
Legitimacy: The kings established their legitimacy by asserting that they were comrades of the gods (thambiran thozhar).
Patronised Brahmins: The rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual mentors or rajagurus. Patronizing Brahmins was seen as a means to enhance their prestige and legitimacy.
Land Grants: As a result, the Chola kings granted vast land estates to Brahmins known as brahmadeyams and chaturvedimangalams.
Provinces: The Chola state had been experiencing a continuous expansion of its territories since the reign of Vijayalaya.

These regions were under the rule of local chiefs commonly referred to as Feudatories.
Rajaraja I undertook the integration of these territories and appointed Viceroys to govern these regions.
Examples: Chola-Lankeswara in Sri Lanka and Chola-Ganga in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka.

The End of Chola Rule

Weakened central authority:

From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, the Chola dynasty held a position of paramount importance in South India.
By the end of the twelfth century, local chiefs began to rise in power.

Invasion:

The frequent invasions from the Pandyas eroded its once formidable strength.
In 1264, Sundara Pandyan I, the ruler of the Pandyan kingdom, sacked the Chola capital of Gangaikondacholapuram.
The Cholas lost Kanchipuram earlier to the Telugu Cholas and with the capture of Gangaikondacholapuram, the remaining Chola territories fell into the hands of the Pandyan king.
In 1279, Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra Chola III, establishing Pandyan rule.

Gateway to the past: Khooni Darwaza

Context: In the book 'Delhi': Unknown Tales of a City’ by Ronald Vivian Smith, the description has been of Khooni Darwaja, which was built by Sher Shah Sur.

ronald vivian smith Google Search Personal Microsoft Edge 15 05 2023 11 26 48

Khooni Darwaja

Khooni Darwaza, located near the Delhi Gate, was constructed during Sher Shah Suri's reign in the 16th century (1540-45).
Initially known as Lal Darwaza, it was later renamed Khooni Darwaza due to a tragic event that took place in 1857. Lieutenant Hodson shot and killed Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons and grandson there, after the British forces recaptured Delhi and the last Emperor sought shelter in Humayun's Tomb.

Architectural features

The architectural design of Khooni Darwaza showcases a combination of Mughal and Afghan influences. Constructed using quartzite stone, the gate stands tall with three stories.
It features three arched entrances, with the central one being the largest.
The upper floors of the gate boast balconies known as jharokhas, offering panoramic views of the surrounding area.
In the past, the gate's expansive courtyard served as a gathering space for the public, as believed by historians. Enclosed by a tall wall, the courtyard encompasses various chambers and rooms.

Additionally, on either side of the gate, there are rectangular windows with decorative overhanging edges known as chajjas, supported by intricately carved brackets.

Kangura structure:

The Kangura or Kungura battlement is an important aspect of Indian monuments which serves both military and aesthetic purposes.
While the petal shaped roof boundary looks regal, it also served as a place for soldiers to guard and defend the building.

Damaaga:

Below the Kangura battlement, there are three hole-like openings. These are called damaaga.
The damaagas were also structure built for defence, and could be used to pour boiling oil on enemies scaling the gate.

Pishtaq:

The main entrance have two wonderfully carved pishtaq, or niches.
These niches could be used to keep lamps to light up the entrance in the dark.
The frames of the window are made from red sandstone.
It is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey in India.

Establishment of Sur Dynasty

Battle of Chausa (1539): In this battle Sher Khan defeated Humayun due to his superior political and military skills.
Humayun arrived at Agra after the defeat and assembled his army with the support of his brothers Askari and Hindal to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter took place at Kanauj.
Battle of Kanauj (1540): Humayun’s army was completely routed by Sher Shah.

Sur Dynasty (1540-1555)

Founded by Sher Shah.
Through his ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief of Afghans in India. His military capability and diplomacy made him victorious over Humayun and many other Rajput rulers.
Malwa fell without a fight and Rana Uday Singh of Mewar surrendered without resistance.
End of the dynasty:

Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar failed as a gunshot caused his death in 1545.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at a young age led to a state of confusion about succession. Humayun used this opportunity to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers.

Architecture during Sher Shah

Indian Architecture during the reign of Sher Shah Suri can be divided into two separate time periods. The first phase which runs from 1530 to 1540, a group of tombs were constructed taking the Lodi style to its ultimate expression. During the second phase from 1540 to 1545, when Sher Shah Suri wrested control from Humayun, he patronized a list of architectural innovations which represent an important development in the gestation of the subsequent Mughal Architecture.

1. First phase (1530-1540):

The initial phase of constructing tombs in Sasaram, Bihar, clearly demonstrated Sher Shah Suri's ambition to create a monument grander than anything found in Delhi.
To bring his vision to life, he enlisted the expertise of Aliwal Khan, a master builder trained in the Imperial tradition.
The construction began in 1525 with the tomb of Hasan Sur Khan, Sher Shah Suri's father, following a fairly conventional Lodi design.
However, Khan's subsequent masterpiece, the tomb of Sher Shah Suri, is a breath-taking architectural marvel.

It is an immense and majestic structure situated in a picturesque tank.
Crafted from the finest Chunar sandstone, this remarkable monument left a significant impact on the evolution of Indo-Islamic funerary architecture.

2. Second Phase (1540-1545):

Sher Shah Suri gained control from Humayun and supported a range of innovative architectural endeavours that played a crucial role in the development of subsequent Mughal architecture.
Purana Qila or old fort is one of the oldest forts in Delhi India. The construction began in the time of Humayun and continued under Sher Shah Suri.

Purana Qila, served as a defensive citadel and the focal point of his sixth city in Delhi, called Shergarh. He added several more structures in the fort during his reign.
The fort also includes overhanging balconies or jharokhas, topped with pillar pavilions or chhatris which is a feature of Rajasthani architecture.
Sher Mandal, an interior structure in the Old Fort is credited to Sher Shah.
The Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid, the royal chapel of Sher Shah Suri, constructed around 1542, had a far greater influence on the subsequent Mughal architecture.

It exhibits four-centred arches within definite rectangular frames, adorned with delicate spearhead fringes and merlons.
The composition is harmoniously completed by the horizontal line of the projecting chajja, resulting in a cohesive and integrated structure.

Buddhist Stupas found in Madhya Pradesh's Bandhavgarh

Context: Buddhist stupas have been found in the ongoing excavation in the Bandhavgarh Tiger reserve in Madhya Pradesh. Many dynasties have ruled this region, including the Gupta, Pratiharas and Kalachuris.

Stupa

The stupa serves as the most fundamental of Buddhist architectural monuments. It symbolises a sacred space for the community as it represents Buddha’s burial mound.
Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, which was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in 3^rd century BCE, served as an architectural prototype for all others that followed. This historical site is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Stupa Architecture

The most basic stupa, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, has three fundamental features:

A hemispherical mound (Anda): Domed shape recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains.
A square railing (Harmika): It is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (Chattra): The central pillar represents the pivot of the universe, the axis mundi along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. The three circular umbrella-like disks represent the Triratnas of Buddhism: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).
Secondary Features:

Toranas (gateways): Enclosure wall with decorated gateways at the cardinal directions.
A circular terrace (Medhi): It likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.
Building material: Unburnt bricks were used at the core and burnt bricks were used on the outer face that was covered in a thick coating of plaster.
Decorations: To embellish Medhi and Toran, wooden sculptors were used.
Pradakshinapatha (Circumambulatory pathway): As a form of worship, devotees walk around the pradakshina patha, or open ambulatory pathway. Wooden railing that capped the stupa also encircled the Pradakshinapatha.
The earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha. Over time, it has taken a grander symbolic association, “the mountain home of the gods at the centre of the universe”.

Kalachuri Dynasty

Two branches of the Kalachuri dynasty were:

The earlier rulers were called the Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati. They ruled in Central-Indian region between the 6th-7th centuries AD.
The Later Kalachuri dynasty ruler was known as the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri that ruled between the 7th-13th centuries AD.

Kalachuri Dynasty of Mahishmati

The Mahishmati Kalachuri rulers are known as the Haihayas.
The inscriptions also mentioned about the three important rulers of the dynasty: Krishna Raj, Shankargana, and Buddharaj.
Literary references have suggested their capital was situated at Mahishmati in the Malwa region.
Territories controlled:

The Kalachuri inscriptions mentioned that the Kalachuri dynasty ruled over the Ujjayni, Vidisha, Anandapura, and parts of Vidarbha.
The dynasty controlled Vidarbha, where they succeeded the Vakataka and the Vishnukundina dynasties.
In addition, the Kalachuris conquered northern Konkan (around Elephanta) by the mid-6th century. Here, they succeeded the Traikutaka dynasty.

Krishnaraj (c.550-575)

He is the earliest known ruler of the dynasty.
Coins: Featured Brahmi script legends, imitated the designs of earlier coins issued by the Gupta Kings. For example, coins featuring a bull are based on the coins issued by Skandagupta. These coins have described him as ‘Parama-Maheshvara’ (Devotee of Shiva).
Shankaragana’s inscription described Krishnaraja as the devotee of Pashupati (Shiva).
He commissioned, the Shaivite monuments at the Elephanta Caves and the earliest of the Brahmanical caves at Ellora.

Shankaragana (c.575-600)

He is the earliest ruler of the dynasty to be attested by his own inscriptions, which were issued from Ujjain, which is regarded as the earliest epigraphic record of the dynasty.
He adopted titles similar to the Gupta emperor Skandagupta, which suggests he conquered western Malwa (formerly under the Gupta authority).
He probably extended control over the parts of the present-day Gujarat.

Buddharaja

Shankaragana was succeeded by Buddharaja, the last known ruler of the early Kalachuri dynasty.
Chalukyan Invasion:

The first Chalukyan invasion was undertaken by king Mangalesha, somewhere around 600 CE.
However, the invasion did not result in a complete conquest, as evident by the Vidisha and Anandapura grants of Buddharaja.
During the second invasion by Mangalesha, Buddharaja lost his sovereignty.

Cultural contributions of Kalachuri Dynasty

Elephanta Caves, Mumbai

These contain Shaivite monuments, along the Konkan coast.
Historical evidences suggest Krishnaraja was associated with these monuments. For example: Silver and copper coins of Krishnaraja have been here, suggesting he was the patron of the main cave temple on the island.
Ellora Caves
The earliest of the Hindu caves at Ellora have been built during the reign of Kalachuris. For example, earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja.

About Bandhavgarh National Park and Tiger Reserve

Location: It is situated on the Eastern Satpura hill, between two other major protected areas of Madhya Pradesh, Kanha Tiger Reserve on the southern side and Sanjay National Park on the north eastern side.
The National Park was included in the Project Tiger network in 1993. The Panpatha Sanctuary was merged into the core area of Tiger Reserve, there-by increasing its core area.

Weather: According to Koppen’s Scheme, it lies in Monsoon type with Dry Winter Climate.
Historical significance: Famous Bandhavgarh fort, ancient Caves, rock paintings and carvings are found inside the Protected Area.
Fauna and Flora:
It is best known for ever-green Sal forests.
Some of the wildlife in the region, prominently figure in the IUCN red list of Endangered species: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole (Indian Wild Dog), Bengal or Indian Fox, Sloth Bear, Smooth-coated Otter, Rusty Spotted Cat, Fishing Cat, Gaur and Wild Elephant.

Tibetan Buddhist Cham Lama Dance

Context: A Cham Lama performance on the auspicious occasion of Buddha Jayanti at Tupchiling Gompa was observed in Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh.

About the Cham Lama Dance:

A traditional Cham Lama dance is an event held by Tibetan monasteries during special Buddhist festivals.
Monks in colourful costumes wear masks and they dance to the music played from traditional instruments (such as the ritual drum), also performed by monks. The longer it goes on, the more they seem to get in a trance.
The dancers have to be both well-trained and strong as the ritual dance must be performed very precisely and the masks are very heavy.
Cham was introduced in the eight Century by Padmasambhava (who introduced Tantric Buddhism to Tibet), to subjugate the local demons that were obstructing the building of the first monastery in Tibet, Samye.
Many of the figures performing the dance are animal characters. The pictures are made at the annual Buddhist Festival at Trongsa Dzong, the largest dzong fortress in Bhutan, located in Trongsa (formerly Tongsa), in the centre of the country.
This five-day festival known as the Trongsa Tsechu is held in the courtyard of the temple every year in December or January. The festival celebrates the arrival of Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) to Bhutan in the 8th century, a mark of triumph of Buddhism over evil.

By attending a Tsechu, visitors gain the Buddha’s blessing or and experience spiritual release through the tantric deities.

Mridangam virtuoso Karaikudi Mani takes the final bow

Context: Mridangam player Karaikudi R. Mani passed away. Through his group Sruthilaya, he popularised South Indian percussion instruments all over the world. He pioneered the Thala Vadya (percussion ensembles) performances in Carnatic music, which feature two percussion instruments performing solos without the use of vocals, veena, or violin.

Mridangam

A percussion instrument of ancient origin.
It serves as the main source of rhythmic accompaniment in a Carnatic music ensemble.
The pakhawaj, a modified version of mridangam, is the main percussion instrument in Dhrupad.
It is a complex instrument to tune and involves a lot of mathematics to construct korvais.
The mridangam is played during a percussion ensemble (Thala vadya).
The mridangam body is formed from a single piece of wood. The wood of the morgosa tree, the core of the coconut tree, and the palm tree are also utilised by manufacturers, but jackwood or redwood is their preferred material.
The right head of the drum is made up of three concentric layers of skin.

Indian Musical Instruments

Musical instruments like seven-holed flute and Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the sites of Indus Valley Civilization.

Four major traditional categories of musical instruments

Avanaddha Vadya/Percussion Instruments: These are known as membranophone as they have an exterior membrane that can be beaten to extract specific musical tones. One or two faces are covered with skin or hide. Examples: Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam, etc.

2. Sushira Vadya/Aerophones: Includes all the wind instruments. Examples: Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns, etc.

Shehnai: It is a double reeded wind instrument with a widening tube towards the end. The exalted title of the ‘Shehnai King’ has been given to the legendary Ustad Bismillah Khan, who took the Shehnai to its zenith through his soulful play.
Flute: It has been in use since the Vedic period. It was initially called Nadi or Tunava.

3. Ghana Vadya/Idiophone: It is the genre of the solid instruments that do not require any tuning. Examples: Manjira, Jaltarang, Kanch tarang, Jhanj, Khartal, etc.

Manjira: A small brass cymbal that is generally used in temples. Archaeological excavations have dated Manjira to be as old as the Harappan civilisation.

4. Tata Vadya /Chordophones: String instruments that function best when their sound is modified by hand.

Three major types of Tata instruments:

Bowed: The instruments where the sound is drawn from drawing a bow across the strings. Example: Sarangi, Esraj and Violin.
Plectral: The instruments where the strings are plucked by the fingers or by a plectrum of wire or horn. Example: Sitar, Veena and Tamboora.
Those instruments that are struck by small hammer or a pair of sticks. Example: Gotuvadyam and Swaramandal.

Classical Music

Two distinct schools of Indian classical music evolved

Hindustani music:

Practiced in the northern parts of India.
This branch of music places more emphasis on the structure of the song as well as its improvisational potential.
The Shudha Swara Saptaka, also known as the "Octave of Natural Notes," scale was adopted by the Hindustani branch.

Ten main styles: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasaga, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.
Dhrupad:

One of the oldest forms of Hindustani classical music. It is also mentioned in Natyashastra (200 BC–200 AD).
Consolidated its position as a classical form of music in the 13th century but reached its zenith in the court of emperor Akbar.
Akbar employed and patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen.
Singers who mastered Dhrupad were also patronised in the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar situated in Gwalior.
It became the major form of singing in the medieval period but fell in a state of decline in the 18th century.
Khyal:

The origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau.
This form is popular amongst the artists as this provides greater scope for improvisation.
A Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.

Carnatic music

Practiced in the southern parts of India.
The music is based on kriti and emphasises the saahitya, or lyrical aspect, of the musical piece.
The Kriti is a highly developed musical composition with a definite tala or rhythmic cycle and a certain raga.
Mridangam is frequently used to perform Carnatic music.
"Thanam" is the name of the melodic improvisation in unstructured rhythm with mridangam.
The term "Ragam" is used to describe those pieces without a mridangam.
Less improvisation is allowed than in Hindustani music.

Call to protect historically significant structures at Thirunelli temple in Kerala

Context: The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has urged the government to protect historically significant structures such as the 600-year-old 'Vilakkumadom,' a magnificent granite edifice, at the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Kerala's Wayanad district.

Thirunelli Temple

History

There is documentary evidence that Thirunelly was an important town and pilgrim centre in South India during the reign of Chera monarch Bhaskara Ravi Varma I (962-1019 CE).
Historian V. R. Parameswaran Pillai states in his book 'Thirunelli Documents' that this temple was formerly an important component of Kerala's early recorded history.
Architecture

This 3000-year-old temple is a fine example of Kerala temple architecture. The temple is an architectural marvel with around 30 granite columns and a granite paved floor. A cloister of cubical granite pillars runs along the temple's outer wall.
An open courtyard surrounds the Sanctorum, which is encircled by a tile-roofed building.
The holy temple pond is called Panchatheertham. The temple lacks a temple well, which is a notable characteristic.
The main deity idol of the temple is in the form of Chathurbhuja.
Religious Significance

Temple is the only temple in the world where worshippers can complete all of life's rituals, from birth to death and life after death.
The ceremonies are carried out on the banks of the Papanasini stream, which flows down from Mount Brahmagiri.
Lord Brahma is said to have performed Lord Vishnu's prathishta here. The cave temple Gunnika, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is located on the temple's western side. As a result, Thirunelli is blessed by the presence of all three parts of the trinity.
It is also known as ''Sahyamala Kshetram'' and ''Southern Kashi''.

Distinctive Kerala style of temple architecture

Provincial variety of Dravidian style

The Dravidian style took a positive shape and became strengthened during the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. This style underwent gradual changes without losing its individuality.
Kerala, on the west coast of South India, has a provincial variation of this style. Basic temple construction and Brahmanical religion developed in Kerala in tandem and steadily under the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram.

Local features in the Kerala temple architecture

Largely dictated by the geography of the region that abounds in forests blessed with the bounties of the monsoons, the structure of the temples in Kerala is distinctive.

Roof

Temple roof resembles those found in the Himalayan regions and those in East Asia.

Steep and pointed roofs constructed with wood are covered with copper sheets.

The shape of the roof is in accordance with the plan of the sanctum below. With a circular plan, one sees a conical roof, while with a square plan the roof is pyramidal.

The roof protrudes at numerous levels to shelter the interior skeletal framework from the region's violent monsoons.

Sanctum

The Central sanctum of a Keralite temple is referred to as the Sree Kovil.

It is surrounded by a cloistered Prakara, pierced at one or more cardinal points with a Gopuradwara.

The cloistered Prakaram has a Namaskara Mandapam located directly in front of the sanctum. This Prakaram also houses subsidiary shrines.

Mandapam

The Mukha Mandapam is integrated with the Gopura entrance.

The flagstaff or Dwaja Stambham is located outside of the Dwajastambham.

The Balipitham may be located in the Mukhamandapam or in the outer courtyard.

The outer prakaram or courtyard houses other subshrines, and optionally a temple tank.

Hall

The Kuttambalam or the theater hall of the Keralite temple is located either as a part of the inner prakara or as a separate hall outside the innermost prakaram.

The Kuttambalam has a stage, raised from the rest of the floor, and a backstage area. This is the site of the performance of Kathakali or Chakkiyar koothu recitals. Thus, the kuttambalam plays a role in educating visitors on the rich legends of the Indian cultural fabric.

Materials Used and Decorative elements

A harmonic blend of stones, woodwork, stucco work, and painting create a structure rich in regional traditions.

The woodwork is quite important here, as it gives the Kerala temple silhouette its vitality and character. The temple's inner skeletal framework is made of wood, but the foundation and upper construction are made of granite and laterite, respectively.

Kerala temple walls are made of coursed laterite stone masonry that has been plastered with mud and lime.

Murals can be found on some of these temple walls. Another distinguishing feature of Keralite temples is the use of Vilakku Maadam (multi-tiered brass lamps) in front of temples.

About INTACH

The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is a non-profit charitable organisation registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
It achieved Special Consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council was awarded in 2007.

History

INTACH was established in 1984 in New Delhi with the goal of establishing a membership organisation to promote and lead heritage awareness and conservation in India.
INTACH has been a leader in the conservation and safeguarding of India's natural and cultural heritage since 1984.
In 2007, INTACH signed a memorandum of understanding with AusHeritage, Australia's well-known heritage network, to engage on regional initiatives in South Asia and South East Asia.

Restoration

Over the years, INTACH has taken up the restoration and conservation of hundreds of monuments that fall outside the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India and other government organisations.
After developing Raghurajpur, Odisha, India, as a heritage village known for its master 'Pattachitra' artists and 'Gotipua' dance troupes, it later used the same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Odisha, India, known for its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination.

Mission

INTACH's mission to conserve heritage, is based on the belief that living in harmony with heritage enhances the quality of life, and it is the duty of every citizen of India as laid down in the Constitution of India.
The objectives spelt out in the Memorandum of Association constitute INTACH's Mandate and Vision

Sensitise the public about the pluralistic cultural legacy of India and instill a sense of social responsibility towards preserving India's common heritage.
Document unprotected buildings of archaeological, architectural, historic and aesthetic significance, as well as the cultural resources, as this is the first step towards formulating conservation plans.
Develop heritage policies and regulations, and make legal interventions to protect India's heritage when necessary.
Provide expertise in the field of conservation, restoration and preservation of specific works of art and encourage capacity-building by developing skills through training programmes.
Undertake emergency response measures during natural or man-made disasters and support the local administration whenever heritage is threatened.

Sanskrit poetess Shilabhattarika

Context: Shilabhattarika, the celebrated Sanskrit poetess of Ancient India, has recently been the subject of new research by researchers at the Pune-based Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI), which is home to the largest collection of manuscripts and rare books in South Asia. They claim to have shed new light on her by identifying her as the daughter of the renowned Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshin II of Badami (in modern Karnataka).

Findings from the copper plates

Information about the literary past
The copper plate gives critical details to the literary history of the Chalukyas, in addition to providing information on the geography and politics.
Marked change in the Historiography of the Badami Chalukyas
- It had provided earliest concrete historical proof of Shila-Bhattarika's status as a poetess, who made a name for herself in the historically male-dominated field of classical Sanskrit literature.
- The new research has put Shilabhattarika's life in the 7th century CE instead of the prevailing belief that placed her as the wife of the 8th-century Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva.
- Shilabhattarika was a Chalukyan princess who may have been Pulakeshin II's daughter.
- Pulakeshin II, who ruled from 610 to 642 CE, is known for having notably defeated Harshavardhan of Kanauj in a battle that took place in close proximity to the Narmada River in 618 CE.

Reconstruction of the Past

Archaeologists, linguists, and orientalists employ copper plates, which frequently have inscriptions of hereditary grants made by kings, to recreate the past.
A copper-plate charter with five copper plates from the era of Vijayaditya, the Badami Chalukyan king (696-733 CE) has been deciphered.
A copper ring with a Varaha (boar) seal serves as the binding element of the charter. The Varaha seal served as the royal seal of Badami Chalukyas. A Sanskrit text written in late-Brahmi script was included in the charter.
According to a preliminary interpretation of the plates, Vijayaditya gave the village of Sikkatteru to the Vedic scholar Vishnusharma in the month of Magha, Shaka year 638.
The plates also revealed that Mahendravarma, son of Shilabhattarika, the daughter of "Satyashraya," had asked Vijayaditya to make the grant. Pulakeshin II was the only Badami Chalukyan ruler who was solely known by the title "Satyashraya," which can be translated as "patron of truth."
Additionally, evidence points to Shilabhattarika's marriage to Dadiga, a prince from Talakkad's Ganga lineage.

Shila-Bhattarika

A Sanskrit poetess from the ninth century.
In the accounts of Rajashekhara:
- Shilabhattarika has been lauded for her delicate compositions by the Sanskrit poet-critic Rajashekhara, court poet of the Gurjara-Pratiharas (9th–10th century CE).
- Rajashekhara claims that the Panchali style (one of the four primary literary styles, the other three are Vaidharbhi, Gaudi, and Lati) can be seen in the writings of Shilabhattarika and perhaps in a few of the works of the poet Bana from the seventh century.
- The 15th-century anthology Subhashitavali contains a lyric attributed to Rajashekhara that states that Panchali style preserves "a balance between words and meaning."
- In Sharngadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology, she and three other female poets are lauded, in the following sentences: Poetesses like Shilabhattarika, Vijja, Marula, and Morika are well-known for their poetic brilliance and erudition. These women are proficient in all academic fields, have engaged in disputes with other academics.
- Subjects in her poetry: It is known that she wrote at least 46 poems, some of which deal with "love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons, insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines."
- The deciphering of the plates also sheds light on how, Shilabhattarika might have developed the level of poetry-writing expertise that put her on par with the most esteemed male poets of the day.
- Durvinita, a well-known ruler of the Western Gangas, was Shilabhattarika's grandfather-in-law. He was also an accomplished composer who had patronised Bharavi, the author of the classical epic Kiratarjuniya.

The 'Parsi Lady' being restored at Kilimanoor Palace

Context: Kilimanoor Palace Trust has decided to put the last unfinished painting of Raja Ravi Verma (Parsi lady) for the public display. He died on 02 October 1906.

About Raja Ravi Verma:

Birth: Kilimanoor, Kerala

Learning: he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen

Specialisation: Oil and water paintings. He focused on realised expression and skin tone. Varma combined European realism with Indian sensibilities. He was inspired from Indian literature to dance drama.

Achievements: Three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

Role towards masses: He opened a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894 to take his art to masses. His lithographs increased the involvement of common people with fine arts and defined artistic tastes among common people.

Important work:

Shakuntala
Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair
There Comes Papa
Galaxy of Musicians
Damayanti talking with a swan
Maharaj Shivaji

Legacy

2014 Indian Hindi-language film, Rang Rasiya (English title: Colours of Passion) explores Varma's inspiration behind his paintings.

The Parsi Lady painting

History around the corner- An illuminated view of Khan-E-Khana (Rahim Khan’s tomb) and the Humayun’s tomb

About Rahim Khan

Early Life: He was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, Akbar's uncle and tutor, and after Bairam Khan was assassinated, Akbar had the child brought to him and arranged for his upbringing.
Career:

He was one of Akbar's Navratans and also served in Jahangir's court. His political and military career began with Akbar's Gujarat campaign.
Emperor Akbar nominated him as Governor of Gujarat in 1575.
He was a composer who created couplets about Lord Krishna since Akbar's wife, Jodha, revered Lord Krishna.
Akbar bestowed the title Mirza Khan upon him. He used Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit in his poetry.
Over the years, his 700-odd couplets have become a significant feature of Hindi school textbooks.
He was also a leading translator of his time, having translated Babur's autobiography from Turkish to Persian.

Khane-E-Khana

Rahim Khan is credited with funding the creation of attractive structures like as canals, tanks, and gardens. The most impressive of his works is the tomb he made for his wife, Mah Banu, in 1598. It was the first Mughal tomb erected specifically for a woman.
Features:

Material used: The tomb is made of red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
Different architectural styles: It is an arch-shaped structure and is decorated using the structure of an inverted lotus. Other styles include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern.
Ornamentation: The tomb has been ornamented with diverse motifs including those seen in other mausoleums as well as those found in Hindu architecture like the peacock and Swastika.

Humayun’s Tomb

Significance of Tomb:

Built in 1570, it is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
The tomb has also been documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
The structure is considered to be an inspiration for the most well-known example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal.

Commissioning

Many scholars have argued that it was Haji Begam, Humayun’s widow who had commissioned this mausoleum.
However, according to Akbar Nama, written by Emperor Akbar’s official biographer Abu’l Fazl, Haji Begam was on a pilgrimage to Mecca during much of the construction period of the tomb. This has been confirmed by both Abu’l Fazl and Father Monserrate, a Jesuit priest who resided in Emperor Akbar’s court during the early 1580s. The monument was built by Emperor Akbar.
Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent.

It was designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
Features:
Persian Influence:

It was the first structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand, was introduced in India. Persian style is once again evident in this complex in the Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden layout based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in The Holy Quran.

Hybrid of Persian and Indian Architectural styles

Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a distinct Indian architectural feature. This combination of Persian and Indian architectural styles works beautifully together and this makes Humayun’s Tomb a great example of a hybrid of styles of two separate cultures.

Four distinct octagonal units separated by four recesses make up the mausoleum, with the entrance located in the recess which is located in the centre of the southern facade.
Contrast is one of the key elements: While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble.
Dormitory of Mughals: A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first floor. The large corner rooms as well as the numerous cells at the plinth level are a clear indication that the structure was originally designed to accommodate several graves. Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there.
Significance: For the patron of this tomb, Akbar, there were two purposes behind building this great structure, to commemorate his father’s legacy and to make a political statement.

India to host maiden Global Buddhist Summit

Context: Leaders and scholars from the global Buddhist community will convene in New Delhi to discuss contemporary global concerns from a Buddhist approach. The maiden conference is being organised by the Union Cultural Ministry and the International Buddhist Confederation, an umbrella organisation that acts as a forum for Buddhists worldwide. The conference is considered as a big step forward in India's aspirations to interact with Buddhism, which has millions of adherents worldwide. Recently, India, as chair of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), hosted a meeting on Buddhist heritage that included all countries.

Theme of the Summit: ‘Responses to Contemporary Challenges from Philosophy to Praxis’.

Image source: narendramodi.in

Objectives of the Summit

The gathering's major objective is to explore methods of disseminating and internalising universal principles while encouraging collaboration among Dharma practitioners across philosophical, cultural, and national boundaries.
The ultimate objective is to solve acute global concerns while also developing a long-term plan for a peaceful and harmonious future.
The summit intends to explore Buddhist teachings and practices in order to identify answers to challenges like- climate change, poverty and war, among others.

About Buddhism

Buddhism belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements. The word Shramana means one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic.

Basic details of Buddha

Buddha was born at Lumbini village of Kapilavastu Nepal in 563 BC in the Shakya Kshatriya clan.
His clan considered themselves to be descendants of Ikshvaku dynasty.
He died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP) and the event is known as Mahaparinirvana.
Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth is the event when Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.

Places Visited by Buddha

After leaving his home in search of enlightenment Buddha visited Vaishali and learnt Sankhya darshan. He then went to Rajgriha and learnt yoga.
He later went to Uruvela where he attained enlightenment. This event is known as Sambodhi.
He then went on to Sarnath where he delivered his first sermon also called Dharmachakrapravartana. Buddha delivered his maximum sermons from Shravasti and made Magadha his promotional centre.
Ashta-mahasthana refers to the eight significant places associated with the life of Buddha. These include: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar, Shravasti, Sankissa, Rajgriha and Vaishali.

Religious Teachings

Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e., Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
Buddha propagated Ashtangik marga also called Madhya marga. He was always silent on the discussion of the existence of God but believed in rebirth.
Buddha was against caste system and opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes. He allowed women to be admitted in sangha.
Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained which means that a man will become free from the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Buddha’s chief disciple was Upali, and his most favourite disciple was Ananda. Buddha regarded the social world as creation of humans rather than of divine origin. Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.

Buddhist Councils

1^st Buddhist Council
- Place: Rajgriha, Bihar
- Ruler: Ajatshatru
- Accomplishment: Buddha’s teachings were compiled into Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (Upali)
2^nd Buddhist Council
- Place: Vaishali
- Ruler: Kalashoka (Shishunaga dynasty)
- Accomplishment: Buddhist sangha was divided into schools i.e., Theravada or Sthavira and Mahasanghik or Sarvastivadin.
- Theravadi is the oldest Buddhist school with its main center in Kashmir. Mahasanghik’ s main center was in Magadha.
3^rd Buddhist Council
- Place: Pataliputra
- Ruler: Ashoka
- Accomplishment: Compilation of the third pitaka i.e., Abhidhamma Pitaka which explains the tenets of Dhamma.
4^th Buddhist Council
- Place: Kashmir
- Ruler: Kanishka
- Accomplishment: Compilation of Vibhashashastra by Vasumitra, a commentary in Sanskrit on the difficult aspects of Buddhist texts.

Buddhists again broke into 2 schools i.e., Theravadi or Sthavira became Hinayana and Sarvastivadin or Mahasanghik became Mahayana schools.

Sects in Buddhism

Buddhist texts mention about 64 sects or schools of Buddhism. Teachers travelled from place to place, trying to convince one another and laypersons about the validity of their philosophy.
Debates took place in the Kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also became his disciples. So, support for any sect could grow and shrink over time.

Prominent sects of Buddhism

1. Hinayana School

Hinayana is also known as Shravakayana. They saw Buddha as a great soul but not God. They were orthodox in nature.
Hinayana followers believed in helping themselves over others to attain salvation. They did not believe in Bhakti and idol worship. Their scriptures are written in Pali.
Later divided into 2 sects i.e., Vaibhashika and Sautrantika.
Sub-schools of Hinayana:
- Staviravadin or Thervadins: Earliest school from which all other schools of Buddhism originated. They follow the original doctrines of Buddha closely. They believe only in the three Pitakas.
- Sarvastivada: This is one of the early Buddhist schools which originated during the time of Ashoka (Separated from Sthaviravadins). This school is popular in Kashmir and Central Asia. This school has been broadly divided into- Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.
- Mahasanghika: It is a school which came into existence after the 2nd Buddhist Council. It separated from the Staviravadis over the differences in following monastic practices. Sub-sects of Mahasanghika school are- Lokottarvada, Kukkutika and Caitika.
- Sammitiya: A subsect of Hinayana tradition which believes that though an individual does not exist independently from the five skandhas, or components that make up his personality, he is at the same time something greater than the mere sum of his parts. It popular in Gujarat and Sindh during 7th Century. Their important centre of learning was at Valabhi, Gujarat.

2. Mahayana School

Its prime centre was in Andhra Pradesh. Its scriptures are written in Sanskrit.
They see Buddha as incarnation of God and started his idol worship.
Mahayana attaches importance to role of Bodhisattvas who delay their own salvation to help others to its path.
They believed in the concept of transmigration of soul and rebirth. Later divided into 2 sects i.e., Shunyavaad (Founder: Nagarjuna) and Vigyanvaad.
In 8th century AD, Vajrayana School developed as an offshoot of Mahayana school in which Tara is considered as wife of Buddha.
In early medieval period a new form of Mahayana called Mantrayana came up in which Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar began to be worshipped.
Sub-Schools of Mahayana
- Yogachara School: Important scholars of this school were: Asanga and Vasubandhu. It attaches foremost importance to meditation as a means of attaining the highest goal. Hence, the name Yogachara.
- Madhyamaka School: Founder of this school was Nagarjuna. Idea of Shunyata is important feature of this school. It means that appearances are misleading, and that permanent selves and substances do not exist. Important scholars of this school were Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka and Chandrakirti.

Boddhisatvas in Mahayana Buddhism

BODDHISATTVA	RELEVANCE
Avalokitesvara	Bodhisattva of compassion. Most universally acknowledged Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism.Has many avatars, most famous being Padmapani (Holding Lotus).
Maitreya	Boddisattva to be reborn. Future Boddhisattva.
Manjushri	Boddisattva of awareness and wisdom.
Padmasambhava	Most famous in Tibetan and Bhutanese Buddhism. Regarded as a second buddha there.
Vajrapani	An early bodhisattva in Mahayana. Vajra means weapon.
Tara	Female bodhisattva in Tibetan Buddhism. A manifestation of Avalokitesvara.She represents the virtues of success in work and achievements. A manifestation of Avalokitesvara.

Buddhist Literature

Tripitakas are the oldest source of studying Buddhism.
Sutta Pitaka: Encyclopedia of Buddhist thought and Buddhas religious ideas. It is divided into five groups or Nikayas. They contain popular works such as Theragatha and Therigatha and Jataka tales.
Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of Buddhist Sangha. It contains two main sections (i) Sutta Vibhanga (ii) Khandaka and an appendix known as Parivara. Sutta Vibhanga contains Patimokka, a set of monastic rules, 227 for monks and 311 for nuns. Patimokka was recited by congregations of monks in the fortnightly uposatha ceremony held on the full moon and new moon days.
Abhidhamma Pitaka: Buddhist principles and concept of dhamma
Vishuddhimarga written by Ashvaghosha serves as a key composition to tripitakas.
Mahavastu (by Hinayana sect) and Lalitvistara (by Mahayana sect) are biographies of Buddha.
Pragyaparimita Sutra serves as the most important text for Mahayana sect. It was written by Nagarjuna who is known as the Einstein of India.

Buddhist Sangha

Eight personal possessions allowed to a monk comprised three robes, an alms bowl, razor, needle, belt and water strainer.
Senior monks held authority within a monastic community.
Four most serious offences (known as parajika) involving expulsion from sangha were: (i) Sexual intercourse, (ii) killing someone (iii) Stealing (iv) Making false claims of spiritual attainment.

Buddhist Laity

According to tradition, first lay followers of Buddha were two merchants, Tapassu and Bhallika.
The laity was a person who had taken refuge in Buddha, dhamma and sangha but had not taken monastic vows. The laity included male followers (upasakas) and female followers (upasikas).
There was a growing differentiation (social-stratification) amongst people engaged in agriculture – Buddhist literature refers to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants and large landholders.
The term Gahapati was used in Pali texts to refer to small peasants and large landholders.

Buddhism and Women

Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted. (In Buddha’s lifetime only).
This was made possible through the mediation of Ananda (Buddha’s dearest disciple).
Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
Therigatha is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis (part of Sutta Pitaka). It provides an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.

Reasons for decline of Buddhism

Decline of Buddhist Sanghas: Sanghas became centres of corruption. Discipline of Vinay Pitaka was violated.
Revival of Brahmanical Hinduism: Rites and rituals of Hinduism were simplified. It also incorporated Buddhist principle of non-violence and accepted Buddha as a Hindu incarnation.
Buddhism lost royal patronage, which it received during the period of Asoka, Kaniska, and Harshavardhana. The Gupta rulers were great patrons of the Brahmanical religion.
Buddhism was divided into several groups like "Hinayana,” "Mahayana” "Vajrayana” "Tantrayana" and "Sahajayana," and ultimately, it lost its originality.
Buddhist monks gave up Pali and took up Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals which was rarely understood by the common people. So, people rejected it.
Mahayana Buddhists started worshipping Buddha as a God. Image worship was a clear violation of the Buddhist doctrines, which opposed the critical rites and rituals of Brahmanical Hinduism.
Northern India was mostly ruled by the Rajputs from the eight to twelfth century who found great pleasure in fighting. They discarded the Buddhist principle of non-violence.

Basohli Paintings

Context: After the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development's recommendation (NABARD), the renowned Basohli painting from the Kathua district of Jammu and Kashmir has received the Geographical Indication (GI) Tag. An item’s GI tag provides the original manufacturers with legal protection and prevents unauthorised use of the item by third parties. Basohli painting of Kathua is the first independent GI tagged product from Jammu region.

About Basohli painting

Pahari paintings originated in Basohli, a small town in Jammu region.
It gave rise to a distinctive genre of miniature paintings where mythology and conventional folk art were combined.
Basohli paintings reached their height during the reigns of Sangram Pal (1635–1673) and later Kirpal Pal (1678–1693).
The Ramayana, Gita Govinda and Rasamanjari illustrations by Bhanudatta were ordered by Raja Kirpal Singh.
The most well-known painter of this school was Devi Das, who is most known for his paintings of Radha Krishna and rulers dressed in white clothing.

Features

The use of vivid and strong colours in the borders, such as red, yellow, and blue, was one of the distinguishing characteristics.
A prominent nose and lotus-shaped eyes were two further distinctive characteristics of the face.
Both men and women are dressed in a style like that found in Rajput or Mughal courts.
In Basohli art, flora was frequently shown. The vibrant red rhododendron blossoms were the artists' favourite.
The portrayal of jewellery, which was done with embossed white paint to represent pearls and beetle wings to represent emerald green, was what made these paintings stand out.
The vibrant contrast of colours that characterises this school is inspired by the Malwa paintings.

Pahari painting

A form of miniature painting and book illustration that evolved in the autonomous Indian republics at the foothills of the Himalayas.
The term ‘Pahari Paintings’ applied to a variety of schools that thrived in these smaller kingdoms.
The Pahari paintings can be divided into two series- the Northern Series from the Jammu or Dogra School, and the Southern Series from the Basholi and Kangra Schools.
The paintings' topics, which covered everything from mythology to literature, highlighted fresh methods.
Each figure has a unique composition, colour scheme, and pigmentation.
Nainsukh and Manaku were two of this school's best artists.

Geographical Indication (GI)

The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 intends to make provisions for the registration and improved protection of geographical indications relating to goods in India.
The WTO Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) governs related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights governs and directs it.
The protection of industrial property and geographic indications was determined and is also indicated in Articles 1(2) and 10 of the Paris Convention as components of intellectual property.
It is primarily a manufactured, natural, or agricultural product (handicrafts and industrial goods).
This tag is valid for ten years, after which it may be renewed.
However, a protected geographical indication does not enable the holder to prevent someone from making a product using the same techniques as those set out in the standards for that indication.
Darjeeling Tea from West Bengal received the first GI Tag in India.
The Department of Industry Promotion and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, is responsible for issuing these tags.

Approaches to safeguard Geographical Indications

Specific regimes of protection (sui generis systems)
Collective/certification marks
Methods for concentrating on business operations, such as the administrative product and approval schemes.

Significance

After a product receives this designation, no one or business may sell a similar product under that name.
A product's GI registration gives it legal protection and safeguards against unauthorised use by others.
The GI tag aids in marketing the product's exports and gives customers confidence in the product's legitimacy.

Cracks found on the Gateway of India but structure fine: Govt.

Context: Context: According to a recent observation, there were some cracks which were found on the Gateway of India.

About Gateway of India

Gateway of India is located in Mumbai’s southern coast and does not fall under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India.
It is a Triumphal Arch structure that showcases the Indo-Islamic architecture of Gujarat and the Indo-Saracenic style.
Its architect is George Wittet.
It was erected to commemorate the landing of King-Emperor George V, the first British monarch to visit India, in December 1911 at Strand Road near Wellington Fountain.
The Gateway is also the monument from where the last British troops left India in 1948.
It does not fall under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India. It is not a centrally protected monument. Its preservation and restoration come under the control of the Archaeological Department of the Maharashtra Government.

What is a Centrally protected monument?

The centrally protected monuments are sites which have been declared so under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act).
All archaeological sites and remains which have been declared by the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951, or by section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 to be of national importance shall also be deemed to be protected areas for the purposes of this Act. AHMAR act is different from the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 as the latter one provides preservation while the previous one recognises a site.
All functions related to conservation, preservation, and environmental development of centrally protected areas come under the Archaeological Survey of India.· Any construction activity around such monuments is guided and regulated by the National Monument Authority.

The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958

Why:

Preservation of historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance (over 100 years old).
Protection of sculptures, carvings, and other similar objects.
Regulation of archaeological excavations.

Authorization:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) functions under this act.

Amendments in 2010:

It strengthens its penal provisions, to prevent encroachments and illegal construction close to the monuments – which was happening on a large scale.
Defines Prohibited area: 100 metres around every national monument where no construction, public or private is permitted.
Defines Regulated area: 200 metres beyond the prohibited area, where any construction requires the permission of a newly constituted National Monuments Authority.

New proposed amendments:

An Expert committee will decide on the extent of the prohibited and regulated areas around each monument and the activities permitted herein.
The ASI would be given enforcement powers such as in the Forest Act which would empower it to act against those encroaching at protested sites.

About the Archaeological Survey of India

The first systematic research into the subcontinent’s history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was founded by the British Indologist William Jones in January 1784.
The most important of the society’s achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837.
The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.

Present Status:

The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture. Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance.
These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, stepwells, and rock-cut caves.
The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.
The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.

About National Monument Authority

· National Monuments Authority (NMA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India has been set up as per provisions of The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains or AMASR Act, 1958 (amended in 2010).

Functions of NMA:

Protection and preservation of monuments and sites through management of the prohibited and regulated area around the centrally protected monuments.
To consider grant of permissions to applicants for construction-related activity in the prohibited and regulated area.
To categorize all the protected monuments and protected areas declared as of National importance as per AMASR act 1958.

FAQs

What is an ancient monument?

In the AMASR Act, ancient monument means any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock sculpture, inscription or monolith, which is of historical, archaeological or artistic interest provided it has been in existence for not less than one hundred years. Other inclusions are remains or the site of an ancient monument, and means of access to the monument are also termed ancient monuments.

How is a monument declared protected?

Where the Central Government is of opinion that any ancient monument is of national importance it issues a notification (preliminary) in the Official Gazette, of its intention to declare such ancient monument to be of national importance. A notification published under section 4 (3) makes the ancient monument to be of national importance for the purposes of this Act.

What is the difference between a protected area and a protected monument?

When any archaeological site and remains is declared to be of national importance it is called a protected area whereas an ancient monument when declared to be of national importance is called a protected monument. The government may acquire the protected monument under the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act, of 1894.