Context: The Madras High Court has dismissed a public interest litigation (PIL) petition filed in 2017 against the first pour of concrete for units 3 and 4 of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP) without complying with norms on restricting the population growth in the sterilized zone — the area within a 5km radius of the plant.
Kudankulam Project
Location - Kudankulam,Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
Capacity
2000 Megawatt (2 GW) of current Installed capacity out of the total planned capacity of 6000 Megawatt (6 GW).
It will be achieved through Six VVER-1000 Pressurised water reactors (PWR) reactors built in collaboration with Atomstroyexport, the Russian state company and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
Indo-Russian Agreement -1988 - Initially planned to build two reactor units. The project got stuck due to dissolution of the USSR but revived under a new agreement between India and Russia in 1997.
Construction works started in 2002 but the project suffered delays due to persistent protests by local inhabitants and activist groups over safety concerns.
Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan (2011) fuelled the opposition thus construction works were suspended for several months.
The construction was resumed after the Supreme Court of India rejected petitions to block the project and permitted the commissioning of both the units in May 2013.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
It is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The Company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in 1987.
Its objective is to operate atomic power plants and implement atomic power projects for the generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, of 1962.NPCIL is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
It is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The Company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in 1987.Its objective is to operate atomic power plants and implement atomic power projects for the generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, of 1962.NPCIL is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors.
Context: Bihar is all set to get its second tiger reserve in Kaimur district by the end of the year or early 2024. The NTCA had, in principle, approved our proposal in July for the tiger reserve. The department has now started preparing for the final submission to be sent to the NTCA for its formal approval.
About Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary
Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary of Rohtas Forest Division is situated in the great Kaimur Range hills in the Rohtas District of Bihar.
KWLS came into existence in 1979 (the later area was increased in 2010) with an area of over 1784.73 sq km.
It is the largest and first wildlife sanctuary to be declared in the State of Bihar.
The KWLS is spread in Bhabhua and Rohtas District of the State of Bihar.
Habitats offered by deep valleys (locally known as khoras) and high hills (locally known as Ballas), daunted with rivers and nallahs having water all year round in the ‘doh’.
Rohtasgarh Fort and Shergarh Fort are also located in these forests.
It also has numerous Megaliths, Rock paintings of prehistoric age and stone inscriptions from a bygone era.
The Government of Bihar has planned to develop it into a Tiger Reserve.
This Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the Rohtas Plateau and Kaimur plateau of Kaimur Range in the south-western part of Bihar.
This forms the watershed or divide for two of the major rivers of peninsular India, the Son on the south and Tamsa or Tons on the north.
The sanctuary forms an essential corridor between forest areas of Bihar, Jharkhand Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh ensuring the contiguity of forests in Vindhya.
In the valley portions, there are several waterfalls of which the finest are Karkat Waterfall, Manjhar Kund, Dhua Kund, Tutla Bhawani Waterfall, Geeta Ghat Waterfall, Kashish Waterfall, and Telhar.
There are several Dams and lakes, including Anupam Lake, Karamchat Dam and Kohira Dam.
Anupam Lake and Kalidah near Rameshwar Kund are located in the lake.
The major forest types are Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous, Dry Sal Forests, Boswellia Forests and Dry Bamboo Brakes.
Important Fauna of Sanctuary
It harbours several other faunal species some of which figure in the IUCN Red Data List. These are Leopard, Indian Pangolin, Porcupine, Wild dogs, Jackal, Sloth bear.
The Crested eagle and Hawk eagle’s presence in Rohtas forests indicates the ecological sustenance of the area.
It is home to many migratory birds, such as the lesser white-fronted goose, ferruginous duck, Baer's pochard duck and lesser adjutant, greater adjutant, black-necked stork, and Asian openbill stork migrate from Central Asia to the park during winter.
Among snakes, cobras and kraits are of common occurrence while pythons are occasionally seen.
Context: Eight renowned institutions in India conducted independent investigations to uncover the factors contributing to land subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand. Their findings suggest that seismic activities, construction deficiencies, population density, inadequate drainage systems, and various other factors are 'potential' contributors to the sinking of this Himalayan town.
About Joshimath
The town of Joshimath is also nicknamed as Jyotirmath and is the winter seat of Lord Badri, whose idol is brought down from Badrinath temple to Vasudeva temple at Joshimath.
It is situated on Vaikrita groups of rocks overlain by morainic deposits which are composed of irregular boulders and clay of varying thickness.
This holy town is revered by the Hindus for being an important pilgrimage center of the country. Alaknanda and Dhauliganga meet at the confluence of Vishnuprayag overlooking the town of Joshimath.
Land Subsidence
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), subsidence is the “sinking of the ground because of underground material movement”. It can happen for a host of reasons, man-made or natural, such as the removal of water, oil, or natural resources, along with mining activities. Earthquakes, soil erosion, and soil compaction are also some of the well-known causes of subsidence.
Reasons for sinking of Joshimath town
A variety of factors both anthropogenic and natural have led to the subsidence of Joshimath:
Joshimath's vulnerable foundations: it was developed on the debris of a landslide triggered by an earthquake more than a century ago.
High intensity seismic zone: more prone to earthquakes besides gradual weathering and water percolation which reduce the cohesive strength of the rocks over time.
Vulnerability to disasters: Himalayan rivers, heavy rainfall, toe cutting phenomenon, flash floods and cloudbursts further worsen the situation.
Demographic load: High population pressure and Haphazard construction activities have led to cracks appearing in the houses there.
Blocking of natural flow of water: Moreover, the lack of a proper drainage system might have also contributed to the sinking of the area. Experts say that unplanned and unauthorised construction has led to the blocking of the natural flow of water, which eventually results in frequent landslides.
Infrastructure build-up: NTPC’s Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Plant is a 520 MW run-of-river hydroelectric project being constructed on Dhauliganga River in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. Run-of-river hydro projects use the natural downward flow of rivers and micro turbine generators to capture the kinetic energy carried by water. Typically water is taken from the river at a high point and diverted to a channel, pipeline, or pressurised pipeline (or penstock).
Internal erosion caused by the subsurface drainage, which may be due to infiltration of rainwater/ melting of ice/ wastewater discharge from household and hotels, plays crucial role in the subsidence of Joshimath town. #As per IIT Roorkee Report.
Warnings in past
The first warning signs were sounded about 46 years ago in the M C Mishra committee report that had highlighted the dangers of unplanned development in this area, and identified the natural vulnerabilities. D P Dobhal, a glaciologist, said the area was once under glaciers. The soil is, therefore, not ideal for large constructions.
Measures suggested
Control the infiltration of water into construction sites, buildings, or other sensitive areas. It can include techniques such as proper drainage systems, waterproofing, and the use of barriers to prevent groundwater or rainwater from seeping into unwanted areas.
Stop Blasting activities in the vicinity of disaster prone zones like Himalayas. As blasting can lead to potential hazards like ground vibrations, which can damage nearby structures or ecosystems. #recommended by the State Disaster Management Department.
Adherence to National Building Code of India, 2016 ensures that construction projects meet safety, structural, and environmental standards. It covers various aspects of construction, including design, materials, construction methods, and occupancy requirements.
Conducting a thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before any construction project to assess its potential environmental impacts and implementing measures to mitigate or minimize these impacts.
Involving local communities and stakeholders in the planning and decision-making process for construction projects to address their concerns and ensure social responsibility.
The sinking of Joshimath serves as a stark reminder of the delicate equilibrium that must be maintained in ecologically sensitive regions, where human activities interact intimately with the forces of nature. Through careful planning, sustainable practices, and collective responsibility we can protect and rejuvenate this sacred town and other vulnerable areas like it across the Himalayan landscape.
Context: On April 13, 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea over the next 30 years.
The wastewater is a by-product of the catastrophic 2011 earthquake and tsunami, which disabled the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, leading to the release of radioactive materials. After more than a decade of storing this wastewater, Japan says they are running out of storage space, and allege that the, now treated water is safe for release.
How is the water being treated and what is the controversy?
The water is being treated by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO).
The water has been treated with multiple techniques, notably the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), which removes 62 types of radioactive materials.
However, it doesn’t remove tritium.
TEPCO and the Japanese government argue that the concentration of tritium does not exceed international standards, in particular, those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations’ nuclear watchdog. According to TEPCO’s website, the radiation emitted by tritium is “extremely weak, and can be blocked with a single sheet of paper.” The concentration is also six times less than the limit for tritium in drinking water, set by the World Health Organization.
You can’t remove tritium because it is identical to hydrogen. So removing it, chemically extracting it from wastewater becomes quite impossible.
Fears persist within the majority. A poll conducted by Japan’s Jiji Press in September shows that 16.3% of respondents are opposed to the discharge of the treated water, and 30.8% were neither opposed nor in favour. Several protests have been held in Seoul against the release, and many hoarded seafood ahead of the discharge. Some surveys show that 8085% of South Koreans oppose the water’s release. The Chinese government, which has been against Japan’s decision since the announcement was made, has already banned seafood from Japan.
ANALYSING NUCLEAR ENRGY AS A WHOLE:
Points in favour of nuclear energy:
Nuclear is a zero-emission clean energy source: It generates power through fission, which is the process of splitting uranium atoms to produce energy. The heat released by fission is used to create steam that spins a turbine to generate electricity without the harmful by-products as emitted by fossil fuels. Fig: A comparison of direct GHG emission (red bars) and full life cycle emissions (blue bars)
Nuclear energy’s land footprint is small: Despite producing massive amounts of carbon-free power, nuclear energy produces more electricity on less land than any other clean-air source. A typical 1,000-megawatt nuclear facility needs a little more than 1 square mile to operate which is 360 times less than wind plant and 75 times less than solar plant.
Nuclear energy produces minimal waste: Nuclear fuel is extremely dense. It’s about 1 million times greater than that of other traditional energy sources and because of this, the amount of used as nuclear fuel is not as big as you might think.
Nuclear power is not without significant disadvantages and risks that warrant consideration:
Safety concerns: Nuclear accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima have demonstrated the catastrophic dangers of nuclear power when safety systems fail. In Indian context high population density, limited water resources and seismic instability in some regions amplify the risks and potential impacts of an accident should one occur..
Weapons proliferation: Nuclear technologies and by-products like plutonium can potentially enable weapons proliferation if misused or mishandled. India must ensure its ambitious nuclear plans strengthen oversight, safeguards and the civilian orientation of its programs to avoid enabling weapons ambitions in unstable regions.
Costs: Although nuclear energy is inexpensive once operational, nuclear power plants are highly capital intensive to construct. Project cost overruns are common. Ex: Flamanville reactor in France is 10 years behind schedule and costs have tripled to $12.7 billion. High costs could deter investment into nuclear and benefit cheaper renewable sources.
Waste disposal: Nuclear plants generate radioactive waste that remains dangerous for thousands of years and there are unresolved issues around waste storage and disposal. Any country pursuing nuclear must develop safe, long-term waste solutions to avoid contamination.
Opportunity costs: Large investments into nuclear energy could divert funds and focus away from renewable sources like solar and wind which are quickly achieving cost parity, often better matched to grid needs, and do not have the same economic, safety or waste risks as nuclear. A balanced approach is needed.
Domestic capacity: India's nuclear ambitions depend heavily on foreign reactor designs, fuel sources and technical cooperation, especially from Russia and France. This dependence could compromise India's aim for energy self-sufficiency and technology leadership. Investing in education and R&D is needed.
Recent technological developments have addressed some nuclear concerns, but not eliminated them entirely:
Safety: New reactor designs like advanced light water reactors and fast breeder reactors incorporate more passive safety features, lower meltdown risks and higher tolerance for human error or natural disasters. Ex: AP1000 reactors can withstand earthquakes, tsunamis and have a 72-hour backup system. However, severe accidents remain possible and the "fail-safe" nature of reactors is still debated. Strict regulatory oversight is still needed.
Proliferation: Technologies like laser enrichment reduce proliferation risks by making the enrichment process more difficult to replicate, while new fuel types like mixed oxide (MOX) fuel make plutonium more difficult to extract for weapons. However, determined groups could potentially overcome these barriers, indicating safeguards must still be actively pursued.
Costs: Standardized reactor designs, modular components, and improved construction techniques aim to reduce costs through replication and learning curve impacts. Ex: Modular reactors could cost 50-70% less. However, nuclear remains capital intensive, projects often run over-budget, and reliable cost reductions remain uncertain - especially where subsidies or public funds are used.
Waste: New reprocessing techniques can recycle used nuclear fuel and recover usable uranium and plutonium. The recycled fuel can power advanced reactors, minimizing waste. India uses a plutonium-uranium extraction process. However, reprocessing still results in radioactive byproducts that require storage. And it can increase proliferation risks which must be addressed.
Renewable integration: Nuclear technology startups are developing smaller, more flexible reactors to complement intermittent renewable sources, providing low-carbon baseload when needed. Ex: NuScale's small modular reactors can balance loads. However, variable renewable costs are rapidly declining as technologies and coupled with storage, could potentially reduce need for large baseload capacity from nuclear.
Domestic capacity: India has established domestic manufacturing capabilities for nuclear components like coolant pipes, centrifuges, and control mechanisms through partnerships between the NPCIL and private industry. India also has a well-developed nuclear fuel cycle, including facilities for mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication, as well as facilities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. India is also developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as fast breeder reactors and thorium-based reactors. However, India still imports key reactor components from Russia and France due to limited technical experience. Developing a robust domestic supply chain will take time.
CONCERNS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
TECHNOLOGICAL ADDRESS OF THE CONCERNS
Safety concerns
New reactor designs like advanced light water reactors and fast breeder reactors incorporate more passive safety features, lower meltdown risks and higher tolerance for human error or natural disasters
Weapons proliferation
Technologies like laser enrichment reduce proliferation risks by making the enrichment process more difficult to replicate, while new fuel types like mixed oxide (MOX) fuel make plutonium more difficult to extract for weapons
High Costs
Modular reactors could cost 50-70% less.
Waste disposal
New reprocessing techniques can recycle used nuclear fuel and minimize waste. Ex: Fast breeder reactors can generate more fuel than they consume.
Opportunity costs
Renewable integration: Nuclear technology startups are developing smaller, more flexible reactors to complement intermittent renewable sources, providing low-carbon baseload when needed. Ex: NuScale's small modular reactors can balance loads.
Domestic capacity
India also has a well-developed nuclear fuel cycle, including facilities for mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication, as well as facilities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. India is also developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as fast breeder reactors and thorium-based reactors.
So nuclear technology offers promise but no panacea. Its viability, costs and necessity in any country's energy mix depends on a comparison to all available options - and selection of the optimal diverse, balanced and sustainable supply with fair consideration of risks and benefits. An open and honest appraisal is still most prudent with any pursuit of nuclear power.
Energy security: India has a severe energy deficit and high dependence on coal, with over 70% of electricity generated from coal. Nuclear power provides energy security by diversifying fuel sources for electricity and reducing overreliance on any single source. Ex: France derives over 70% of its electricity from nuclear, ensuring stable supply.
Energy poverty: Energy poverty is a major challenge in India, with millions of people lacking access to basic energy services. Nuclear power can help address this challenge by providing a reliable and affordable source of energy to remote and underserved areas.
Low-carbon source: Unlike coal, nuclear power does not emit greenhouse gases and particulate pollution. It can help India meet its climate change mitigation goals under the Paris Agreement as a low-carbon source for base load power. Ex: Sweden aims to phase out fossil fuels in favor of nuclear and renewable energy for a carbon-neutral grid.
Economic benefits: The nuclear power industry creates many jobs in research, reactors construction, and supporting sectors. Kudankulam nuclear plant in Tamil Nadu employs over 2000 people. Nuclear also reduces the need to import expensive fossil fuels. Operation of nuclear plants over 60-100 year lifetimes provide long-term economic value.
Energy independence: Domestically produced nuclear fuel reduces dependence on imported energy sources like coal, oil and natural gas - providing greater energy security and independence. India aims to develop its domestic uranium resources and thorium-based reactors. Ex: Canada's uranium mining industry employs over 60,000 people and sustains remote communities.
Reliable: Nuclear power plants operate at over 90% capacity for most of their lifetimes, providing a constant and stable source of baseload power to grids regardless of weather conditions or time of day. Ex: South Korea generates about 30% of its power from nuclear, operating at over 95% capacity.
Existing investments: India has invested heavily in nuclear energy, with 22 commercial reactors operating and 7 under construction. Kudankulam plant alone cost $6.7 billion. Scrapping nuclear prematurely would lead to loss of this investment and wasted capital that could have gained from the plants' operation over 60+ years.
Advanced technologies: New nuclear technologies can strengthen the case for nuclear in India, including more advanced light water reactors, fast breeder reactors, and thorium-based reactors which use domestically available fuel sources.
Technological penetration: Development of nuclear reactors can drive technological progress in India through several mechanisms:
Materials science: Nuclear reactors require advanced materials that can withstand high temperatures, pressures and radiation over long periods. Progress in materials like zirconium alloys, graphite, and new ceramics has applications in other industries like aerospace, defense, and electronics. India aims to develop silicon carbide composites for future reactors.
Manufacturing: High-precision manufacturing techniques are needed to produce nuclear reactor components. Electron beam welding, 3D printing processes etc require technical skills that translate to other sectors. India's Make in India initiative aims to localize nuclear supply chains to support manufacturing growth.
Robotics: Nuclear reactors utilize robotics for inspection, maintenance and handling of radioactive materials. Developments in robotics, sensors and remote tooling have spin-off benefits for fields like space exploration, mining, and hazardous waste management.
Sensors and monitoring: Nuclear reactors employ advanced sensors, detectors and real-time monitoring technologies to control processes, detect anomalies and prevent accidents. Technologies like optical spectroscopy, radiation mapping and ultrasonic transducers have medical, security and industrial applications.
Fusion: Research in nuclear fusion aims to develop clean, abundant energy by replicating the processes of the sun on earth. Fusion programs push boundaries in areas like advanced electromagnets, plasma physics and high-heat materials that ultimately benefit sectors like space travel, computing, and accelerator science. India operates an experimental tokamak fusion device.
Context : The Climate Ambition Summit (CAS) in New York, as part of the United Nations General Assembly, that concluded on September 21, was marked by the absence of major economies whose actions significantly influence the future of global emissions. China, United States and India — who collectively account for about 42% of global greenhouse gas emissions and are the top three emitters in that order — were all absent from the CAS.
What is Climate Ambition summit?
To accelerate action by governments, business, finance, local authorities and civil society, and hear from “first movers and doers,” the United Nations Secretary-General convened a Climate Ambition Summit at United Nations Headquarters in New York on 20 September 2023.
The Summit represents a critical political milestone for demonstrating that there is collective global will to accelerate the pace and scale of a just transition to a more equitable renewable-energy based, climate-resilient global economy.
The main goal is to keep the 1.5°C degree goal of the Paris Agreement alive and deliver climate justice to those on the front lines of the climate crisis.
In the run-up to the summit, about 100 heads of State had written to ramp up action to address the climate crisis. However, only representatives from 34 states and 7 institutions were given the floor on the day of the summit.
The criteria for countries to be considered for a speaking slot at the summit were:
That they would be expected to present updated pre-2030 Nationally Determined Contributions (as agreed in Glasgow);
Updated net-zero targets;
Energy transition plans with commitments to no new coal, oil and gas;
India’s climate commitments: India last updated its climate pledges in 2022 of reducing emissions intensity — or the volume of emissions per unit of gross domestic product (GDP) — by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030, a 10% increase from what it agreed to in 2015.
The government committed to meet 50% of its electric power needs from renewable, non-fossil fuel energy sources — up from 40% committed at the Paris agreement. It assured to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3bn tonnes of CO2-equivalent [GtCO2e] through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. In 2021, Prime Minister Narendra Modi committed to India achieving net zero by 2070.
The scientific assessment is that India’s commitment, alongside similar commitment by G-20 economies are insufficient to keep temperatures from keeping below 2C by the end of the century. However, India’s low per capita emissions and contribution to the carbon already in the atmosphere has led other analysts to suggest that India has committed to “more than its fair share” to keeping to the Paris-agreed limits.
Context: Fossils of a plant-eating dinosaur Tharosaurus indicus from the Middle Jurassic period, found in the Thar desert near the Jaisalmer Basin by the Geological Survey of India.
About Tharosaurus indicus
The name “Tharosaurus indicus” reflects its origin, with “Thar” referring to the Thar Desert and “indicus” indicating its origin in India.
It is a long-necked, plant-eating dinosaur species.
It is characterised by vertebrae with deep, long depressions on the sides and under surface, and split neural spines (top-most parts of the backbone) resembling spikes.
Members of the Dicraeosauridae family of sauropods to which Tharasaurus belongs were not nearly as large. This family was unique: its members were smaller and had shorter necks and tails compared to the other long-necked sauropods.
The fossils of Tharosaurus indicus were found to be around 167 million years old, making them one of the oldest known dicraeosaurids and diplodocoids globally.
The dicraeosaurid dinosaur had previously been found in the North and South Americas, Africa, and China. This is the first instance of such fossils being discovered in India.
Context: The first batch of eight cheetahs from Namibia arrived on September 17, 2022, officially launching Project Cheetah, India’s cheetah introduction programme. An overview of the project as it completes one year.
What is Project Cheetah?
It is an ambitious project to re-establish the species within its historical range in India.
The project hopes to benefit global cheetah conservation efforts by providing up to 100 000 km2 of habitat in legally protected areas and an additional 600 000 km2 of habitable landscape for the species.
Cheetahs fulfil a unique ecological role within the carnivore hierarchy and their restoration is expected to enhance ecosystem health in India. As a charismatic species, the cheetah can also benefit India’s broader conservation goals by improving general protection and ecotourism in areas that have been previously neglected.
Present status:
In total, 20 adult African cheetahs have been imported so far.
So far, only 12 of the 20 cheetahs were ever released into the wild, with a few being brought back multiple times to the Kuno National Park (KNP).
Six of the cheetahs which came from Africa have died.
Why did the cheetahs die?
There have been a variety of reasons and causes attributed to the deaths of the six adults and three cubs. Radio collars are not the underlying reason for the deaths of any of these cats, at least that is the officially stated position.
One needs to determine if the African cheetahs are susceptible to certain insects and parasites in India, and if the collars provide a micro-environment conducive for these to thrive.
Context: A new study co-authored by a climate scientist Johan Rockstrom said that Earth is exceeding its safe operating space for humanity in six of nine key measurements of its health, and two of the remaining three are headed in the wrong direction.
The Study on Planetary Boundaries
The study evaluates the health of the Earth using nine key measurements or boundaries that are critical for the well-being of humanity and the planet.
It proposes a new approach to global sustainability by defining planetary boundaries within which humanity can operate safely.
Transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental- to planetary-scale systems.
Nine Planetary Boundaries
The study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing upon current scientific understanding, it proposes quantifications for seven of them.
Earth System Process
Limit
Implication of Crossing the limit
Climate Change
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere <350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W m-2 in radiative forcing
Loss of polar ice sheets. Regional climate disruptions. Loss of glacial freshwater supplies.Weakening of carbon sinks.
Mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite ≥ 80% of pre-industrial levels
Conversion of coral reefs to algal-dominated systems. Regional elimination of some aragonite- and high- magnesium calcite-forming marine biota.Slow variable affecting marine carbon sink.
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
<5% reduction in O3 concentration from pre-industrial level of 290 Dobson Units
Severe and irreversible UV- B radiation affects human health and ecosystems.
Biogeo-Chemical Flows: interference with P and N cycles
Limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N2 to 35 Tg N yr-1 Annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background weathering of P
P: avoid a major oceanic anoxic event (including regional), with impacts on marine ecosystems. N: slow variable affecting overall resilience of ecosystems via acidification of terrestrial ecosystems and eutrophication of coastal and freshwater systems.
Global Freshwater Use
<4000 km3 yr-1 of consumptive use of runoff resources
Could affect regional climate patterns (e.g., monsoon behavior).Primarily slow variable affecting moisture feedback, biomass production, carbon uptake by terrestrial systems and reducing biodiversity
Land System Change
<15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland
Trigger of irreversible and widespread conversion of biomes to undesired states.Primarily acts as a slow variable affecting carbon storage and resilience via changes in biodiversity and landscape heterogeneity
Rate of Biodiversity Loss
Annual rate of <10 extinctions per million species
Slow variable affecting ecosystem functioning at continental and ocean basin scales.Impact on many other boundaries—C storage, freshwater, N and P cycles, land systems.Massive loss of biodiversity unacceptable for ethical reasons.
Thresholds leading to unacceptable impacts on human health and ecosystem functioning possible but largely unknown.May act as a slow variable undermining resilience and increase risk of crossing other thresholds
Atmospheric Aerosol Loading
To be determined
Disruption of monsoon systems. Human-health effects. Interacts with climate change and freshwater boundaries.
Properties of Proposed Planetary Boundaries
Planetary boundaries are interdependent, because transgressing one may both shift the position of other boundaries or cause them to be transgressed.
The social impacts of transgressing boundaries will be a function of the social–ecological resilience of the affected societies.
The proposed concept of “planetary boundaries” aimed at minimizing negative externalities, toward the estimation of the safe space for human development.
Planetary boundaries define, as it were, the boundaries of the “planetary playing field” for humanity if we want to be sure of avoiding major human-induced environmental change on a global scale.
New Findings on the Planetary Boundaries
Unsafe in Six Areas: According to the study, Earth is exceeding its "safe operating space for humanity" in six out of these nine measurements.
These areas include climate, biodiversity, land use, freshwater resources, nutrient pollution, and the presence of "novel" chemicals (human-made compounds like microplastics and nuclear waste).
Safe in Three Areas (for now): Only three of the nine measurements are currently within the boundaries considered safe.
These areas are the acidity of the oceans, the health of the air, and the state of the ozone layer.
Negative Trends:
The study also indicates that even in the areas considered "safe," namely the oceans and air quality, there are negative trends.
Ocean and air pollution are on the rise, which is a cause for concern.
Updating the Boundaries:
The study is an update from 2015 and introduced a new factor - water quality - to the list of unsafe measurements.
This change was based on worsening river run-off and improved measurements and understanding of the issue.
Global Significance:
The researchers emphasize that these nine factors are critical determinants of the planet's fate.
Their findings underscore the urgent need for global action to address environmental and ecological challenges.
Expert Consensus: The boundaries used in the study are described as "scientifically well established" and have been supported by various outside studies and research.
Context: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) criticized the Madhya Pradesh government for the significant damage to water bodies and issued an order to cease the operation of cruise vessels and other motor-powered boats in the Bhoj wetland. This directive was issued by the Central Zone Bench of the environmental court in response to an application filed last year expressing concern about the deterioration of the wetland, encompassing the Upper Lake and Lower Lake.
About Bhoj wetland:
Location in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh: The Bhoj wetland is a vital ecological site nestled in the heart of Bhopal district in Madhya Pradesh, India.
Historical Origins of the Lakes: This remarkable wetland comprises two interconnected man-made lakes: the Upper Lake and the Lower Lake. The Upper Lake, one of the oldest and most expansive man-made lakes in central India, was ingeniously crafted by King Bhoj during the 11th century. The king achieved this feat by constructing an earthen dam across the Kolans River.
International Recognition under the Ramsar Convention: In 2002, the Bhoj wetland garnered international recognition when it was designated a wetland of global importance under the Ramsar Convention of 1971.
Conservation Efforts and Financing:In 1995, the Madhya Pradesh government undertook a significant conservation project for the wetland, securing funding of Rs 2.5 billion from the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC).
Critical Significance of Bhoj Wetland:
Water Supply: The Bhoj wetland plays a pivotal role in supplying drinking water to approximately 1.2 million people in the region, underscoring its immense significance for the local populace.
Biodiversity Haven: The Upper Lake, also known as Bhojtal, is home to a diverse ecosystem, hosting 15 different fish species and various turtle species. Furthermore, it serves as a vital habitat for approximately 2,500 migratory bird species, making it a crucial breeding and nesting ground for these international avian visitors.
Accessibility: The Bhoj wetland stands out as one of the most accessible Ramsar sites, boasting a road encircling the twin lakes for ease of exploration.
Current Challenges facing Bhoj Wetland:
According to a study conducted by the Environmental Planning and Coordination organization, the Bhoj wetland confronts a dual challenge of deteriorating water quality and reduced storage capacity.
On the urban front, water quality degradation results from the inflow of sewage, nutrients, and toxins originating from the catchment areas. The Upper Lake, in particular, contends with a daily influx of approximately 9.82 million gallons (44 MLD) of sewage.
The majority of the catchment area is rural, primarily devoted to agriculture, where intensive chemical farming practices are commonplace. This leads to the utilization of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which subsequently seep into the lake via streams.
The southwest region bears the brunt of this agricultural runoff, adversely affecting water quality and posing a long-term threat to the wetland's health.
Furthermore, a significant volume of silt flows into the lake from the rural catchment area, exacerbating the conservation challenges faced by the Bhoj wetland.
WWF-India reports that among all ecosystems in India, wetlands face some of the most severe threats. These critical habitats are grappling with a range of challenges, including the loss of vegetation, salinization, excessive inundation, water pollution, invasive species, and unchecked development and road construction.
Wetlands:
Wetland ecosystems hold a unique position as transitional zones, bridging the divide between terrestrial and aquatic environments. They are often referred to as "ecotones," highlighting their role in connecting these two distinct ecological realms.
Understanding Wetlands through Ramsar Convention Definitions:
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands offers a comprehensive definition of wetlands, encompassing various key characteristics:
Marshes, Fens, and Peatlands: Wetlands encompass a diverse range of landscapes, including marshes, fens, and peatlands. These areas may occur naturally or result from artificial interventions.
Temporary or Permanent Nature: Wetlands can exhibit either temporary or permanent characteristics, further illustrating their ecological diversity.
Natural or Artificial Formation: They can arise through natural processes or as a result of human-made alterations to the landscape.
Inclusive of Water Types: Wetlands span a spectrum of water types, embracing freshwater, brackish water, and saltwater environments.
Depth Limits: The depth of marine water within wetlands, at low tide, does not surpass a height of six meters, distinguishing them from deeper aquatic ecosystems.
About Ramsar Convention
‘Promoting the Conservation and Wise Use of Wetlands’:
The Ramsar Convention, a notable international agreement, stands as a staunch advocate for the conservation and prudent utilization of wetlands worldwide. Remarkably, it is the sole global treaty exclusively dedicated to the preservation of a single ecosystem – wetlands.
Inception: This pivotal convention was established on February 2nd, 1971, initiated by UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).
Enactment: It officially came into effect in 1975, with countries around the world recognizing the significance of safeguarding their wetland ecosystems.
India's Commitment: India signed the Ramsar Convention on February 1, 1982, solidifying its dedication to this global cause. There are 75 Ramsar sites in India
World Wetlands Day: An important date in the calendar is February 2nd, celebrated annually as World Wetlands Day to raise awareness about the importance of wetlands.
Three Pillars of Ramsar Convention:
Wise Use: Central to the Ramsar Convention is the concept of "wise use." It advocates for the sustainable utilization of wetlands, balancing human needs with the preservation of ecological integrity.
List of Wetlands of International Importance: Governments commit to this list, designating specific wetlands for international recognition and protection. Inclusion signifies a government's pledge to take measures to uphold the ecological character of these sites.
International Cooperation: Collaboration between nations is a fundamental aspect, emphasizing the importance of working together to conserve wetlands on a global scale.
The Montreux Record
Monitoring Change in Wetlands:
The Montreux Record serves as a register of wetland sites within the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
These sites have either undergone, are undergoing, or are anticipated to experience changes in their ecological character due to factors like technological advancements, pollution, or human interference.
Adopted in Brisbane during the Conference of the Contracting Parties in 1996, the Montreux Record operates as an adjunct to the Montreux Record Operating Guidelines.
This database plays a pivotal role within the Ramsar Convention by continuously monitoring and documenting changes in designated wetland sites, ensuring their protection.
Two prominent Montreux Record sites in India include Loktak Lake in Manipur and Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan.
Chilika Lake, another significant Indian wetland, was added to the Montreux Record in 1993 but later removed from the list in 2002, showcasing the dynamic nature of these designations.
Partners in Conservation
The Ramsar Convention collaborates closely with six distinguished organizations known as International Organization Partners (IOPs), which are:
Birdlife International
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
Wetlands International
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)
International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Criteria for Identifying Wetlands of International Importance:
One of the nine criteria must be fulfilled to be the Ramsar Site.
Introduction to the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017:
The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, have been officially promulgated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), in accordance with the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Defining the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017:
Effective Conservation and Management: These rules are designed to ensure the effective conservation and management of wetlands within India. They represent a substantial update, supplanting the earlier Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules from 2010.
Regulatory Framework: The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, serve as the principal regulatory framework governing the conservation and management of wetlands within the country. Notably, they usher in a shift in wetland management, deviating from a centralized approach towards increased involvement of state-level organizations.
Key Responsibilities: The rules stipulate the advisory role of the National Wetland Committee in overseeing the integrated management of Ramsar Convention areas and providing guidance to state agencies on the concept of "wise use" concerning wetlands.
Guidelines Development: To aid State Governments and Union Territory (UT) Administrations in implementing these rules, comprehensive guidelines have been developed. These guidelines encompass various aspects, including the identification and delineation of wetlands, the creation of lists of regulated and permitted activities, and the structure and operational matters concerning the Wetlands Authority.
Salient Features of the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017:
State Wetland Authority (SWA): These rules mandate the establishment of a State Wetland Authority in each state and union territory, presided over by the state's environment minister. The authority comprises diverse government representatives with expertise in fields such as hydrology, socioeconomics, landscape design, fisheries, and wetland ecology.
Principles of Sustainable Use: The rules introduce the concept of "smart use" as the guiding principle for wetland management. This shift towards sustainable use, acceptable to conservation objectives, is termed "wise use," marking a decentralization of powers.
Comprehensive List of Activities: SWAs are tasked with creating exhaustive lists of activities to be regulated and permitted within notified wetlands and their zones of influence. They are also authorized to add activities that should be prohibited in specific wetlands and develop plans for more efficient wetland utilization.
National Wetland Committee (NWC): Replacing the Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority, the NWC is established, with the MoEFCC secretary leading it.
Prohibited Activities: The rules categorically forbid activities such as encroachment, industrial establishment, waste disposal, and untreated effluent discharge in wetlands.
Inventory Creation: State authorities are required to compile lists of all wetlands and those that need notification within a stipulated timeframe. These lists serve as the basis for the creation of a comprehensive digital inventory of all wetlands, updated every decade.
Centre for Wetland Conservation and Management (CWCM):
Establishment: The CWCM, inaugurated on World Wetland Day in 2021 (February 2, 2021), is an integral component of the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM), based in Chennai, under the purview of the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change.
Primary Objective: The centre is dedicated to the management, restoration, and conservation of India's wetlands. It aims to address knowledge gaps and specific research needs in this field.
Knowledge Sharing:The CWCM facilitates knowledge exchange among State/UT Wetland Authorities, wetland users, managers, academics, policymakers, and practitioners through its knowledge portal.
Networking: It fosters alliances and networks with relevant regional, national, and international organizations and promotes integrated approaches for wetland protection, management, and sustainable utilization.
Support for Government: The CWCM assists governments at various levels in the development and implementation of legislative and policy frameworks, management planning, monitoring, and focused wetlands conservation research.
Gulf of Mexico is listed as one of the 66 Large Marine Ecosystems of the World with high endemism.
Unique fish species found in Gulf of California are Totoaba (Critically Endangered) and Vaquita Porpoise (Critically Endangered).
Reasons for decline in the population of Vaquita Porpoise
Main cause for the decline of population of Vaquita Porpoise is their incidental mortality in gillnets as bycatch.
They are mainly entangled in shrimp gillnets and nets set for totoaba.
Totoaba is a fish similar in size to Vaquita. Value of Totoaba has skyrocketed due to demand in black market for totoaba swim bladers in Hong Kong and China.
Vaquita Porpoise has low reproductive rate and limited geographical distribution which makes it high vulnerable to human disturbances.
Other reasons include increased urbanisation around Gulf of California and increased pollution.
Context: According to the Moroccan Interior Ministry, a massive earthquake that struck central Morocco has resulted in at least 2,122 deaths and 2,421 injuries. Most affected province and cities are Al Haouz province and Taroudant, Agadir, Al Hoceima (Mediterranean port city).
About Morocco
It is a country in the Maghreb Region of Western North Africa that lies directly across the Strait of Gibraltar from Spain.
The Atlas Mountains dominate the central part of the country, while the Rif Mountains make up the northern edge.
The Imperial Cities of Morocco are the four historical capital cities of Morocco: Fez, Marrakesh, Meknes, and Rabat. Rabat is the current capital of Morocco.
Jebel Toubkal is the highest point in Morocco and is also the highest peak of the Atlas Mountains.
The southeastern region of the country is blanketed by the Sahara Desert, the world's third-largest desert.
It is bordered by the two countries of Western Sahara to the south and Algeria to the east. It has coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean Sea to the north.
Berbers or the Berber peoples, also called by their contemporary self-name Amazigh or Imazighen, are a diverse grouping of distinct ethnic groups indigenous to Morocco.
Most of Morocco north of Western Sahara, particularly along the coasts, experiences a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild wet winters and hot dry summers.
A Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta (1333-1347 AD) visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
With its acquisition of Western Sahara, Morocco came to possess some two-thirds of the world’s reserves of phosphates, used for the manufacture of fertilizers and other products.
Cause of earthquake in Morocco
This area is situated along the boundary of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates, where these massive plates interact, leading to the possibility of seismic activity.
Earthquakes in this region result from the northward convergence of the African plate towards the Eurasian plate along a complex plate boundary.
In the case of a particular earthquake in this area, oblique-reverse faulting occurs at shallow depths within the Moroccan High Atlas Mountain range.
North Africa typically experiences infrequent seismic events, resulting in minimal preparedness. The construction of buildings in this region tends to be compact and often does not adhere to earthquake-resistant construction standards.
