GS Paper 1

Oju Hydroelectric Project in Arunachal Pradesh

Context: The Union Environment Ministry has recommended environmental clearance for the Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri River in Arunachal Pradesh. Once operational, it will be the largest hydroelectric project in the Subansiri basin by installed capacity, significantly expanding India’s renewable energy portfolio. However, the project has sparked debates over environmental sustainability, regional biodiversity, and strategic security.

Project Details

The Oju Hydroelectric Project will be developed by Oju Subansiri Hydro Power Corporation Pvt. Ltd., located about 5 km downstream of Redi village in the Taksing block of Arunachal Pradesh.

  • Installed Capacity: 2,220 MW (2,100 MW from the main power plant and 120 MW from the dam-toe plant).
  • Scale: It is expected to be the largest project in the Subansiri basin, surpassing the capacity of other ongoing hydro projects.
  • Strategic Location: The project lies close to the India-China border, giving it geopolitical importance in addition to energy significance.

Concerns and Criticism

  1. Outdated Studies: Environmental groups, particularly from Assam, have pointed out that the Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) and carrying capacity studies for the Subansiri basin were last conducted in 2014. Considering climate change, seismic activity, and increasing hydro pressures, these studies require urgent revision to reflect current realities.
  2. Biodiversity and River Ecology: The Subansiri basin is ecologically sensitive, hosting diverse species of fish and supporting riparian communities in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Multiple hydroelectric projects on the same river may alter river flow, impact sediment transport, reduce fish populations, and threaten local livelihoods.
  3. Geopolitical Sensitivity: Located near the India-China border, the project has strategic value for India’s control over water resources and infrastructure development in frontier areas. However, the ecological fragility of the Himalayas and the seismic risks of dam construction in this region heighten concerns.

Subansiri River: An Overview

The Subansiri River is a trans-Himalayan river that originates in the Tibetan Himalayas and is known locally as the “Gold River” due to the presence of gold dust in its riverbed.

  • It enters India through a deep gorge near Gerukamukh in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • It is the largest right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra River, joining it in Assam’s Lakhimpur district.
  • Major tributaries include the Laro, Nye, Yume, Tsari, Kamla, Jiyadhol, Ranganadi, and Dikrong rivers.
  • The river basin supports agriculture, fishing, and hydropower projects, but faces risks from over-exploitation and frequent floods.

Significance

  • Energy Security: At 2,220 MW, the project will contribute substantially to India’s renewable energy targets under the National Electricity Plan.
  • Regional Development: It promises improved infrastructure, employment opportunities, and potential revenue for Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Strategic Leverage: Hydro projects in border areas strengthen India’s water resource management and presence in geopolitically sensitive zones.

Conclusion

The Oju Hydroelectric Project reflects India’s drive to expand clean energy while strengthening its presence in the Northeast. However, balancing energy needs with ecological sustainability and community welfare is crucial. Updated environmental studies, better disaster preparedness, and active consultation with downstream states like Assam will be essential to ensure that the project contributes to national development without undermining the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.

Dadasaheb Phalke Award

Context: Renowned Malayalam actor Mohanlal is set to receive the prestigious Dadasaheb Phalke Lifetime Achievement Award for the year 2023. It will be presented during the 71th National Film Awards ceremony and he will be the 55th recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dadasaheb Phalke Award.

About Dadasaheb Phalke Award

About Dadasaheb Phalke Award
  • The Dadasaheb Phalke Award was instituted in 1969 in honour of Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, the pioneer of Indian cinema, by the Government of India. 
  • It is India's highest award in the field of cinema.
  • It is presented annually at the National Film Awards ceremony by the Directorate of Film Festivals, an organisation set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
  • The Directorate of Film Festivals in India, established in 1973, is responsible for organizing major film events such as the International Film Festival of India, the National Film Awards, and the Indian Panorama.
  • Based in New Delhi, the organization operates under the works as part of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
  • The recipient is honoured for their ‘great and outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema’ and is selected by a committee consisting of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry.
  • The award comprises a Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus) medallion, a shawl, and a cash prize of Rs. 10 Lakh.  
  • The first recipient of the award was actress Devika Rani (widely acknowledged as the First Lady of Indian cinema), who was honoured at the 17th National Film Awards.

About Dhundiraj Govind Phalke (April 1870 – 16 February 1944): 

About Dhundiraj Govind Phalke
  • He was widely known as Dadasaheb Phalke and is referred to as ‘the Father of Indian cinema.’ 
  • He directed India's first full-length feature film, Raja Harishchandra, which was released in 1913, marking a significant milestone in the history of Indian cinema.
  • Over his 19-year career, from 1913 to 1937, Phalke produced and directed a total of 95 feature films and 27 short films.
  • Some of his most acclaimed works include Mohini Bhasmasur (1913), Satyavan Savitri (1914), Lanka Dahan (1917), Shri Krishna Janma (1918), and Kaliya Mardan (1919).

Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project 

Context: The stalled Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project is under renewed consideration. The Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) of the Environment Ministry is set to review its clearance amidst the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) being in abeyance after the Pahalgam terror attack.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project (HEP). 

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Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project (HEP): 

  • Sawalkote HEP is located on the Chenab River in Jammu & Kashmir.
  • It has a planned installed capacity of 1865 MW (1406 MW in Stage I and 450 MW in Stage II).
  • The project involves a 192.5-metre-high concrete gravity dam with a reservoir capacity of 530 MCM spread over 1,159 hectares.
  • It is officially termed a run-of-river scheme, but experts contest this due to its large reservoir.

Delays surrounding the Project: 

  • Originally conceived in 1984, the project has faced delays due to Centre-State disagreements and restrictions imposed by the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) that limited India’s use of western rivers.
  • In 2017, the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) recommended environmental clearance, but final approval was withheld due to pending forest clearance.
  • After the suspension of the IWT in 2025 following the Pahalgam terror attack, the project was revived as a strategic priority for India.

The government views it as critical for strengthening energy security in Jammu & Kashmir and for enhancing India’s strategic leverage over the Chenab River.

Sarnath: India’s UNESCO Nomination for 2025-26

Context: India has officially nominated Sarnath for the UNESCO World Heritage List (2025-26 cycle) ending its 27-year wait on the tentative list. 

Ahead of a UNESCO team’s visit, the ASI will install a corrected plaque crediting Babu Jagat Singh (1787-88) a local ruler, instead of the British, for the rediscovery of the site. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sarnath.

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Historical and Religious Significance

  • Sarnath is a major Buddhist pilgrimage site where the Gautam Buddha delivered his first sermon around 528 BCE.
  • Located about 10 km from Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
  • It is also the place where the Buddhist sangha (community) was first formed.
  • Ancient texts refer to the place as Mrigadava (Deer Park) or Rishipatana.
  • Emperor Ashoka (268-232 BCE) erected the famous Lion Capital Pillar at Sarnath, now the national emblem of India. He commissioned monastic structures including the Dhamek Stupa, which marks the spot of the first sermon.
  • Later dynasties, including the Kushanas (1st-4th century CE) and the Guptas (3rd-6th century CE) continued to patronise and expand the site.

Decline and Destruction: 

  • Sarnath flourished as a monastic centre until the 12th century CE, after which it was destroyed and abandoned.
  • Historical accounts attribute this decline to invasions by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1193 CE) during Muhammad Ghor’s campaign, when temples and monasteries were sacked.
  • By the 13th century, Sarnath was in ruins coinciding with the decline of Buddhism in India.

Rediscovery and Modern Excavations: 

  • The site was rediscovered in 1787-88 when workers of Jagat Singh, Diwan of Raja Chait Singh of Benares, unearthed Buddhist relics while digging for construction materials.
  • In 1799, the site drew wider attention when Jonathan Duncan, a prominent indologist and founder of the Sanskrit College at Varanasi, described the discoveries in his writings. His account spurred interest among British scholars and laid the foundation for systematic excavations.
  • Alexander Cunningham (1835-36), founder of the Archaeological survey of India (ASI), carried out excavations and confirmed Sarnath as the site of the Buddha’s first sermon.
  • The most significant excavations, however, were carried out in 1904-05. They unearthed over 470 relics and 41 inscriptions giving the site its current archaeological identity.

Contemporary Significance: 

  • Today, Sarnath is recognised as one of the four holiest Buddhist pilgrimage sites, along with Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, and Kushinagara.
  • In 2024-25, over 8.43 lakh visitors visited the site, according to ASI data.
  • Its nomination to the UNESCO World Heritage List underscores India’s efforts to preserve and promote its Buddhist heritage globally.

Denial of Land Inheritance Rights to Tribal Women

Context: The Supreme Court’s judgment in Ram Charan vs Sukhram (July 2025) held that excluding daughters from ancestral property violates the fundamental right to equality. This has brought tribal women’s inheritance rights into sharp focus.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues faced by Women: Land Inheritance Rights 

Land Inheritance Rights of Tribal Women: 

  • Tribals in Scheduled Areas are governed by their customary laws in matters of marriage, succession and adoption. 
  • Despite women contributing more in farms than the men, none of the tribal customary laws prevalent in the Scheduled Five Area States give land inheritance rights to females in ancestral properties. 
  • The consequence is stark landlessness among women. As per the Agriculture Census 2015-16, only 16.7% of Scheduled Tribe women possess land compared to 83.3% of men. 

Reasons for Denial of Land Inheritance Rights to Tribal Women: 

  • Fear of Land Alienation: The belief that if tribal women marry outside their community, inherited land may pass into non-tribal hands.
  • Communitarian Nature of Tribal Land: Tribal land is often perceived as communitarian property, where individual ownership is discouraged, and this argument is used to justify women’s exclusion.

The idea of codifying gender-equal inheritance laws for tribal communities has had a contentious history. The opposing argument is that replacing tribal customs with codified laws would undermine tribal identity. However, it perpetuates systemic gender discrimination and economic marginalisation of women.

Problems with Customary Exclusion: 

  • Denial of land rights undermines women’s economic independence and entrenches cycles of poverty and dependence.
  • It perpetuates patriarchal control over resources and denies women equal status within families and communities.
  • The communitarian ownership argument fails in practice, as proceeds from land sales or acquisitions rarely benefit the village community, instead accruing to male members.
  • Violation of fundamental rights: Denial of inheritance rights violates fundamental rights.
    • Article 14 guarantees equality before law.
    • Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex. 
    • Article 21 guarantee of dignity is compromised when women are deprived of property and economic security.
  • It also contradicts constitutional morality, which demands that customs and traditions must conform to the principles of equality and justice. 

Judicial Interventions: 

  • Madhu Kishwar vs State of Bihar (1996), the SC refrained from striking down tribal succession customs, fearing disruption of settled traditions.
  • Prabha Minz vs Martha Ekka (2022): Jharkhand High Court ruled in favour of Oraon women, and upheld the right of females on inheritance, despite being barred by customary law.
  • Kamala Neti vs Special Land Acquisition Officer (2022): The SC held that a woman belonging to a Scheduled Tribe (ST) is entitled to an equal share in inherited tribal land. The SC urged the Central Government to amend Section 2(2) of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 which expressly exempts tribal women from the scope of the Act. 
  • Ram Charan case (2025), the SC held that excluding daughters from ancestral property violates the fundamental right to equality.

Way Forward

  • Codify Tribal Succession Act that ensures equal inheritance rights for women while being sensitive to tribal socio-cultural contexts. Codification of succession laws on the lines of Hindu and Christian laws would harmonise customary autonomy with constitutional equality.
  • Greater awareness and sensitisation within tribal communities to counter fears of land alienation and to highlight the role of women as equal stakeholders.
  • Continued judicial scrutiny to ensure that customs failing the test of reasonableness and public policy are struck down.

Empowering tribal women through property rights is essential not only for gender justice but also for achieving inclusive tribal development and social justice.

What is Kolhan’s Manki-Munda System?

Context: Adivasis from the Ho tribe staged a protest in Jharkhand’s West Singhbhum district against the Deputy Commissioner (DC) accusing him of interfering with their traditional self-governance system known as Manki-Munda system.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the Manki-Munda system. 

What is the Manki-Munda system?

  • Traditional self-governance mechanism of the Ho tribe in the Kolhan region of Jharkhand. 
  • It is a decentralised system that has existed for centuries, and continues to function alongside the formal administrative apparatus of the state.
  • The Manki-Munda system involves:
    • Hereditary village heads (Mundas) who resolve social and political disputes at a village level. 
    • Higher-level chief (Manki): A cluster of 8-15 villages (called a pir) is headed by a Manki who deals with cases which were unresolved by Mundas.
  • Before colonial times, the Manki and Munda had no responsibilities for revenue or land-related issues. 

British Intervention: 

  • After the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, zamindars began seizing Ho lands to meet revenue demands. 
  • This led to major tribal uprisings such as the Ho revolt (1821-22) and the Kol revolt (1831-32).
  • Unable to suppress the Ho people militarily, the British decided to co-opt their system of governance.

Wilkinson’s Rules (1833):  

  • The British appointed Captain Thomas Wilkinson as their Political Agent in the Kolhan Government Estate (KGE), an administrative unit created in 1837 to control the Ho-dominated region.
  • Wilkinson codified the Manki-Munda system into 31 rules, which became known as Wilkinson’s Rules. This was the first formal codification of any tribal self-governance system in India.
  • The rules recognised Mundas and Mankis as community leaders but turned them into agents of colonial administration.This codification facilitated the integration of Kolhan into British India and allowed the entry of non-tribal settlers (dikkus).
  • It also introduced private property, pattas, and the designation of Ho people as raiyats (tenants).

Post Independence developments:  

  • After 1947, the Kolhan Government Estate was dissolved, but Wilkinson’s Rules continued to operate. Indian courts recognised these rules as customs, even though they were not treated as formal law.
  • In 2021, the Jharkhand government recognised the traditional judicial system known as the Nyaya Panch to work on revenue related activities such as tax collection and reporting of land purchase and sale, maintaining law & order and settlement of disputes.

Issues with the Manki-Munda System

  • Hereditary Succession: The posts of Munda and Manki are hereditary, usually passed from father to son. This restricts opportunities for capable individuals.
  • Lack of Formal Education: Many traditional leaders lack literacy and training needed to manage land records, documents, and modern governance tasks.
  • Absentee Leadership: In several cases, Mundas stay away from villages for long periods, preventing villagers from accessing basic services.
  • Tensions with Non-Tribal Communities: Non-tribal groups such as Scheduled Castes and OBCs residing in Ho-dominated villages have complained of discrimination and restrictions on their livelihoods.
  • Vacant Posts: Out of around 1,850 sanctioned posts of Mankis and Mundas in West Singhbhum, nearly 200 are vacant, which hampers effective governance at the grassroots level.
  • Limited Understanding of Rules: Most leaders do not fully understand Wilkinson’s Rules or the 1837 Hukuknama, which complicates dispute resolution.
  • Dependence on state officials: Villagers often bypass Mankis and Mundas and approach the Deputy Commissioner, reducing the authority of the system.

There is a section of the Ho community, especially the youth, who want reforms to the Manki-Munda system.

The current conflict

  • In response to the complaints against Mundas and Manki, the district administration issued a nine-point directive reminding Mundas of their duties under the 1837 Hukuknama.
  • However, this was misinterpreted as interference which sparked rumours and protests. The officials have clarified that customary laws remain untouched.

Erra Matti Dibbalu

Context: Erra Matti Dibbalu or red sand dunes in Visakhapatnam have been included in the UNESCO Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Erra Matti Dibbalu. 

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Erra Matti Dibbalu: 

  • Erra Matti Dibbalu, also called Red Sand Hills, are unique red sand formations near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
  • The formations belong to the late Quaternary period (50,000-20,000 years ago). They preserve records of ancient climate changes, monsoon patterns, and sea-level rise and fall.
  • The dunes stand 10-30 feet high and have a bright rusty-red colour due to ferrous minerals oxidising (rusting) over time.
  • Such red sand dunes are very rare and found only in three places in the world: Visakhapatnam, Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka.
  • Stone tools and pottery from microlithic, mesolithic, and paleolithic periods have been found here, showing that early humans lived in this region.
  • It was declared as a Geo-Heritage site in 2014 by the Geological Survey of India.

Erra Matti Dibbalu qualifies under UNESCO Criterion (viii) for representing exceptional records of Earth’s geomorphological and environmental history.

Swami Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to West

Context: Swami Vivekananda delivered his iconic speech on Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago on September 11, 1893. This historic address marked his introduction of Vedanta, Hinduism and Indian spirituality to the Western world. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Swami Vivekananda; Vedanta Philosophy. Mains: Relevance of Swami Vivekananda’s ideals in the modern world.  

Swami Vivekananda, born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, spiritual leader, and advocate of Vedanta philosophy in India.

Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago: 

  • The 1893 World's Parliament of Religions marks the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. It was an attempt to create a global dialogue of faiths. 
  • In a landmark speech on September 11, 1893, 30-year-old Vivekananda preached about religious tolerance and called for an end to fanaticism. 
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Swami Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to West: 

  • He presented Vedanta (philosophical position of radical non-dualism) as an inclusive, universal religion.
  • His speech helped spread the ideals of Vedanta, Hinduism and Indian spirituality to the Western world. They included:
    • importance of tolerance and acceptance of different religious beliefs.  
    • idea that all religions ultimately lead to the same truth.
    • need for harmonious co-existence of different faiths.
    • importance of recognising the divinity within each individual.
  • He highlighted the need for a balanced synthesis of Eastern spiritualism and Western materialism to foster global happiness and progress.
  • His teachings also popularised the practice of meditation and Hatha Yoga (now known only as yoga) in the West. 

What is Vedanta Philosophy?

  • The term Vedanta literally means the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas. Vedanta is one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. 
  • The roots of the Vedanta philosophy are in the Upanishads (which were elaborations of the Vedas), and to the school that arose out of the study (mimamsa) of the Upanishads. 
  • There arethree main concepts in Vedanta:
    • Brahman or Ishvara which is the ultimate reality. 
    • Atman or the individual souls. 
    • Prakriti or the physical world. 
  • Three fundamental Vedanta texts:
    • Upanishads (Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, and Katha)
    • Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras): brief interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads. 
    • Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord).

Various Schools of Thought: 

When it comes to the relationship between the three concepts (Brahman, Atman and Prakriti), there are many schools of thought. 

  • Advaita Vedanta: Brahman and Atman are one and the same. It believes that all souls across space and time are one entity. It rejects rituals and advocates renunciation. The prominent teachers were Gaudapada (500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE).
  • Dvaita Vedanta: Brahman and Atman are always totally different from each other. This is the opposite of Advaita. The most important philosopher was Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE).
  • Vishishita Advaita Vedanta: Atman is different from the Brahman though connected to it as its root. The most famous philosopher was Ramanuja (1017-1137 CE), who stressed the importance of bhakti (devotion) to a personal god. 
  • Neo-Vedanta (19th century): Combined Vedantic thoughts with nationalism. This school maintains that different schools of Vedanta are all different interpretations of a single truth. Prominent thinkers of this school include- Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo.

Also Read: Swami Vivekananda

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

Context: India will host its first-ever international conference on Manuscript Heritage from 11 to 13 September at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi. The scholars from around the world will also present their work on the Harappan Script.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Indus Valley Civilisation and Indus Valley Script. 

First Global Conference on Manuscript Heritage

  • Hosted by: Ministry of Culture
  • Title: Reclaiming India's Knowledge Legacy Through Manuscript Heritage 
  • The event aims to bring global attention to India’s vast and diverse manuscript tradition.

India is home to more than 10 million manuscripts in various languages and subjects such as philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, rituals, and literature. 

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

  • In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Bronze Age culture or Harappan Civilization that thrived in the Indus Valley between c. 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE. 
  • The Harappan script, and the underlying language spoken by Harappans spoke are still undeciphered more than a century after the discovery. 
  • Various interpretations exist about the underlying language represented by the Harappan script. It has been claimed to be Sanskrit; a form of proto-Dravidian; and even Ho and Santali. However, such claims are often made with scant evidence. 

The Challenge to Decipher a Script: 

To decipher a script, the following subproblems have to be solved in order.

  • Deciding if a set of symbols actually represent a writing system
  • Devising appropriate procedures to isolate or segment the stream of symbols into a sequence of single signs 
  • Reducing the set of signs to the minimal set for the writing system forming (its alphabet, syllabary, or inventory of signs) by identifying all allographs (the same sign written in a variant form, for example a printed ‘a’ and a cursive ‘a’) 
  • Assigning to each symbol their specified value, whether phonetic or otherwise
  • Trying to match these values to a specific language.

Associated Challenges in Indus Script: 

In the case of the Indus script, many of these problems remain unsolved due to three main reasons.

  • Absence of Multilingual Inscriptions: The most helpful tool to decipher an unknown script is parallel or bilingual inscription (by direct comparison with other known scripts). Though the Indus Valley Civilisation had robust trade links with the contemporary Mesopotamian Civilisation, no multilingual inscriptions have been discovered so far.
  • Language Not Known: Harappan script falls in the category of “unknown script written in an unknown language”. This makes it the most challenging to decipher as there are no familiar points of reference, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs (unknown script but known language family). 
  • Limited Knowledge of Civilisation: In comparison to contemporaneous ancient civilisations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, much less is known in general about the Harappan civilisation. Although some 3500 Harappan seals have been identified, as each seal has on average only 5 characters inscribed, there is not enough material to analyse.  
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Key features of Indus Valley Script: 

  • Short inscriptions: Indus inscriptions are very short with only about 5 characters on average, with the longest having only 26 characters.
  • Boustrophedon script i.e., it is written from right to left on one line and then from left to right in the next line. 
  • Pictographic script: The script is not alphabetical. There are about 250 to 400 pictographs in the form of a picture; each letter stands for some sound, idea, or object. 

Also Read: Gyan Bharatam Mission: Mission for Manuscript Conservation

Onam: Kerala’s Harvest Festival

Context: Recently, Onam, the significant harvest festival of Kerala, was celebrated with grandeur and devotion. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Onam. 

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About Onam

  • Onam is a ten-day festival celebrated to honour the return of the legendary King Mahabali to Earth (once a year) to visit his people. 
  • The festival also signifies the end of the monsoon and the start of the harvest season.

Rituals and Celebrations:

  • People worship King Mahabali and Lord Vamana and pray for the health and longevity of their close ones. On Thiruvonam (the last day of the festival), King Mahabali visits the earth. 
  • Onam is observed with a range of traditional dance performances such as:
    • Thiruvathira Kali (Kaikottikali dance)
    • Pulikali (tiger dance)
    • Kathakali dance
  • Onam Sadya (a platter of traditional local cuisine) is prepared and served to family members and guests. 
  • Pookalams (intricate flower designs) are made in households across the state.  stunning Snake Boat Race, and unique Kaikottikali dance. 
  • On the Pamba River, the renowned Aranmula Vallamkali (snake boat race competition) is organised.

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Context: A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. The quake originated at a shallow depth of 8 km, making the surface shaking extremely intense and destructive.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

The region has experienced devastating earthquakes in the past :

  • 2001 Bhuj Earthquake (India)
  • 2005 Earthquake (Pakistan-administered Kashmir)
  • 2015 Hindu Kush Earthquake (Afghanistan)
  • 2023 Herat Earthquake (Afghanistan)
  • 2025 Afghanistan
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Reasons for frequent Earthquakes in the Region: 

  • Tectonic Stress: The region lies on the collision boundary of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is moving northward at about 5 cm per year, colliding with the Eurasian Plate. This tectonic stress causes frequent earthquakes along active fault lines, especially in the Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains. 
  • Delamination of Indian Plate: Recent studies reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, with the lower part detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle (a process called delamination). In the Himalayan collision zone, delamination results in fractures that increase stress in the Earth’s crust, raising the likelihood of seismic events. 
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  • Active Fault Lines: Presence of major faults like the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Chaman Fault (Pakistan-Afghanistan border), and Karakoram Fault. Sudden slip along these faults releases massive seismic energy.
  • Geological and Topographical Factors: Young fold mountains (Himalayas & Hindu Kush) are geologically unstable and continue to deform under tectonic pressure. The presence of steep slopes, deep valleys, and thick sedimentary deposits amplifies seismic waves. Plains such as the Indo-Gangetic basin are prone to soil liquefaction during major tremors.
  • Role of Climate Change: Rising global temperatures are causing accelerated glacier melt in the Himalayas, with up to 80% of glaciers projected to disappear by 2100. The loss of glacial weight leads to isostatic rebound, which shifts the earth’s crust and triggers quakes. Meltwater seeps into the ground, reducing friction along fault lines, thereby making slippage more likely.

Thus, while tectonics remain the primary driver, climate change acts as a risk multiplier.

NGO Educate Girls wins Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025

Context: Educate Girls, an Indian non-profit organisation working to educate unprivileged girls across the country, has been named as one of the three winners of the Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025.

Ramon Magsaysay Award 2025

  • Educate Girls is the first Indian organisation to win the Ramon Magsaysay Award.
  • The other awardees are Shaahina Ali from the Maldives (an environmental activist) and Flaviano Antonio L. Villanueva from the Philippines (a human rights defender).
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About Educate Girls (NGO)

  • Educate Girls (Foundation to Educate Girls Globally) is a leading Indian non-profit organisation working towards bridging gender gaps in education.
  • It was founded in 2007 by Safeena Husain. 
  • Its core mission is to identify out-of-school girls, enrol them into classrooms, ensure their continued education and improve learning outcomes.
  • The NGO adopts a community-driven model by mobilising local volunteers such as Team Balika and Preraks, who act as change agents within their villages.
  • The organisation emphasises that investing in girls’ education creates a multiplier effect- improving health outcomes, delaying early marriages, enhancing incomes, and transforming communities.
  • It began its work in Rajasthan (one of the states with the highest gender disparity in education), and later scaled operations to states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. It has succeeded in bringing millions of girls back to school, while simultaneously changing community mindsets around girls’ education and gender roles.
  • In recognition of its transformative work, Educate Girls became the first Indian non-profit organisation to receive the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay Award in 2025.
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About Ramon Magsaysay Award

  • The Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in 1958 in memory of Ramon Magsaysay, the seventh President of the Philippines.
  • It is considered Asia’s most prestigious prize and is often referred to as Asia’s Nobel Prize.
  • The award celebrates greatness of spirit and transformative leadership in Asia.
  • The Ramon Magsaysay Award for Emergent Leadership is conferred to outstanding young individuals who are 40 years old or below, and to organisations not more than 10 years old that are engaged in exceptionally worthy work. It is supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation.

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