GS Paper 1

Boosting Production of Pulses

Context: India has been facing a problem of persistent shortage in pulses production which is about to worsen with the significant fall in output during the 2023-24 crop year.

As a result, inflation in pulses has gained momentum. The persistent deficit in domestic production and the consequent rise in prices are making pulses unaffordable for the poor.

About Pulses in India

  • India is the world’s largest producer of pulses with 23 million tonnes from an acreage of 30 million hectares. 
  • The country accounts for 35% of global area and 27% of global production. 
  • Pulses are commonly grown under rainfed condition all over India (77% rainfed) during two principal seasons of the year, namely, kharif rainy season.

Production of Pulses

  • Top Pulses: Top six pulses grown in India are chickpeas (chana), pigeon pea (Arhar/tur dal), urad beans (urad dal), mung beans (moong), lentils (masoor) and peas.
  • Top States: Production of pulses has largely shifted from northern India to central and southern parts. More than 90% of total pulses production is realised in 10 states namely, MP, Rajasthan, UP, Karnataka, AP, Gujarat, Jharkhand, CG and Telangana.

Challenges With Respect to Pulses

  • Shifting Cropping Pattern: There has been a significant shift in cropping pattern from cereal-pulse to cereal-cereal, particularly in irrigated areas across the country. This sluggish growth in production since the 1960s has reduced the per-capita availability of pulses from about 25 kg (1961) to 16 kg (2021).
  • Rainfed Agricultural Practices: The extent of area irrigated for sugarcane, wheat and rice stood at 96%, 95% and 65%, respectively, while that of pulses is only about 23%. As a result, the yields and output of pulses have remained low.
  • Post-Harvest Losses: Pulses are vulnerable to post harvest loss which has been estimated to be about 20%-30% of traditional dal mills resulting in low dal recovery etc.
  • Demand-Supply Mismatch: As highlighted in Household Consumer Expenditure Survey (HCES) data for 2022-23, rising incomes and fall in poverty combined with greater health consciousness, the demand for pulses has run ahead of production.
  • Net Importer: The domestic production of pulses, despite a significant increase during the past decade (from 171 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 234 lakh tonnes in 2023-24) continues to lag demand. As a result, India has remained dependent on pulses imports (averaging 25 lakh tonnes per annum during the last five years) to meet domestic consumption demand. Therefore, India accounts for 25% import of pulses across the world. 
  • Limited Import Sources: The scope for augmenting supplies of pulses through imports in the short-term is limited as India is the largest producer as well as consumer of pulses in the world. Prices in pulses exporting countries are influenced by the shortages in India and hence imports may become much costlier than the domestically produced pulses.
  • Low Value Addition: Despite India being the largest pulse producer globally, value addition is low. Currently, only 20% of pulses undergo processing, compared to the global average of 80%.

Government Initiatives

  • National Food Security Mission (NFSM)- Pulses: Aims to Increase Pulses production by 3 Million tonnes
  • Increase in MSP
  • Price Support Scheme (PSS) under PM-AASHA
  • Creation of Buffer Stock of Pulses by NAFED.
  • Price Stabilisation Fund Scheme to check volatility in the prices.

Way Forward

Pulses are an indispensable part of the Indian food basket both among the rich and the poor alike. While a number of steps have been taken by the government to augment open market supplies in the short-term with imports and limitations on stock-holding, it is imperative to raise production in the long-run.

  • Changing Cropping Pattern:
    • Bridge the yield gap between Pulses and other cereal crops to incentivise farmers to take up pulses production.
    • Diversification: Replacement of less remunerative crops with pulses.
    • Promotion of inter-cropping.
    • Utilisation of potential areas of rice-fallow lands: About 30-40% of the area currently left fallow after paddy harvest can be converted into productive farmlands; Additional 3 Mha of pulses and 1 Mha of oilseeds can be brought under cultivation through "Targeting Rice Fallow areas" sub-scheme under RKVY.
  • Increasing Productivity:
    • Bringing down duration of pulse crops through technological interventions: There is an urgent need to expand pulses production through development and cultivation of high-yielding varieties disease-resistant varieties through genomic technologies is pivotal.
    • Redesign of NFSM-Pulses: Two categories of districts for coverage under NFSM for pulses - NFSM Pulses for general districts and NFSM Pulses+ for districts where yield levels are lower than state/national averages.
    • Investing in bio-fortification programmes, like HarvestPlus’ iron-enriched lentil varieties, will address nutritional deficiencies, notably of iron which affects 53% of Indian women (NFHS-5, 2019-21).
  • Increasing Farmers’ Income:
    • In addition, it is essential to enhance post-harvest management and direct market linkages to ensure remunerative prices for farmers.
    • Promoting Value Addition: The sector needs to invest in modern processing facilities and foster new product innovation. From pulse flours and protein concentrates to ready-to-eat meals and snacks, catering to diverse consumer segments creates exciting avenues for growth. Strategic branding can elevate pulses from staple commodities to premium health foods, both domestically and internationally. 
    • Additionally, climate-resilient agronomic practices such as drip irrigation, which reduces water use by 40-50% and increases yields by 20-30% (World Bank, 2022), are essential for mitigating risks and optimising resource utilisation. 
  • Promoting Awareness:
    • Cultivation of pulses can promote sustainable agriculture by enriching soil fertility and conserving water, with minimal irrigation and short crop duration. Towards this, the agricultural extension system needs to create awareness among the farmers regarding the positive externalities of pulses cultivation.
    • A Pulses Board can play a crucial role in promoting the crop through consumer awareness campaigns and market linkages, working along with NAFED and NCCF.

Conclusion

  • By embracing a holistic demand-driven strategy that addresses both production and market-side challenges, India’s pulses sector can overcome its hurdles and grow. Doing this will help India augment domestic production to reduce dependence on imports and achieve atmanirbhar or self-sufficiency in pulses by 2027.

Caste and Urbanisation

Context: While transition to city life might have weakened some structures of caste oppression, they have morphed through language, state sanction and policy, and have evolved to allow caste to thrive in Indian cities.

About Caste and Urbanization

image 45

Views on village life: 

  • Mahatma Gandhi saw the Indian village as a self-reliant, equitable and just non-violent order, and argued for the decentralisation of power to the villages through Gram Swaraj.
  • B.R. Ambedkar rejected village life and encouraged Dalits to move to the city. 
    • Ambedkar said that an Indian village is “the working plant of the Hindu social order” and argued that it is the ideal place to understand caste. 
    • Ambedkar believed that the idealisation of Indian village life emerged either from the colonial romanticisation of the rural population or from the desire of Hindus to retain caste domination.
    • In the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar opposed the idea that villages should be recognised as autonomous administrative units and felt relieved that the Assembly rejected the idea.

Views on Urbanisation 

  • Ambedkar: In the process of urbanisation, Ambedkar saw an opportunity for Dalit liberation. He believed that the systems of caste oppression that thrive in Indian villages become weaker in cities. These included segregation of Dalits into ghettos, restrictions on economic activities, and denial of land ownership. 
  • Jyotirao Phule: He had also admired city life for being liberal and enabling him to earn a living. Cities offer an opportunity to become a stranger among a sea of strangers and transition from a caste-based order to a class-based order. One defined not by genealogy but by accumulation of resources or capital. 

Caste discrimination in urban India: 

  • Language of purity-pollution: Caste translates into a city’s spatiality through the language of ‘purity-pollution’. A consumer survey in 2021 revealed that eating non-vegetarian food is the biggest deal-breaker in finding rental housing in India. 
    • Gopal Guru (Indian political scientist) says that the ghetto is not merely a space but also forms the constitution of the body of the ghetto dweller. The language of purity-pollution that identifies the savarna space as ‘pure’ and one that can be polluted by the Dalit body, extends to the logic of the city. 
    • Example: The language of caste has been imposed on public spaces of the city by various governments. In March 2017, the Uttar Pradesh government, issued regulations for meat shops that included, for example, a ban on selling meat near religious places and black paint or curtains in the facade of the shop to hide the sight of meat from pedestrians. In 2021, several municipal corporations in Gujarat banned the sale of meat-based street food on the city’s main roads citing “religious sentiments”. 
  • Ghettoisation of caste: Urban governance policies and housing crises have also sustained caste-based segregation.
    • A large-scale study found that public services and access to municipal infrastructure such as clean drinking water are the worst in Dalit and Muslim ghettos. 
    • Research in sacrifice zones regions marked for severe environmental pollution such as landfills shows that such areas are overwhelmingly inhabited by Dalits and Muslims. 
    • A recent report by the Housing and Land Rights Network on forced evictions in India also shows that Dalits and Muslims are the most impacted by slum demolition drives.
  • Apartmentisation: In some cities, caste discrimination still affects how people live. For example, in residential areas, Dalits often have separate access to facilities like elevators and toilets. Domestic workers who live with their employers usually have small rooms and bathrooms, or just a bed in a corner. Sometimes, they even have their own separate entrances.
  • Employment opportunities: OBCs and SCs end up working in the informal sector due to a combination of limited job options and societal pressures linked to caste. E.g. Some occupations are linked to caste such as manual scavenging.
  • Economic discrimination and school choice: Lower castes often face economic hardship, making private schools with higher fees out of reach. This limits their access to potentially better educational resources.
    • Students from backward castes might be ostracized by classmates or teachers due to their caste background. e.g. Dalit students shunned during midday meals in Gujarat’s Morbi district.
  • Caste based matrimonial: In urban areas, caste-based matrimonial practices such as Rajput matrimony, Baniya Matrimony contribute significantly to sustaining caste discrimination, despite the modern and cosmopolitan facade of cities. Such matrimonial preferences reinforce caste identities and boundaries, limiting social interaction and integration across different caste groups. This perpetuation of caste lines through marriage not only entrenches social and economic inequalities but also normalizes the preference for intra-caste relationships, thereby obstructing efforts towards social cohesion.

Way forward to deal with caste discrimination: 

  • Economic empowerment: Provide more economic opportunities, fair employment practices and skill development programs to uplift marginalized caste communities in urban areas.
  • Housing policies: Develop housing policies that promote mixed-caste neighbourhoods and discourage segregation based on caste.
  • Social inclusion initiatives: Support community-led initiatives that foster social cohesion and inclusion, including inter-caste dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and community-building activities.
  • Promote inter-caste interactions: Platforms can encourage users to connect with potential partners from different castes.
  • Tenant support services: Establish tenant support services to assist those facing caste discrimination in finding housing and enforcing their rights.

History of Sulthan Bathery

Context: Sulthan Bathery in Wayanad, Kerala, is home to a temple that was partly destroyed by Tipu Sultan and used as a store for arms in the 1700s. There have been political debates going on regarding the question of changing its name to Ganapathyvattam.

About Ganapathyvattam temple: 

image 28
  • Sulthan Bathery has a Jain stone temple that was once known as Ganapathyvattam.
    • Built in the Vijayanagara architectural style was constructed by Jains who migrated to Wayanad from areas in present-day Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the 13th century.
    • The temple was partly destroyed during the invasions of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore in the second half of the 18th century.
    • The temple is part of the Jain circuit of Kerala. 
    • Presently, it is under Archaeological Survey of India as a monument of national importance.

7IOHoHEz0QCAc2JEd7 v5gZvutPWf04YN0bThfry3BzAXD8YwNfyOoc2vkpuxM8Gqi Lyy2rOiYDqd ig L8VCu50jEajSAtyQ DCgGFnACf2igBkboafwF95rgs7Dte9tWqo3NtKFl2 LFU3kdhVw

  • The erstwhile Hindu temple: 
    • During the time of Kulashekara (an Indian dynasty ruling over parts of Kerala from 9th to 12th century), the Ganapathyvattam temple was situated here.
    • There are beliefs that the kings of Purakizha completed the construction of the temple.
    • Later, the temple came under the rulers of Kottayam. 
    • Tipu destroyed the Temple and used the stones for building a Fort.
    • The remains or site of this fort does not exist now. 
    • Chief deity: Ganapathi (Lord Ganesh)
    • Other deities: Baghavathi, Ayyappan, Nagaraja and Shiva.

History of Sultan Bathery: 

  • 930 AD: ruler Erayappa of the Ganga dynasty led his troops to the south-west of Mysore and, after conquering it, called it Bayalnad, meaning the land of swamps.
  • 12th century AD: The Ganga dynasty was dethroned by the Kadamba dynasty of North Canara.
  • 1104 AD: Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala invaded Bayalnad followed by the Vijayanagara dynasty in the 16th century.
  • 1610 AD: Udaiyar Raja Wadiyar of Mysore drove out Vijayanagara and became the ruler of Bayalnad. 
  • Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan: 
    • Between 1750 and 1790, northern Kerala was invaded several times by the rulers of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu.
    • The armies of Tipu destroyed temples and churches. 
    • Tipu Sultan used the Maha Ganapathy temple in Sulthan Bathery as a battery or store for weapons for his army in the Malabar region.
    • This led to the British recording Ganapathyvattam as Tipu Sultan’s Battery, and the name survived as Sulthan Bathery.
  • Under British rule:
    • East India Company (EIC) seized Wayanad from Pazhassi Raja.
    • EIC administered the district until it was superseded by the British Raj in 1858.

About Mysore Kingdom: 

  • Independent state created as a result of the Mughal Empire’s fall.
  • Wadiyars were in charge of this region. 
  • Became a never-ending battleground as a result of several powers’ interest in this land.
  • Haider Ali gained control over the state.

Haider Ali: 

  • Nanjaraj (the sarvadhikari) and Devaraj Dulwai), reduced Krishnaraja Wadiyar to the status of a puppet.
  • Under the leadership of the ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj, Haidar Ali began his career in the Mysore army.
  • Introduced Western training techniques for his army.
  • Enlisted assistance from the French to establish a weapons factory in Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu).
  • Involved in the First and Second Carnatic Wars in South India. 
  • Mysore sided with the French in the Carnatic Wars.
  • Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English formed an alliance against Haider Ali, the king of Mysore, in the first Anglo-Mysore war (1767–69). English had to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769.
  • Treaty of Mangalore, signed in 1784: ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784).
  • Tipu Sultan succeeded his father Haider Ali after his death.

About Tipu Sultan: 

  • Last Muslim ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. 
  • Navy:
    • Defeat in the Third Anglo-Mysore War convinced Tipu to take measures to build a navy.
    • Issued a Hukmnanah (ordinance) in 1796 for a strong naval force.
    • The Navy was put under command of 11 Mir Yam (Lords of Admiralty), with headquarters at Seringapatam.
    • Naval divisions or Kachehris at Jamalabad (Mangalore), Wajidabad and Majidabad.
  • Ammunitions: munitions industry in Nagar, which were regarded as equal in quality to those produced in Europe.
  • Rocket technology: Pioneer of rocket technology; expanded iron cased Mysorean rockets; commissioned a military manual Fathul Mujahidin. 
  • Economy:
    • Attempted to revive commerce and forged commercial linkages with other parts of India and West Asia
    • Built a public sector company with state finance. 
    • He introduced sericulture. 
    • Member of the Jacobin club; planted a liberty tree at Seringapatam.
  • Agriculture and Revenue Settlement:
    • Modified land revenue management.
    • Laid down rules for distribution of arable land among old and new ryots;
    • Preference given to hereditary ownership of land and rent was fixed.
    • These became the basis for the Ryotwari Settlement introduced by the East India Company in South India.
    • Captain Alexander Read first introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Baramahal district surrendered by Tipu after his defeat in 1792.
  • Calendar: Introduced a new calendar in 1784; known as Mauludi Era and had 354 days; first year from the year of birth of Prophet Muhammad.
  • Administrative innovations: a new coinage system.
  • Deployed rockets during Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Seringapatam.
  • Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92): Defeated by EIC and the Treaty Seringapatam was concluded. Under the treaty, Tipu lost half of Mysore’s territory.
  • Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799): conclusive; led to the fall of Seringapatam. English chose a Hindu boy from the earlier ruling royal family i.e., Wadiyars, as the Maharaja and imposed subsidiary alliance on him.

Bose, Barkatullah, a history of Indian governments before freedom

Context: Recent political discussions have focused on the establishment of the Provisional Government in 1943 by Subash Chandra Bose, which marked a significant moment in India's political history.

Azad Hind government: 

  • Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) in Singapore on October 21, 1943.
    • Bose was the Head of State of this provisional government, and held the foreign affairs and war portfolios.
    • A. C. Chatterjee was in charge of finance, S. A. Ayer became minister of publicity and propaganda, and Lakshmi Swaminathan was given the ministry of women’s affairs. 
  • A number of officers from Bose’s Azad Hind Fauj were also given cabinet posts.
  • The Azad Hind government claimed authority over all Indian civilian and military personnel in Britain’s Southeast Asian colonies (primarily Burma, Singapore, and Malaya) which had fallen into Japanese hands during World War II.
  • To give legitimacy to his government, Bose chose the Andamans. The Azad Hind government obtained de jure control over a piece of Indian territory when the Japanese handed over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 1943, though de facto military control was not relinquished by the Japanese admiralty. 
  • The government also handed out citizenship to Indians living in Southeast Asia, and 30,000 expatriates pledged allegiance to it in Malaya alone.
  • Diplomatically, Bose’s government was recognised by the Axis powers and their satellites: Germany, Japan, and Italy, as well as Nazi and Japanese puppet states in Croatia, China, Thailand, Burma, Manchuria, and the Philippines.
  • Immediately after its formation, the Azad Hind government declared war on Britain and the United States.

Other provisional governments: 

  • In 1915, the Provisional Government of India was formed in Kabul by a group known as the Indian Independence Committee (IIC).

Note:

  • The Berlin Committee, later known as the Indian Independence Committee after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country.
  • The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of Indian Independence. 
  • Members: Virendranath Chattopadhyaya,Chempakaraman Pillai, Jnanendra Das Gupta, and Abinash Bhattacharya.
  • During World War I, Indian nationalists abroad (mostly in Germany and the US), as well as revolutionaries, attempted to further the cause of Indian independence with aid from the Central Powers.
  • The IIC, with the help of the Ottoman Caliph and the Germans, tried to bring insurrection in India, mainly among Muslim tribes in Kashmir and the British India’s northwestern frontier.
  • IIC established a government-in-exile in Kabul under the presidency of Raja Mahendra Pratap, and prime minister ship of Maulana Barkatullah, revolutionary freedom fighters. 

For more information, follow the links:

Garudan Thookkam

Context: Devotees at the Sarkara Devi Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, participated in the ‘Garudan Thookkam’, which is a ritual art form. 

About Garudan Thookkam: 

image 25
  • Garudan Thookam (Eagle Hanging) is a form of dance art performed popularly in some Bhadrakali (Goddess Kali) temples in central Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Performance of the ritual art form: 

  • The performers dress up as Garuda by wearing vibrant costumes, and headgear along with make-up.
  • Pattuvaal, Njori, Kacha, Mundi, Astimala (garlands made from the wood of Mango Tree), Chiraku (wings), Uttareeyam (upper garment), Kireedam (crown) are some of the elements used in the costume of Garuda.
  • Traditional musical instruments are employed during the performance:
    • Chenda: cylindrical percussion instrument originating in the state of Kerala);
    • Elathalam: metallic musical instrument which resembles a miniature pair of cymbals; this instrument from Kerala in southern India is completely made out of bronze and has two pieces in it;
    • Kombu/Kompu/Kombu Pattu: a wind instrument in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. 
  • Performance includes 18 Thalavattam (rhythmic patterns).
  • The whole ritual is performed colourfully with these Garudas taken in a procession on bullock carts or boats or hand-pulled carts.
  • Legend: 
    • As per the Hindu mythology, Goddess Kali, after killing the demon king Darika in a fiercely-fought battle, was insatiable and thirsty.
    • At this time, Lord Vishnu sent his Vahana Garuda to Kali to quench her thirst.
    • The dancing and bleeding Garuda is taken to Kali who is pacified after consuming his blood. 
image 26

About Sarkara Devi Temple: 

  • Situated: Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 
  • Main deity: Bhadrakali (Goddess Durga).
  • Historically important due to the introduction of the famous Kaliyoot festival by Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, the Travancore sovereign, in 1748.
  • Another festival, Meena Bharani mahotsavam, is conducted for ten days in the month of March-April every year.
  • Architecture: 
    • Sanctum Sanctorum is a two storied rectangular structure.
    • Roof is polished with bronze.
    • Second storey is decorated with sculptures of Lord Krishna, Lord Rama, Durga, Lord Ganapathy, Lord Vishnu, Narasimhamoorthi and several other deities.

Lavender

Context: Lavender turned small farmers into big businessmen in J-K’s Doda.

Lavender Cultivation

Lavender Cultivation
  • The Union Ministry of Science and Technology initiated the Purple or Lavender Revolution through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research's (CSIR) Aroma Mission.
    • The revolution as well as the mission aimed to increase lavender planting in Jammu and Kashmir. 
    • The goal was to take advantage of the location's assets in order to boost the homegrown market and farmers' revenue.

CSIR AROMA MISSION

  • The CSIR Aroma Mission aims to bring about transformational change in the aroma sector by implementing targeted interventions in agricultural, processing, and product development in order to boost the aroma industry's growth and rural employment.
  • The mission will encourage the development of aromatic crops for the production of essential oils, which are in high demand in the aroma sector. 
  • Within the ambit of this mission, it is anticipated that Indian farmers and the aroma business will be able to become worldwide leaders in the production and export of various essential oils in the menthol mint pattern.
  • CSIR assisted in the cultivation of 6000 hectares of land in 46 Aspirational districts across the country during Phase I.
  •  In addition, almost 44,000 employees were trained. 
  • The CSIR has started Phase-II of the Aroma Mission, which will include over 45,000 skilled human resources and help over 75,000 farming families.

Lavender

  • Lavender (Lavandula) is a flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae) known for its fragrant aroma, beautiful flowers, and various uses in culinary, medicinal, and ornamental applications.
  • It is native to the Old World, primarily found across the drier, warmer regions of mainland Eurasia, with an affinity for maritime breezes.

Conditions required.

Climate:

  • Lavender thrives in sunny, warm climates with well-drained soil. 
  • It prefers a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters. 
  • Lavender does not tolerate excessive humidity or wet conditions, so regions with high rainfall or humidity may not be suitable unless proper drainage and air circulation are provided.

Soil: 

  • Lavender prefers well-drained, alkaline soil with a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.
  • Sandy or loamy soils are ideal as they provide good drainage, preventing waterlogging which can cause root rot.
  • If your soil is heavy clay or compacted, consider amending it with sand or gravel to improve drainage.

Sunlight: 

  • Lavender requires full sun to thrive, typically needing at least 6 to 8 hours of direct sunlight per day. 
  • Plant your lavender in a location where it will receive plenty of sunlight throughout the day.

Watering: 

  • While lavender is drought-tolerant once established, it still requires regular watering during its initial establishment period (first year). 
  • After that, it's best to water sparingly, allowing the soil to dry out between waterings to prevent root rot. 
  • Overwatering is one of the most common mistakes in lavender cultivation.

Spacing and Planting: 

  • Lavender plants should be spaced 12 to 18 inches apart to allow for good air circulation and prevent overcrowding. 
  • When planting, ensure the root ball is level with the soil surface and firm the soil around the plant to remove any air pockets.

Fertilizing: 

  • Lavender generally does not require heavy fertilization.
  • Too much nitrogen can result in excessive foliage growth at the expense of flowers. 
  • A light application of balanced fertilizer in early spring is usually sufficient.

Pests and Diseases: 

  • Lavender is relatively resistant to pests and diseases, but it can occasionally be affected by issues such as root rot, powdery mildew, and aphids.
  • Proper cultural practices such as good air circulation and well-drained soil can help prevent these problems.
  • In cases of severe infestation or disease, organic or chemical treatments may be necessary.

Total Solar Eclipse in North America

Context: On April 8,2024 a total solar eclipse will cross North America, passing over Mexico, the United States, and Canada. This type of solar eclipse is a rare event for any particular spot. According to Royal Museums Greenwich, once a place on Earth witnesses a total solar eclipse, it will be about 400 years before that part sees the next one.

Solar Eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves between the Earth and the Sun, blocking sunlight and casting a shadow on certain parts of the Earth.

Four main types of solar eclipses:

image 5
  • Total Solar Eclipse: When the Moon completely covers the Sun, darkening the sky and revealing the Sun's outer atmosphere, called the corona.
  • Annular Solar Eclipse: The Moon passes in front of the Sun but doesn't completely cover it, leaving a ring of sunlight visible around the Moon's edges.
  • Partial Solar Eclipse: When only a part of the Sun is obscured by the Moon, creating a crescent shape.
  • Hybrid Solar Eclipse: This rare type of eclipse shifts between being total and annular as the Moon's shadow moves across the Earth.

How Often Do Solar Eclipses Occur?

image 6
  • A solar eclipse is witnessed only during the new moon — when the Moon and Sun are aligned on the same side of Earth., which occurs approximately every 29.5 days. However, not every new moon leads to a solar eclipse. They typically occur between two to five times a year.
  • The reason for their infrequency is due to the alignment of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. The Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted about five degrees compared to the Earth's orbit around the Sun. This tilt means that most of the time, the Moon's shadow either falls above or below the Earth, missing it entirely.
  • The points where the Moon's orbit intersects with the Earth's orbit are called nodes. Solar eclipses occur when the new moon aligns with one of these nodes.

Why Are Total Solar Eclipses So Rare?

  • Despite the potential for multiple solar eclipses each year, total eclipses are exceptionally rare events. A particular location on Earth may only experience a total solar eclipse once every 400 years.
  • Total eclipses are rare because the Moon's umbral shadow—the dark central portion of its shadow—covers only a small area of the Earth's surface, less than one percent. Additionally, much of the Earth's surface is either uninhabited or covered by water, further limiting the number of people who can witness a total eclipse.
  • So, while solar eclipses are relatively common, total solar eclipses are extraordinary events that captivate those fortunate enough to witness them, making them a truly rare and awe-inspiring sight.

Rakhigarhi findings in NCERT Books

Context: Among the latest set of revisions that the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed in school textbooks are additions about findings from the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at the archaeological site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana.

More information from the news:

  • NCERT has stated that study of ancient DNA from archaeological sources in Rakhigarhi, Haryana suggests that the genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE.
  • The DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of the south Asian population appears to be their descendants.
  • Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
  • The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large-scale immigration of the so-called Aryans.
  • The research indicated that the people coming from the bordering areas and distant regions were absorbed in the Indian society.
  • At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or broken.
  • As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread in those regions.
  • The finding suggests that the reconstructed facial features of the Harappans, male and female, show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana. This implies unbroken continuity for 5000 years in this region.
image 15

About Rakhigarhi

  • It is one of the five biggest townships of Harappan Civilization, located in Rakhigarhi, Hisar in Haryana. According to archaeologists, it is the largest site in terms of area in the Indus Valley Civilisation Sites.
  • Five interconnected mounds spread in a huge area to form the Rakhigarhi’s unique site.
  • This site was excavated by Amarendra Nath of the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Rakhigarhi presents existence of civilisation from the early phase, mature phase and late phase of Indus Valley Civilisation.
  • The site has both mudbrick as well as burnt-brick houses with a proper drainage system.
  • The ceramic industry was represented by red ware, which included dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jar, goblet and ‘handis’ (pans).
  • Other antiquities included blades; terracotta and shell bangles; beads of semi precious stones, terracotta, shell and copper objects; animal figurines, toy cart frame and wheel of terracotta; bone points; inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
  • Necropolis: The excavations have yielded a few extended burials, which certainly belong to a very late stage, may be the medieval times. A rare grave having double burial of a male and female has been found here.
  • Ritual system: Animal sacrificial pit lined with mud brick and triangular and circular fire altars on the mud floor have also been excavated pointing to the ritual system of Harappans.
  • A cylindrical seal with 5 Harappan characters on one side and a symbol of an alligator on the other side is an important find from this site.
  • A site has been found which is believed to be a jewellery making unit.

Harappan Civilisation:

  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history.
  • It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.

Societal Features:

  • The society of the IVC displayed distinct urban characteristics, organized into three primary segments:
    • an affluent elite residing in the fortified citadel region. 
    • a prosperous middle class consisting of merchants.
    • a less privileged segment comprising laborers dwelling in the lower areas of the cities.
  • This societal structure was underpinned by a complex division of labor, leading to a diversified and stratified community comprising scholars, artisans, traders, warriors. 
  • Evidence from archaeological findings suggests that the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant reverence for the feminine aspect of divinity, indicative of a matriarchal influence. 
  • Abundance of terracotta female figurines discovered across various sites, symbolizing the respect of the Great Mother Goddess.
  • Garments within the IVC were crafted from diverse materials such as cotton, silk, and wool.
  • Furthermore, the presence of woven cloth at the Great bath in Mohenjodaro suggests a sophisticated understanding of spinning and weaving among the inhabitants.
  • The Civilization IVC relied predominantly on copper and bronze, with no knowledge of iron usage at the time.
    • Copper was primarily sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin likely originated from Afghanistan.
  • Harappans possessed minimal armaments and weaponry. Instead, their focus lay on technological and cultural pursuits.
  • The presence of massive brick structures across various sites indicates a specialized class of masons and underscores the significance of brick-laying as a vital craft in civilization.
  • People engaged in a diverse area of crafts, including boat-making, bead-making, and seal-making.
    • Excavations at sites such as Chanhudaro and Lothal have revealed workshops dedicated to bead-making.
  • Seals, primarily crafted from steatite, were a prominent feature of IVC culture.
    • While many seals were fashioned from steatite, others were crafted from materials such as gold, ivory, chert, and agate.
    • Played a crucial role in trade activities, serving as markers of authenticity and authority in commercial transactions.

Polity: 

  • Conclusive evidence is lacking.
  • Some scholars suggest that the absence of clear evidence implies a society where all individuals enjoyed equal status, without centralized rulership.
  • Conversely, another perspective explains the presence of multiple rulers, each representing different urban centres, rather than a single overarching authority.
  • However, the remarkable uniformity in tools, weapons, brickwork, seals, and urban architecture hints at the potential existence of a centralized political authority.
    • The planning evident in street layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and citadels suggests the presence of a robust central government overseeing urban planning and administration.
    • This authority might have been wielded by a class of merchants, which is supported by the notable absence of temples in Indus Valley Civilization sites. 
  • However, it's essential to acknowledge that without any conclusive evidence, the precise nature of political organization in the Indus Valley Civilization is open to interpretation.

Economy: 

  • Agriculture thrived in the IVC due to favourable climatic conditions and fertile land.
    • Cultivated: rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melons, peas, lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, and jowar.
    • Rainfed agriculture predominated, relying on seasonal rains for irrigation.
    • Agricultural artifacts: wooden plough in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), the granary in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan), and evidence of barley cultivation in Banawali (Rajasthan) underscore the significance of agriculture in the civilization.
    • The Indus people were pioneers in cotton cultivation and employed bulls and oxen for ploughing.
  • The Harappans engaged in extensive trade involving stone, metals, and shells, both within and beyond their region.
    • Trade routes facilitated both inter-regional and intra-regional commerce.
    • Unlike metal currency, trade relied on a barter system.
    • The IVC maintained maritime trade routes along the Arabian Sea coast, with a trading outpost established in northern Afghanistan, facilitating trade with Central Asia.
    • Economic ties were also established with regions such as Tigris and Euphrates, Mesopotamia, and Persia, as evidenced by Mesopotamian records mentioning trade relations with 'Meluha' (the ancient name for the Indus region) and trading ports like 'Dilmun' and 'Makan'.
    • Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls, and ebony from Meluha and exported garments, perfumes, leather goods, and silver to the IVC.

China tops list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India

Context: As per the latest government data, India continues to be a net importer in most of the critical minerals and China topped the list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Facts about Critical Minerals; MMDR Act; Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL); Mineral Security Partnership. 

Major Highlights:

  • In FY 2023-24, India’s net import bill for critical minerals in FY 2023-24 stood at over ₹42,000 crores, with Phosphorus being the highest at ₹15,123 crore.
  • Chinais a dominant supplier of critical minerals to India primarily in categories like ore, waste, scrap and unwrought (raw), metallic or finished product forms.
    • The imports included- cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, potash and glauconite, rare earth elements (REE), tantalum, titanium and tungsten. 
  • Apart from China, India imported critical minerals from other countries. It includes-
    • Gallium and Indium (100% from the US), niobium (Germany and Russia), selenium (Japan), tin (Indonesia), platinum group of elements (UK and UAE), phosphorous (Jordan), vanadium (Germany and Mexico), and zirconium (Indonesia and France).

What are Critical Minerals?

  • Critical minerals are metallic or non-metallic elements that are:
    • Essential for modern technologies, economy and national security, such as electronics, renewable energy, and defense.
    • Subject to disruption of supply chain, often due to limited reserves, geopolitical issues, or complex processing.

Utility of Critical Minerals:

  • Renewable Energy sector: Graphite, Lithium, Cobalt, and Nickel are key components of batteries for electric vehicles (EVs).
  • Defense and Aerospace: Tungsten, molybdenum, and REEs are used in advanced weaponry, fighter jets, satellites, and aircraft.
  • High-Tech Manufacturing: REEs, Indium, and Gallium are used in electronics, semiconductors, and renewable technologies.
  • Agriculture: Fertiliser minerals like potash and phosphate. 
China tops list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India

Global Distribution of Critical Minerals:

  • According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals. China is responsible for 60% of global production of rare earth elements. 
image 93
image 94

Critical Minerals in India:

  • Different countries create their own lists of critical minerals based on their individual needs and strategic considerations. However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt.
  • In 2023, the Ministry of Mines, India classified 30 minerals as critical minerals. 
    • The list comprises 30 minerals including 17 rare earth elements (REEs) and six platinum-group elements (PGE). 
    • Ten minerals on the list are 100% import-dependent, including- Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Vanadium, Niobium, Germanium, Rhenium, Beryllium, Tantalum, and Strontium.
  • India relies heavily on imports (mostly from China) for critical minerals. The demand for these minerals may more than double by 2030. 
Critical Minerals in India

Steps taken by the Government of India: 

1. MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:

  • The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary legislation governing the mining sector in India. 
  • The MMDR Amendment Act, 2023:
    • Empowers Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite licence for 24 critical and strategic minerals (listed in the Part-D of the First Schedule to MMDR Act). 
    • Opened mining of critical minerals to private players which was previously limited to public sector undertakings.
    • To boost exploration, Exploration Licence for reconnaissance and prospecting operations has been introduced for 29 deep-seated minerals.

2. Establishment of KABIL:

  • A Joint Venture Company among NALCO, HCL and MECL named Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL) was formed in August 2019. 
  • KABIL's mandate is to ensure India's supply of critical and strategic minerals:
    • Identifying, exploring, acquiring, developing, mining, and processing strategic minerals. 
    • Focus on procuring battery minerals like Lithium and Cobalt.

3. Global Partnerships:

  • India has joined the Mineral Security Partnership with 13 countries, including the U.S., Australia, and Japan aimed to catalyse public and private investment in critical mineral supply-chains globally.
  • India has signed an agreement with Argentina for lithium exploration through KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Limited).
  • India-Australia has signed the Critical Mineral Investment Partnership for investment in critical mineral projects and for developing supply chains between these two nations.

Taiwan Earthquake: Pacific Ring of Fire

Context: Nine people died, and more than 800 were injured in Taiwan (lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire”), after the island was struck by its most significant earthquake (7.2 magnitude) in at least 25 years on the morning of April 4th.

About Taiwan earthquake: 

image
  • Taiwan is prone to earthquakes as it lies along the Pacific “Ring of Fire” where 90% of the world’s earthquakes take place.
  • Taiwan experiences earthquakes due to the interactions of two tectonic plates the Philippine Sea Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

About Pacific Ring of Fire

  • It is also known as Ring of Fire, Circum-Pacific Belt, or Girdle of Fire. 
  • It is known as the “Ring of Fire” because of the loop of volcanoes that lies around the Pacific. Around 75 percent of the world's volcanoes are in this area, with a large number of them lying under water.
  • It is an underwater region on the edges of the Pacific Ocean where numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions take place. 
  • It is a U-shaped or semicircle or horse shoe in shape belt of approximately 40,250 kilometers long and 500 kilometers wide, with a chain of over active 450 volcanoes. 
  • Indonesia, New Zealand, Papa New Guinea, Philippines, Japan, United States, Chile, Canada, Guatemala, Russia, Peru, Solomon Islands, Mexico and Antarctica are some countries are some of the important places located in the ring of the fire.

Reason for vulnerability of the Ring of Fire to earthquakes and volcanoes: 

  • The Ring of Fire traces the meeting points of numerous tectonic plates, including the Eurasian, North American, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Caribbean, Nazca, Antarctic, Indian, Australian, Philippine, and other smaller plates, which all encircle the large Pacific Plate.

DiWdNRTV4ejB787UGXHV8LC Jcem6RpyLvwAtNnOB0sIBCqFo 9Vy9NrnwXoQR

  • The frequent earthquakes and abundant volcanoes along the Ring of Fire result from plate tectonic movement in the region. These tectonic plates end up overlapping at convergent boundaries, referred to as subduction zones.

Earthquakes: 

  • It witnesses so many earthquakes due to constant sliding past, colliding into, or moving above or below each other of the tectonic plates. 
  • As the edges of these plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving. 
  • An earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults.

Volcanoes: 

  • The existence of volcanoes in the Ring of Fire is also due to the movement of tectonic plates. Many of the volcanoes have been formed through a process known as subduction. It takes place when two plates collide with each other and the heavier plate is shoved under another, creating a deep trench, like the Mariana Trench, the world’s deepest spot.
  • Basically, when a ‘down going’ oceanic plate (like the Pacific Plate) is shoved into a hotter mantle plate, it heats up, volatile elements mix, and this produces the magma. The magma then rises up through the overlying plate and spurts out at the surface, which leads to the formation of volcanoes.

A cross-section of a river Description automatically generated

  • Most of the subduction zones on the planet are located in the Ring of Fire and that’s why it hosts a large number of volcanoes.
  • The volcanoes in Indonesia are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to subduction zones of three main active tectonic plates, namely the Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate.

Kalanamak rice

Context: A Finance Ministry notification said that the export of Kala Namak rice will be permitted through 6 customs stations.

About Kalanamak Rice

About Kalanamak Rice
  • Kala Namak rice is grown in the Tarai area of Siddharth Nagar and ten neighboring districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh. 
    • Kalanamak Rice is approved for 11 districts of Zone 7 of UP. These 11 districts are located in the divisions of Gorakhpur (Deoria, Gorakhpur, Mahrajganj, Siddharth Nagar districts), Basti (Basti, Sant Kabir Nagar, Siddharth Nagar districts), and Devipatan (Bahraich, Balrampur, Gonda, Shravasti districts).
  • It is a scented rice variety which is generally offered at a better price as compared to other rice varieties to the farmers.  
  • The name Kalanamk Rice has been derived due to its black husk (kala = Black, & the suffix 'namak' means salt). 
  • It is famous for its taste, palatability, and aroma.
  • It is also featured in speciality rice of the world by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
  • Kala namak Rice is in cultivation since the Buddhist period (600 BC). 
  • The grains were found from excavation of Aligarhwa (district Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India), located at Nepal border.  
  • Kalanamak rice was granted the Geographical Indication (GI) Tag in 2012 by the Government of India. 
  • Nutritive Value: The Kala namak rice is rich in micronutrients like Iron and Zinc, has a low glycemic index, thus better for diabetic people and also has higher protein content when compared to other paddy varieties.
image 9

Turning the spotlight on the urban poor

Context: The article analyses the paradoxical increase of both unemployment and wages in urban India, revealing that despite higher incomes, the urban poor face persistent poverty and inequality, with slum dwellers particularly affected.

It points out that higher wages in casual and self-employment in urban areas do not necessarily lead to economic mobility, calling for more public support to address these disparities.

Key takeaways:

  • The India Employment Report (IER) 2024, produced by the Institute for Human Development and the International Labour Organization.
    • It highlights the higher unemployment rates in urban settings (4.8%) compared to rural areas (1.5%) in 2000. 
    • It also notes higher average monthly earnings in urban locales across various employment types in 2022, thus presenting an intriguing case of higher unemployment coexisting with higher wages, necessitating further exploration into its implications for the urban poor.
  • Rural-Urban Migration Trends- The report signals a decline in the allure of urban migration for economic reasons, with male migration showing a downturn by 1.2% during 2000-08 and further marginally in 2021. The trend underlines the importance of analysing income and employment trends among slum dwellers to understand urban economic mobility and work quality.
  • Kolkata Slum Survey Insights -A study conducted over ten years in Kolkata's slums saw a decline in skilled and semi-skilled labour employment, contrasting with an increase in petty business and small shop employment. Thus, highlighting a shift towards self-employment and casual work amidst varying income dynamics.
  • Income Trends in Slums- Income Changes in Slums Income for most slum dwellers has fallen, with notable drops among government employees and shop owners. However, unskilled workers saw their income rise, pointing to a complex situation of earning and employment in slums. These findings suggest a broader economic transformation reflected in the slums.
  • Gender Dynamics and Workforce Participation -While the survey noted a decline in women's workforce participation in slums, the IER 2024 reports a modest increase in female workforce participation across urban areas.
  • Casual Work and Economic Mobility-There's an increase in casual, insecure jobs, which don't offer good pay or job security. This trend shows that while more people might be working, they're not necessarily in good jobs, impacting the economic stability of the urban poor

Urban poverty

  • Urban poverty is a form of poverty quite visible in mega cities characterized by substandard living conditions and income along with deficient provisions of basic amenities and low quality of life. As per NSSO survey reports, there are over 80 million urban poor. It is different from Rural poverty in its characteristics and causes.

The situation of Urban Poverty

  • Urban poverty in India is unique. Although the proportion of urban poor has declined over the last decades, there is a steady increase in the number which has a direct impact on the slum areas of the metros.
  • In India, “Gareebi Hatao” was made a major objective of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) when the urban poor got an identity. According to the report of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (2001), about 23.5% of urban households live in slums.
  • Although the percentage of slum dwellers had declined to 17% by 2011, the total number of slum households had increased from 10 million in 2001 to 13 million in 2011. The majority of urban poverty occurs in megacities.
  • The 2011 Census found that around 12 per cent of the urban population in “Class I” cities lived in slums, with higher rates in the larger cities.

Causes of urban poverty

1) Increasing migration: due to the decrease in opportunities in the rural sector and the continuously decreasing benefits of agriculture.

2) Lack of investment: Lack of investment in basic requirements like skills, education, and health in rural areas of India

3) Loss of income: A person migrating from a rural area does not get a proper salary in cities. Due to this they are forced to work in the unorganized economy and are exploited by the capitalists.

4) Affordable Housing Shortage: The congestion in slum areas increases continuously due to a reduction in affordable housing. This further leads to a lack of facilities like light, water, and sanitation.

5) Informalisation of Labour: urban jobs are often informal, meaning they're not officially recognized, regulated, or protected by the government. These jobs tend to be insecure, without benefits like healthcare or pensions, and contribute to the persistence of poverty.

6) Disproportionate Impact of Inflation: Inflation affects everyone, but the impact on the poor is much greater. As prices go up, those with lower incomes find it harder to afford basic necessities, deepening their poverty.

7) Deprivation of government benefits to Migrants: When people move from rural areas to cities, they often struggle to access government programs and benefits they're entitled to, such as subsidized food or healthcare, exacerbating their poverty in the urban setting.

8) Lack of Access to Community Assets: The difficulty that urban poor have in accessing shared resources that can help improve their lives, like clean water, education, or safe spaces for children to play. Without access to these community assets, it's harder for them to break out of poverty.

image 8

State Response to Urban Poor

  • One Nation One Ration Card- Department of Food and Public Distribution has launched the ‘Integrated Management of Public Distribution System (IM-PDS)’ for implementation in all States/UT.

Objective

  • Introduce nationwide portability of ration card holders under NFSA, 2013 enabling them to lift their entitlement to food grains from any Fair Price Shop of their choice in India with their same ration card.
  • The remaining family members who migrate to another location can claim their share of the PDS ration.
  • Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY-NULM)-launched by the Government in 2013 by restructuring the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY).
    • Coverage: All district’s headquarter towns (irrespective of population) and all other towns with a population of 1 lakh or more as per Census 2011.
    • Target Population: The primary target of NULM is the urban poor, including the urban homeless.
    • Funding: Funding will be shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25. For North-eastern and Special Category States, this ratio will be 90:10.
    • Aim: Reducing the poverty and vulnerability of urban poor households.

PM SVANidhi

  • It is a Central Sector Scheme (100% funded by MoHUA). The scheme will be implemented by MoHUA. SIDBI will be the implementation partner of the scheme.

Objectives

The scheme will help formalise the street vendors and will open new opportunities to this sector to move up the economic ladder.

  • Facilitate working capital loans up to Rs 10,000
  • Incentivise regular payment
  • Reward digital transactions

Measures to be Taken to Tackle Urban Poverty

  • Formalizing Informal Employment: A substantial step towards integrating urban poor into the economy is the formalization of informal jobs. This includes legal recognition, which would enable access to social security benefits.
  • Government Scheme Inclusivity: Expanding the reach of government programs, such as the One Nation One Ration Card Scheme, to cover the migrant urban population ensures no individual is left out due to geographic mobility.
  • Urban Job Guarantee Scheme: Implementing a job guarantee program similar to the rural-focused MGNREGA can provide the urban poor with stable employment and income.
  • Financial Empowerment: Recognizing the urban poor as a priority group for sector lending would facilitate their access to necessary financial services, empowering them to start businesses and improve their housing and living conditions.
  • Skill-Based Data Mapping: Aligning the urban poor's database with their skills can open pathways for suitable employment opportunities. The national migrant database is a crucial initiative to enable this alignment.
  • Urban Development- Improved infrastructure is a prerequisite for increased economic growth in India. Poverty can be reduced quickly with rapid urban development.
  • Urban Employment Guarantee Programme - It can generate a new set of ‘green jobs’ that can strengthen the capacity of ULBs as well as promote sustainable urban development.