Context: The coastal town of Malibu in California, the US is presently gripped in wildfires. The wildfires in the region are becoming more frequent and the wildfire season has lengthened, attributed to two major reasons- Santa Ana winds and Climate change.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Geophysical Phenomenon- Santa Ana Winds
What are Santa Ana Winds?
Santa Anas are dry, warm (often hot) local winds that blow westward through Southern California, toward the coast.
The winds are usually seasonal, and typically occur between October and March and peak in December.
Santa Ana winds blow when high pressure builds over the Great Basin (area between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada) and the pressure is low over California’s coast.
The difference in pressure triggers the movement of powerful winds from the Basin’s inland deserts, east and north of Southern California, over the mountains toward the Pacific Ocean.
As they flow downwards and cross desserts, they become very dry, warm, and gain speed.
Impact: The lack of humidity in Santa Ana winds dries out vegetation, making it highly inflammable. The wind also fan the flames and help spread them.
Role of Climate Change
Wildfire season in California has lengthened in recent years in the past two decades and the yearly peak has shifted from August to July.
The wildfires have also become more intense in the past few years.
Five of the 10 largest California wildfires (over 20 years) occurred in 2020 alone.
Rise in global temperatures over the years has led to warmer springs and summers, and early spring snow melts. Such conditions cumulatively cause longer and more intense dry seasons, putting more moisture stress on vegetation. As a result, forests have become more vulnerable to fires.
Context: COP 29 in Baku, Azerbaijan has given a fillip to the idea of using carbon markets to curb the carbon emissions by approving standards that can help in the setting up of an international carbon market in near future.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key understanding of bonds and Carbon Market.
Mains: Analytical question on Carbon market, its benefits and its lacunae.
Major Highlights:
Carbon Market is a market that allows the trade of the right to emit carbon in the atmosphere.
Illustration- A government focusing on controlling emission will issue limited carbon credits to firms. Each carbon credit is equivalent to 1,000 Kgs of carbon dioxide. Firms/individuals who do not need carbon credit can trade them with interested buyers.
Price of carbon credit will be market based i.e., will work on the principle of demand and supply.
Carbon Offset: These are the alternatives to carbon credit, sold by environmental NGO to bridge the gap of credit and actual emission.
In case a business pollutes more than carbon credit and fails to secure them from other firms they can opt for this option.
For example, Firm A breaches the credit limit and can buy carbon offsets from NGO planting trees.
Benefits of Carbon Market:
Cost effective emission reduction by limiting the emission with the help of imposing cost on polluters.
Promotes polluter pay principle by enhancing compliance burden on individuals and firms.
Incentivise the compliance- The Cap and trade system enforces limits on emissions, motivating organisations to stay within their allowances or invest in credit.
Pushes green funding for environmental NGO and organisations by the mechanism of carbon offset mechanism.
Issues in Carbon Market System:
Discriminatory in nature- As carbon credit and carbon market mechanism paves way for the excess emission by wealthy developed nations.
Greenwashing risk is associated with it as the polluter pay principle will provide unrestrained right to pollute.
Risk of market saturation- The oversupply of the carbon credits and offset clause combined, can reduce the value of carbon credits that can hamper the reduction targets.
Conclusion: Carbon credits and markets are valuable tools for reducing emissions and promoting sustainability, but they face challenges like regulation gaps and potential misuse. To maximise their impact, strong oversight, transparent standards, and a focus on real emission reductions are essential, ensuring they complement broader efforts toward a low-carbon, equitable future.
Context: Recently COP 29 was concluded at Baku, Azerbaijan which focused on advancing the New Collective Quantified Goals (NCQG) for climate finance.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- New Collective Quantified Goals (NCQG)
The Climate Emergency:
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted the need for significantly stronger commitments to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Current policies, if continued globally, are expected to lead to a temperature rise of up to 3.1°C.
Finance is a critical component in accelerating the adoption of cleaner alternatives, especially in developing countries.
As part of its commitment to global climate goals, India has launched a range of green energy schemes aimed at expanding renewable energy infrastructure, promoting energy efficiency and clean fuel and technology innovations.
What are NewCollective Quantified Goals (NCQG)?
Historical background:
At Cancun in 2010, developed countries had pledged to provide $100 billion annually to support climate action in developing countries up to 2020.
At COP 21 in Paris, 2015, the parties decided to establish a new climate finance framework (NCQG) before 2025, with the Cancun commitment as the base point.
Evolution of NCQG:
NCQG was intended to create a framework for shared climate goals, to establish clear and quantified objectives that nations could aim to achieve, with transparency and accountability at the forefront.
At COP 26 at Glasgow in 2021, an ad hoc work programme for NCQG discussions was established, scheduling discussions through 2022–2024, culminating at COP 29.
Outcome at COP 29:
The Standing Committee on Finance under the UNFCCC estimated that between $5 trillion to $7 trillion would be needed by 2030 to meet half the needs of 98 countries.
Developing countries put forward a conservative ask of $1.3 trillion annually at COP 29.
However, the developed countries committed mere $300 billion annually, till 2035.
Further, the mobilisation of funds is expected through all sources of finance including private capital. But developing countries laid down the stress on public finance.
Know more about NCQG:
At the 2009 CoP, the commitment of ‘$100 billion per year till 2020’ to developing nations from developed countries was set.
Therefore, under Article 9, the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement agreed to set a New Collective Quantified Goal (NCGQ) for climate financing before 2025.
The deliberations were aimed at strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
The NCQG work programme runs from 2022–24 and includes four technical expert dialogues (TEDs) each year and a High-level Ministerial Dialogue.
The NCGQ is termed as the “most important climate goal” because,
It pulls up the ceiling on commitment from developed countries.
It is supposed to anchor the evolving needs and priorities of developing countries based on scientific evidence and
It should respond “to the ever-increasing sums of funding, necessary for Loss and Damage in response to failed and/or delayed financial support.
Why do we need a new financial goal?
The finance provided by developed countries may be inflated and misleading.
The $100 billion target set in 2009 was seen more as a political goal since there was no effort to clarify the definition or source of ‘climate finance’.
The economic growth of developed countries has come at the cost of high carbon emissions, and thus they are obligated to shoulder greater responsibility.
Funds available for climate finance have increased quantitatively, but they are inaccessible, privately sourced, delayed, and not reaching countries in need.
Context: Majority of the efforts tofight climate change have been land-biased. The countries have invested heavily on land but underutilised the potential of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers for carbon dioxide removal.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims- Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal, Ocean alkalinity enhancement, Ocean fertilization, Deep ocean biomass sinking.
What is Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal?
Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal (mCDR) is any ocean-based process or technique designed to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it for long periods of time in the ocean.
Marine carbon capture strategies fall into two categories.
Biotic approaches: Taking advantage of living systems like mangroves and macro-algae of our rivers to carefully calibrate biomass burial at sea.
Abiotic approaches: Manipulating physical or chemical properties, such as through ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE), which are relatively more complicated.
Other examples: Adding alkaline materials to the ocean to increase the amount of carbon stored in ocean waters; adding iron or other nutrients to ocean waters to increase phytoplankton growth and export of carbon to the deep ocean; and sinking organic materials, such as kelp or crop residue, into the deep ocean.
Why should oceans be focussed?
Land saturation: Soils and rocks are so severely damaged that they no longer support efficient carbon capture. Land resources are also under severe pressure to support a huge population, agriculture, infrastructure etc.
Huge potential of Oceans: Sea and oceans have large surface areas (cover over 70% of the Earth's surface), thus better suited for CO2 absorption and removal.
What is ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE)?
Ocean alkalinization is an approach to carbon removal that involves adding alkaline substances to seawater to enhance the ocean's natural carbon sink.
How is it done?
Adding alkaline and/or basic solutions directly into seawater – using electrochemical methods to split ocean water into its acidic and basic components and then returning the basic components again to the ocean.
Adding certain types of mined alkaline minerals, such as olivine, to coastal and ocean waters.
Mechanism:
Adding alkalinity to seawater (or removing acid from seawater) would lead to a temporary elevation in seawater pH.
This then results in a series of chemical reactions that convert dissolved carbon dioxide (already present in the seawater) into dissolved inorganic carbon, primarily in the form of bicarbonate (relatively stable form of carbon).
The seawater (now depleted in dissolved carbon dioxide) then takes up additional carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at the ocean surface.
Merits of OAE:
Long-term storage of carbon in the form of stable bicarbonate ions.
Provides the co-benefit of locally mitigating ocean acidification.
Ocean fertilization is a form of geoengineering that involves adding nutrients to the upper (sunlit) layers of the ocean to stimulate phytoplankton activity (photosynthesis) in an attempt to draw down atmospheric CO2 levels.
The transfer of carbon from the surface ocean to the deep ocean must result in a subsequent transfer of carbon from the atmosphere into the surface ocean.
This could be accomplished by adding nutrients, such as iron, to the open oceans or nutrients may be moved from the deep ocean to the surface ocean through a process called "artificial upwelling.”
Ocean fertilization does not include conventional aquaculture, mariculture or the creation of artificial reefs.
What is deep ocean biomass sinking?
Deep ocean biomass sinking is the process of extracting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through sinking carbon-rich biomass into the deep oceans.
Plants on land and in the ocean pull in carbon dioxide from their environment during photosynthesis.
The carbon contained in terrestrial or marine biomass, such as crops or macroalgae, could potentially be sequestered from the atmosphere for long periods of time by sinking it in the deep ocean.
Context: Tuvalu is a group of 9 atolls located in Pacific Ocean. Climate change and rising sea level rise means that the islands are facing a risk of submergence.
Tuvalu Islands
Tuvalu is an island nation located in the Central Pacific Ocean with a total area of only 26 sq km.
Funafuti is the capital of Tuvalu.
The island country has a population of about 11,000 people.
Since the islands is spread over a wide area of 900,000 sq km in the Pacific Ocean (twice the size of California). Tuvalu has a large exclusive economic zone in the pacific ocean, which is rich in ocean resources.
The country is located on a group of 9 atolls, whose mean elevation is just 2 metres.
Recent measurements reveal that Tuvalu has experienced a sea level rise of 15 cm over the past three decades, which is one and half times of the global average.
According to projections by NASA, by 2050 daily tides will submerge half of main atoll of Funafuti, which is home to 60% of Tuvalu's residents.
Salt-water incursion has ruined groundwater creating a crisis of freshwater availability. This has forced residents of Tuvalu to depend on rainwater tanks and a central raised garden for growing vegetables and food items.
What is Tuvalu doing for this crisis?
Tuvalu has entered into a landmark climate and security treaty with Australia in 2023 which allows 280 Tuvaluans to move to Australia annually.
Construction of sea walls and barriers to guard against worsening sea storms.
Building of 7 hectares artificial land which can stay above tides.
Tuvalu and UNCLOS
Under the UNCLOS, the extent of maritime zone is decided by features of permanently dry land.
Baseline for a maritime zone may be established by reference to the low-water line of a feature that is above water at all times. However, due to the rising sea level and possible submergence, island nations like Tuvalu risk losing or diminishing their Exclusive Economic Zones.
Thus, Tuvalu has called for amending the UNCLOS which allows countries like it to permanently retain control of its vast maritime zone with large blue economy like fishing rights and mining of seabed minerals.
According to current international law, dry land is also essential for recognition of sovereignty. Tuvalu has been campaigning to its maritime boundaries and statehood recognised for permanent.
Context: According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), the onset of La Nina is expected to take place from September 2024 with the cooling of the Central Pacific Ocean. The La Nina is expected to result in heavy rainfall in September in several parts of North India.
Impact of La-Nina of September in India
Starting mid-September, North India starts experiencing retreat of the Monsoons. However, the La Nina is likely to result in vigorous 'cyclonic activity' in the Bay of Bengal. The cyclonic activity will lead to several episodes of rain in the month.
Since the monsoon rainfall is unequally distributed, the IMD predicts that many parts of Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Delhi are likely to see heavy rainfall.
However, IMD did not predict the overall rainfall in the month. Weather models used by IMD to forecast rainfall over next week or two have higher accuracy as compared to longer time frames like month or season. There is a need for the IMD for invest in higher order weather prediction models employing supercomputing power, global teleconnections and local systems.
About La Nina
La Niña:
La Niña basically refers to an abnormal cooling of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean waters off the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.
Such cooling (sea surface temperatures i.e. SSTs falling) is a result of strong trade winds blowing west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia.
The warming of the western equatorial Pacific, then, leads to increased evaporation and concentrated cloud-formation activity around that region, whose effects may spread to India as well.
Atmospheric changes: La Nina events lead to higher pressure in Central and Eastern Pacific (over western South America) and Lower Pressure over Western Pacific (Over Eastern Australia). This pressure gradient intensifies trade winds which pushes westward movement of warm water and strong upwelling of cold water in eastern Pacific (South America’s Pacific Coast).
Positive Feedback: There is a positive reinforcement between the atmospheric and ocean phenomena. This is evident as the stronger trade winds lead to increased upwelling and cooling of the Eastern Pacific region, which further strengthens trade winds.
Usually La Nina events last for 9-12 months. However, they can prolong as well for about two years.
Impact of La Nina in India
La Nina events usually lead to warming of the Indian Ocean, particularly the Western Indian Ocean region due to changes in wind patterns. This also leads to reduced upwelling in the region to leading to reduced fisheries catch.
Monsoon Enhancement: Usually La Niña events leads to strengthening of monsoons in India leading to more rainfalls.
Boost for Agricultural: An enhanced monsoon can benefit agriculture, especially in regions where rainfed agriculture is practiced. More rainfall can lead to higher crop yields or may be one more cycle of farming leading to higher incomes for farmers and food security.
Flood Risks: Increased rainfall can also result in flooding events in low-lying areas leading to damage to life & property.
Winter Temperatures: During La Niña years, northern India may experience colder winters. This is due to a stronger high-pressure system over Central Asia, which can bring cold winds down into the northern plains of India.
Drought Mitigation: La Niña conditions can help alleviate drought situations in regions experiencing water scarcity, as the increased rainfall can replenish reservoirs, rivers, and groundwater levels.
Impact of La Nina (Globally)
• Global Variations:
Australia: During La Niña, Australia typically experiences wetter than average conditions, leading to increased rainfall and sometimes flooding in parts of the country.
South America:
La Niña can bring variable impacts to different parts of South America. In countries like Argentina and Brazil, it can lead to wetter conditions in some regions, benefiting agriculture with increased crop yields. However, in other areas such as parts of Bolivia and Paraguay, drought conditions may prevail, negatively impacting crop production.
Upwelling along the Pacific Coast of South America during La Nina brings cold deep nutrient rich water to the surface, promoting phytoplankton growth leading to boom in fish population in eastern Pacific.
North America: La Niña often results in a more active winter storm track across the northern United States and Canada, leading to increased snowfall and colder temperatures. Conversely, southern United States tends to experience warmer and drier conditions, which can increase droughts risks in already arid regions like the southwestern states.
Southeast Asia: Countries like India, Indonesia and the Philippines may experience increased rainfall during La Niña events, affecting rice production and potentially causing flooding and landslides in vulnerable areas.
• Economic Impact:
Energy Sector: La Niña can influence energy markets globally. For instance, in regions where La Niña results in increased hurricane activity, such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, disruptions to oil and gas production can occur, leading to fluctuations in energy prices.
Commodities: Agricultural commodities such as grains (corn, soybeans) and soft commodities (coffee, cocoa) can see price volatility due to changes in production caused by La Niña-induced weather patterns.
Small island nations in the Pacific can be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of La Niña, including increased storm surges, coastal erosion, and damage to infrastructure due to intensified tropical cyclones.
• Ecological Effects:
Marine Ecosystems: La Niña alters ocean temperatures and currents, affecting marine life distribution and productivity
• Health Implications:
Vector-Borne Diseases: La Niña can influence the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Increased rainfall can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, potentially leading to outbreaks in affected regions.
Context: The intense wildfires raging in the United States and Canada have spiked the occurrence of pyrocumulonimbus clouds. The development of these clouds has become more frequent in recent years.
About Pyrocumulonimbus clouds
Pyrocumulonimbus clouds are thunder clouds created by intense heat from the Earth’s surface, either from large wildfires or volcanic eruptions. That is the reason why the prefix ‘pyro’ is used – meaning fire in Greek.
For instance, these clouds were formed during the Australian bushfires of 2019-2020 when temperatures crossed 800 degrees Celsius.
Mechanism of formation of the clouds:
The intense heat from the wildfire/ volcanic eruption warms the surrounding air which moves upward into the atmosphere.
As this hot and very buoyant air (carrying water vapour, smoke, and ash) rises, it expands and cools down.
Once it is cool enough, water vapour condenses on ash, forming a grey or brown cloud. At this stage, the cloud is known as a pyrocumulus cloud, also known as ‘fire cloud’.
But if there is sufficient water vapour available and the upward movement of hot air intensifies, pyrocumulus clouds can evolve into a pyrocumulonimbus cloud.
Characteristics:
These clouds can reach heights of 50,000 feet and generate their own systems of thunderstorms.
Although pyrocumulonimbus clouds can produce lighting, they do not generate much rain. As a result, they can spark new wildfires many kilometres away from the main blaze.
These clouds can also trigger strong winds that can make the spread of the wildfire faster and unpredictable.
Frequent occurrence of pyrocumulonimbus clouds:
Before 2023, 102 pyrocumulonimbus were recorded globally in a single year on average — 50 of them were seen in Canada. However, during last year’s extreme wildfire season, 140 pyrocumulonimbus clouds were recorded in Canada alone.
The exact reason for their frequent occurrence remains unclear. However, scientists believe that climate change and temperatures soaring across the world, leads to frequent wildfires, which may spike the occurrence of pyrocumulonimbus clouds.
Recent data confirms that 2023 marked the hottest year on record, signaling a disturbing trend of increasing global temperatures. This trend poses significant threats to urban and rural areas alike, particularly as cities expand at the cost of natural landscapes. Experts predict that for those born in 2023, it may be the coolest year of their lives, hinting at the severe climate challenges ahead.
As summer progresses across the Indian Subcontinent, the immediate threat posed by heat waves becomes more pronounced. Heat waves, characterized by unusually high temperatures and often exacerbated by increased humidity, significantly impact health. The combination of heat and humidity, referred to as "moist heat," increases the stress on the human body.
According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), there has been a 30% increase in moist heat stress from 1980 to 2020, underscoring the growing impact of these climate-related events.
Health Impacts of Heat Exposure
The health ramifications of global warming are extensive and multifaceted, impacting human, animal, and plant health.
Direct consequences include:
Physical stress from heat: Increased body temperature can lead to dehydration, inability of the skin to cool the body through perspiration, and dilatation of blood vessels and thickening of blood with increased risk of clot formation (thrombosis).
Extreme weather: Events like heatwaves exacerbate public health crises by directly affecting vulnerable populations, including the elderly, infants, and those with pre-existing conditions.
A global study published in 2022 covering 266 studies found that heat waves are linked to a 11.7% increase in mortality.
The most significant risks were for stroke and coronary heart disease. As the population ages and cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity become more prevalent, each 1°C increase in temperature could significantly amplify the risk of severe cardiovascular events.
Spread of diseases: Changes in climate affect the distribution of mosquitoes and other vectors, leading to the spread of diseases like malaria and dengue.
Worsening non-communicable diseases: Heat contributes to higher incidences of strokes, heart attacks, respiratory diseases, and other chronic conditions.
Even as of now, NCDs contribute to 65 per cent of deaths in India — a majority of them in productive mid-life. The heat effects of climate change will only exacerbate the problem.
Mental health: he psychological impact of climate events can lead to stress, anxiety, and depression.
Infrastructure strain: Health systems face increased demand not only from direct heat effects but also from the displacement of populations and damage to healthcare facilities due to extreme weather.
Environmental and Societal Consequences
Wildfires: triggered by excessive heat release particulate matter (PM 2.5) and toxic chemicals (ozone, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic compounds and nitrogen dioxide) can cause extensive inflammation, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease (heart attacks, strokes, heart rhythm abnormalities, pulmonary embolism, heart failure), respiratory disease, diabetes and pre-diabetes. Chemicals like benzene and formaldehyde (also present in wildfire emissions) increase the risk of cancer.
Agricultural impact: Heat stress combined with water scarcity reduces crop yields and nutrient quality, jeopardizing food security.
Countries in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa currently grow staples (like rice and wheat) at the highest levels of heat tolerance. A further increase of 1 degree centigrade will lower their yield by 10 per cent. The crops will also be more deficient in zinc, protein and iron.
The Data Sciences Centre of Columbia University has estimated that if global warming continues unabated, India of 2050 will have 49 million more zinc deficient persons and 38.2 million new protein deficient persons, while 106.1 million children and 396 million women would be iron deficient.
Protective foods like fruit, vegetables and fish would be depleted. These foods reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
Rising ocean temperatures will flood coastal agriculture while reducing fish yields.
Biodiversity loss: Rising temperatures threaten biodiversity, which is crucial for maintaining resilient food systems and access to nutritious wild foods.
Adaptive Strategies for a Warmer World
In response to these challenges, it is critical to develop comprehensive adaptation strategies that include:
Heat action plans: Tailored for both urban and rural settings, these plans aim to mitigate the impact of heatwaves.
Climate-resilient systems: Enhancements in food and healthcare systems to withstand climate changes are essential.
Public education and infrastructure: Educating the public and healthcare providers about heat risks and protective measures is crucial. Infrastructure improvements, such as heat-reflective building materials and increased green spaces, are also vital.
Personal protection measures: Wearing light-colored, loose-fitting clothes, using umbrellas or hats, and increasing water intake are practical steps individuals can take to protect themselves from heat.
As the planet faces unprecedented warming, the need for urgent action to mitigate climate change and adapt to its inevitable impacts becomes increasingly crucial. Both systemic and individual level changes are essential to safeguard global health against the rising tide of heat-related challenges.
Context: Scientists are experimenting with an idea to fight global warming — brightening up marine clouds by aerosol sprays so that they reflect more sunlight back into the atmosphere.
About Marine Cloud Brightening
Marine Cloud Brightening Program involves atmospheric scientists and experts collaborating to study how aerosols affect clouds.
It is a programme of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, USA
Objective: To understand these interactions and explore the feasibility of reducing climate warming by enhancing sunlight reflection from marine clouds.
Technique: In clean oceanic air, clouds mostly form from sulfates and sea salt crystals, which are not abundant. This results in larger droplets that reflect less light.
Marine cloud brightening (MCB) aims to increase the brightness of marine clouds by enhancing their reflectivity. It achieves this by releasing tiny sea water droplets into the atmosphere using water cannons or special ships.
When these droplets evaporate, they leave behind salt particles. These particles act as nuclei for cloud formation, leading to denser and brighter clouds.
Significance of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions:
Clouds reflect sunlight, cooling temperatures locally and globally.
Aerosol particles, from natural and human sources, can brighten clouds, enhancing sunlight reflection and cooling the Earth's climate.
Changes in cloud cover or sunlight reflection can influence climate dynamics significantly.
Role of Aerosol
Aerosols from both natural sources (like biological emissions and sea spray) and human activities (such as burning fossil fuels) mix with low clouds, especially over the ocean, brightening them and thereby increase albedo. This in turn leads to cooling of climate.
Uncertainty remains about the overall cooling effect of aerosols on the climate.
Aerosol air pollution has made the planet about 0.7° F (0.4 °C) cooler than it otherwise would be, according to the 2021 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For comparison, greenhouse gas emissions have added 2.7°F (1.5°C) of warming.
Aerosol and Precipitation
Aerosols serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), providing surfaces on which water vapor can condense to form cloud droplets.
The presence of aerosols affects cloud properties such as droplet size, number, and distribution, which in turn influence precipitation formation.
Effects on Cloud Dynamics:
Increased aerosol concentrations can lead to the formation of a larger number of smaller cloud droplets, altering cloud dynamics.
Smaller droplets may reduce the efficiency of raindrop formation and growth, potentially delaying or suppressing precipitation.
Precipitation Enhancement or Suppression:
In some cases, aerosols can enhance precipitation by increasing the number of cloud droplets and promoting coalescence and raindrop formation.
However, in polluted conditions with high aerosol concentrations, clouds may exhibit reduced precipitation efficiency, leading to suppressed rainfall.
Potential Acceleration of Climate Warming:
Reductions in atmospheric aerosols since 2010 may have accelerated global warming.
Recent declines in particulate pollution emissions from ships, coinciding with rising ocean surface and global temperatures, emphasize the need to understand these effects.
Understanding Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB):
MCB proposes using sea salt particles to brighten clouds over the ocean, reducing climate warming.
Scientific studies suggest that specific aerosols can significantly increase cloud reflectivity.
Sea salt particles would be sprayed from ships into low-lying clouds, remaining in the atmosphere for a few days within localized areas.
Uncertainties and Considerations:
Specific regions of the ocean may be more suitable for MCB, but the extent of brightening and its effectiveness in different regions are uncertain.
Implementation decisions, such as which areas to brighten and to what extent, will determine the climate cooling achieved and its broader impacts.
Changes in clouds induced by MCB and pollution aerosols can affect atmospheric circulation, weather patterns, and precipitation in both local and distant regions.
Critical Aspects and Research Needs:
Improving understanding of MCB and aerosol effects is crucial for projecting long-distance effects and associated risks.
Further research is needed to assess the feasibility, potential consequences, and optimal implementation strategies of MCB in addressing climate change.
Context: 41st Steering Committee Meeting of International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE) is being hosted in India.
About International Partnership for Hydrogen & Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE)
IPHE is an international partnership mechanism to organise and implement, effective, efficient and focused international research, development, demonstration and commercial utilisation activities related to hydrogen and fuel cell technologies.
The formation of IPHE was facilitated by US Department of Energy and US Department of Transportation in 2003 to foster international cooperation on hydrogen and fuel cell.
Membership of IPHE: 23 Countries including India and the European Commission. However, membership of IPHE does not result in any legally binding obligations on Partners.
Functions of IPHE are:
Identify and promote potential areas of bilateral and multilateral collaboration on hydrogen and fuel cell technologies.
Analyse and recommend priorities for research, development, demonstration and commercial utilisation of hydrogen technologies and equipment.
Analyse and develop policy recommendation on technical guidance, including common codes, standards and regulations to advance hydrogen and fuel cell technology development, demonstration and commericial use.
Foster implementation of large-scale, long-term public private cooperation to advance hydrogen and fuel cell technology and infrastructure research, demonstration and commercial use, in accordance with Partners' priorities.
Coordinate and leverage resources to advance bilateral and multilateral cooperation in hydrogen and fuel cell technology research, development, demonstration and commercial utilisation.
Address emerging technical, financial, legal, market, socio-economic, environmental and policy issues and opportunities related to hydrogen and fuel cell technology that are not currently being addressed elsewhere.
Organisation of IPHE
Chair of the IPHE is elected by IPHE members for a term of two years, with a potential for renewal.
Steering Committee with two representatives for each of the Partner countries governs the overall framework and procedures of IPHE.
Secretariat of IPHE to be coordinate overall activities of IPHE.
Funding of IPHE: Any costs arising from the activities will be borne by the Partner that incurs them. Secretariat Office is supported by voluntary contributions (Financial or in-kind) of all members.
Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the overarching scheme Promoting Research in Earth Systems Science, Technology, & Human Resource Development “PRITHvi VIgyan (PRITHVI)”.
About PRITHVI Scheme:
Launched in: 2021
Till: 2026
Type of scheme: Central Sector Scheme
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences
Outlay: Rs. 4,797 crore.
Aim: To enhance the understanding of the Earth and its vital signs.
Scheme subsumed:
Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS): It addresses different aspects of weather and climate services, which includes warnings for cyclone, storm surges, heat waves, thunderstorms etc.
Ocean Services, Modelling Application, Resources and Technology (O-SMART): For promoting ocean research and setting up early warning weather systems.
Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER): To improve the understanding of Polar Science and cryosphere systems.
Seismology and Geosciences (SAGE): To strengthen earthquake monitoring and research on the Earth’s solid components
Research, Education, Training and Outreach (REACHOUT): To fosters talent development and ensures effective translation of research into services directly benefiting society
Objective of PRITHVI Scheme
Augmentation and sustenance of long-term observations of the atmosphere, ocean, geosphere, cryosphere, and solid earth to record the vital signs of the Earth System and change.
It is also intended for the development of modelling systems for understanding and predicting weather, ocean, and climate hazards and understanding the science of climate change.
Exploration of polar and high seas regions of the Earth towards discovery of new phenomena and resources.
Development of technology for exploration and sustainable harnessing of oceanic resources for societal applications.
Translation of knowledge and insights from Earth systems science into services for societal, environmental and economic benefit.
Significance:
The scheme emphasises a holistic and integrated approach to Earth system science.
It allows for collaborative research across disciplines, tackling complex challenges in areas like extreme weather, oceanic resources, and cryosphere changes.
The scheme paves the way for innovative programs and solutions that address pressing environmental and societal concerns.
It will nurture a skilled workforce of Earth system scientists for the future.
The scheme marks a significant leap forward in India’s commitment to understanding and managing the complex dynamics of the Earth.
Context: A concerning development for India is the European Union (EU)’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The policy, which intends to tax carbon-intensive products coming into the EU from 2026, is divided into two phases, with the first phase (transitional phase) kicking in from October 1, 2023.
What is a carbon border adjustment tax?
A carbon border adjustment tax is a duty on imports based on the amount of carbon emissions resulting from the production of the product in question.
It is aimed putting a fair price on the carbon emitted during the production of carbon intensive goods that are entering the EU, and to encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
The gradual introduction of the CBAM is aligned with the phase-out of the allocation of free allowances under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) to support the decarbonisation of EU industry.
EU Emissions Trading System:· The EU ETS works on the ‘cap and trade’ principle. A cap is a limit set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by the installations and aircraft operators covered by the system. The cap is reduced annually in line with the EU’s climate target, ensuring that emissions decrease overtime.· Within the cap, companies primarily buy allowances on the EU carbon market, but they also receive some allowances for free. Companies can also trade allowances with each other as needed. If an installation or operator reduce their emissions, they can either keep the spare allowances to use in the future or sell them.· Hence it makes polluters pay for their greenhouse gas emissions, helps bring emissions down and generates revenues to finance the EU's green transition, operates in all EU countries plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway (EEA-EFTA states).
Note: This EU-ETS works for the companies located within the EU borders. CBAM is for those companies which are located outside the E.U.
How the CBAM will work?
The CBAM putsan emissions tariff on imports of goods with a high risk of carbon leakage from countries which are not members of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
Companies importing goods into the EU will have to purchase CBAM certificates and then surrender the required amount to cover the corresponding emissions each year.
There are no limits on the number of CBAM certificates an importer may purchase so as to avoid imposing restrictions on trade.
Unlike ETS allowances, CBAM certificates are not tradeable nor bankable.
Merits of CBAM (Viewpoint of E.U):
Preventing Carbon leakage: It refers to a phenomenon where a EU manufacturer moves carbon intensive production to countries outside the region with less stringent climate policies and hence it does not reduces the actually carbon emissions, it just shifts the source to other regions. CBAM will try to bring stringency for those industries also.
Protecting Domestic industries: CBAM will charge the carbon intensive products coming from non-EU countries hence it will ensure level playing field to the domestic companies who by virtue of EU-ETS are already following stringent norms.
In line with E.U’s green targets: According to the European Commission’s proposal, CBAM would contribute to the achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. This will also help them to reduce GHG emissions by 55% by 2030. It comes under the EU’s Green Deal to.
Issue with CBAM (Viewpoints of India, China & other developing countries):
Hurting industrial interests: This might hurt Industrial interests in the developing countries as their exports will be charged by EU. For e.g. In FY22, India exported Steel and aluminum related products to E.U to the tune of $10B.
Violative of CBDR: As CBAM is equally applicable to all the countries outside EU, it violates the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’ as was agreed under Paris agreement.
Green protectionism: This can be misused by EU to unnecessarily levy the import duties on imports. Experts have said that CBAM charge can be around 20-35% but the average levy of EU on the companies within EU is around 2-3%.
Valuation of carbon embedded: There are huge differences between how the actual carbon content embedded is calculated and valued in other jurisdictions.
Historical contribution by developing worldin climate change is also very low therefore they cannot be charged for their developmental activities.
FTA agreement and zero duties: It is still not clear that whether CBAM will be applicable in the FTA or not. For e.g If India enters into FTA with EU, then there are chances that EU will impose CBAM making Indian products costly. But India might not reciprocate it leading to zero duties and flooding of Indian markets by EU products.
Other factors for Industrial location: Just the stringent environmental norms do not govern the shift of industries from EU to Asia & Africa. There are other factors also like cheap labour, availability of land, huge markets, government policies etc. So, the E.U’s argument that Industries shift to other areas just to avoid stringent policies is not completely acceptable.
Compliance with WTO: Developing countries have also criticised this legislation on account of violative of WTO’s special and differential treatment provisions.
What can be done?
Funds to developing countries: Experts have suggested that EU could collect the tax and return the funds to such countries to invest in their green technologies.
Own legislations: India can also come up with their own legislations in this regard.
What is Carbon Intensive?
Carbon intensity is a measure of how clean our production is. For e.g in case of electricity, it refers to how many grams of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released to produce a kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
Electricity that’s generated using fossil fuels is more carbon intensive, as the process by which it’s generated creates CO2 emissions.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind, hydro or solar power, produce less CO2 emissions, so their carbon intensity value is much lower.
