Ancient Indian History

Rakhigarhi findings in NCERT Books

Context: Among the latest set of revisions that the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed in school textbooks are additions about findings from the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at the archaeological site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana.

More information from the news:

  • NCERT has stated that study of ancient DNA from archaeological sources in Rakhigarhi, Haryana suggests that the genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE.
  • The DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of the south Asian population appears to be their descendants.
  • Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
  • The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large-scale immigration of the so-called Aryans.
  • The research indicated that the people coming from the bordering areas and distant regions were absorbed in the Indian society.
  • At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or broken.
  • As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread in those regions.
  • The finding suggests that the reconstructed facial features of the Harappans, male and female, show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana. This implies unbroken continuity for 5000 years in this region.
image 15

About Rakhigarhi

  • It is one of the five biggest townships of Harappan Civilization, located in Rakhigarhi, Hisar in Haryana. According to archaeologists, it is the largest site in terms of area in the Indus Valley Civilisation Sites.
  • Five interconnected mounds spread in a huge area to form the Rakhigarhi’s unique site.
  • This site was excavated by Amarendra Nath of the Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Rakhigarhi presents existence of civilisation from the early phase, mature phase and late phase of Indus Valley Civilisation.
  • The site has both mudbrick as well as burnt-brick houses with a proper drainage system.
  • The ceramic industry was represented by red ware, which included dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jar, goblet and ‘handis’ (pans).
  • Other antiquities included blades; terracotta and shell bangles; beads of semi precious stones, terracotta, shell and copper objects; animal figurines, toy cart frame and wheel of terracotta; bone points; inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
  • Necropolis: The excavations have yielded a few extended burials, which certainly belong to a very late stage, may be the medieval times. A rare grave having double burial of a male and female has been found here.
  • Ritual system: Animal sacrificial pit lined with mud brick and triangular and circular fire altars on the mud floor have also been excavated pointing to the ritual system of Harappans.
  • A cylindrical seal with 5 Harappan characters on one side and a symbol of an alligator on the other side is an important find from this site.
  • A site has been found which is believed to be a jewellery making unit.

Harappan Civilisation:

  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history.
  • It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.

Societal Features:

  • The society of the IVC displayed distinct urban characteristics, organized into three primary segments:
    • an affluent elite residing in the fortified citadel region. 
    • a prosperous middle class consisting of merchants.
    • a less privileged segment comprising laborers dwelling in the lower areas of the cities.
  • This societal structure was underpinned by a complex division of labor, leading to a diversified and stratified community comprising scholars, artisans, traders, warriors. 
  • Evidence from archaeological findings suggests that the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant reverence for the feminine aspect of divinity, indicative of a matriarchal influence. 
  • Abundance of terracotta female figurines discovered across various sites, symbolizing the respect of the Great Mother Goddess.
  • Garments within the IVC were crafted from diverse materials such as cotton, silk, and wool.
  • Furthermore, the presence of woven cloth at the Great bath in Mohenjodaro suggests a sophisticated understanding of spinning and weaving among the inhabitants.
  • The Civilization IVC relied predominantly on copper and bronze, with no knowledge of iron usage at the time.
    • Copper was primarily sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin likely originated from Afghanistan.
  • Harappans possessed minimal armaments and weaponry. Instead, their focus lay on technological and cultural pursuits.
  • The presence of massive brick structures across various sites indicates a specialized class of masons and underscores the significance of brick-laying as a vital craft in civilization.
  • People engaged in a diverse area of crafts, including boat-making, bead-making, and seal-making.
    • Excavations at sites such as Chanhudaro and Lothal have revealed workshops dedicated to bead-making.
  • Seals, primarily crafted from steatite, were a prominent feature of IVC culture.
    • While many seals were fashioned from steatite, others were crafted from materials such as gold, ivory, chert, and agate.
    • Played a crucial role in trade activities, serving as markers of authenticity and authority in commercial transactions.

Polity: 

  • Conclusive evidence is lacking.
  • Some scholars suggest that the absence of clear evidence implies a society where all individuals enjoyed equal status, without centralized rulership.
  • Conversely, another perspective explains the presence of multiple rulers, each representing different urban centres, rather than a single overarching authority.
  • However, the remarkable uniformity in tools, weapons, brickwork, seals, and urban architecture hints at the potential existence of a centralized political authority.
    • The planning evident in street layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and citadels suggests the presence of a robust central government overseeing urban planning and administration.
    • This authority might have been wielded by a class of merchants, which is supported by the notable absence of temples in Indus Valley Civilization sites. 
  • However, it's essential to acknowledge that without any conclusive evidence, the precise nature of political organization in the Indus Valley Civilization is open to interpretation.

Economy: 

  • Agriculture thrived in the IVC due to favourable climatic conditions and fertile land.
    • Cultivated: rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melons, peas, lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, and jowar.
    • Rainfed agriculture predominated, relying on seasonal rains for irrigation.
    • Agricultural artifacts: wooden plough in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), the granary in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan), and evidence of barley cultivation in Banawali (Rajasthan) underscore the significance of agriculture in the civilization.
    • The Indus people were pioneers in cotton cultivation and employed bulls and oxen for ploughing.
  • The Harappans engaged in extensive trade involving stone, metals, and shells, both within and beyond their region.
    • Trade routes facilitated both inter-regional and intra-regional commerce.
    • Unlike metal currency, trade relied on a barter system.
    • The IVC maintained maritime trade routes along the Arabian Sea coast, with a trading outpost established in northern Afghanistan, facilitating trade with Central Asia.
    • Economic ties were also established with regions such as Tigris and Euphrates, Mesopotamia, and Persia, as evidenced by Mesopotamian records mentioning trade relations with 'Meluha' (the ancient name for the Indus region) and trading ports like 'Dilmun' and 'Makan'.
    • Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls, and ebony from Meluha and exported garments, perfumes, leather goods, and silver to the IVC.

Near Kutch Harappan graveyard, a skeleton & the key to a puzzle

Context: Archaeologists have found a human skeleton at a Harappan site (Padta Bet) in Gujarat. 

Padta Bet site of Indus Valley Civilisation: 

  • In 2018, archaeologists had unearthed a mass burial site with 500 graves on the outskirts of Khatiya village in Gujarat's Kutch district. 
  • In the recent excavations, the finding of the skeleton, along with pottery artefacts and animal bones, from, nearby Padta Bet site, point to the presence of a 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement that was nearby the mass burial ground of Juna Khatiya, an Early Harappan necropolis (a cemetery, especially a large one belonging to an ancient city). 
    • The latest find supports the theory that the graveyard site may have served as a common facility for a cluster of several such smaller settlements.
    • A network of such small Harappan settlements around the necropolis might have played a significant role in the cultural formation of Early Harappan and subsequent occupations in this arid area.
  • Researchers identified two localities where the archaeological deposits were found during excavation: 
    • Locality 2 with artefacts from the Early Harappan era (3,200 BC to 2,600 BC), Mature Harappan era (2600 BC to 1900 BC) and Late Harappan era (1900 BC to 1700 BC). 
    • Locality 1 with artefacts dating back to the Mature Harappan era and Late Harappan era. 
  • Pottery artefacts and the animal bones, representing cattle, sheep or goat and shell fragments point to possible animal domestication. These findings indicate the occupational practices of the Harappan people.
  • The excavations of the ceramic artefacts, and give information about one of the unidentified pottery traditions of the Harappans. 
  • Semi Precious stone beads made of carnelian and agate, terracotta spindle whorls, copper, lithic tools, grinding stones and hammer stones are also found from the site. 

Harappan Civilisation: 

  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history. It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.

For more information: https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/history/harappan-civilisation/

Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley:

Context: The Rock art sites of the Chambal Valley have been included in the UNESCO’s Tentative list of World Heritage Sites. 

About Chambal Site:

image 6

(Battle scene, on a rock painting from Chambal Valley)

  • Chambal Basin and Central India region contain the largest concentration of known rock art sites in the world.
  • Rock art sites have thrived in the hilly areas: Vindhyan, Satpura, and Kaimur ranges.
  • These rock art sites are from: Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Megalithic, and Proto Historic periods. 
  • Currently, only Chaturbhujnath Nala is partially protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
  • Chambal River:
    • Known as Charmavati in ancient times, it originates from the Malwa trap zone.
    • Covers: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
  • Earliest traces of human habitation in the region are Acheulean tools, including cleavers, hand axes, scrapers, cores, have been found here.
  • Chambal basin rock art includes: Cupules, with the oldest ones found at Darki, Madhya Pradesh. 

Note: 

  • Rock cupules are artificially made depressions on rock surfaces that resemble the shape of an inverse spherical cap or dome. 
  • They were made by direct percussion with hand-held hammer-stones, on vertical, sloping or horizontal rock surfaces.
  • Petroglyphs (cupules) discovered at Chattaneshwar and Kanyadeh (Rajasthan). 
  • Bhanpura (Madhya Pradesh) area also boasts a significant collection of petroglyphs.
  • Engraved ostrich egg shells found at Chandrasel in Kota district (Rajasthan) date back approximately 40,000 years B.P.
  • Rock art themes during the Mesolithic period:
    • Scenes from the lives of simple hunting and gathering societies. 
    • Painted animals in this period were adorned with abstract designs like triangles.
    • Bichrome paintings (in two colours) were a notable feature of Mesolithic rock art.
  • Chalcolithic period: 
    • Pastoralism and cattle herding became prominent themes
    • Economic importance of Humped cattle: It is appearing in about ninety percent of the rock art depictions.
    • Cattle were also depicted in other art forms like terracotta bull figures, seals, and sealings.
    • Red and its variants were the most commonly used pigments.
  • Chalcolithic sites in Chambal basin: 
    • Ahar (Rajasthan), Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh) and Malwa (Malwa region of Central India and parts of Maharashtra in the Deccan Peninsula.
    • Ahar culture, dating around 3600-1500 B.C.E., is believed to be the first to settle in the Basin and establish settlements.
    • Ahar culture sites: Balathal, Gilund, and Ojiyana (Rajasthan). 
  • Not much information about the rock paintings from the Megalithic phase have been found: 
    • However, a few dolmens with cup marks have been discovered. 
    • Also, cup marks were found on the capstones of dolmens and on boulders within stone circles from the Kotra Vihar (Madhya Pradesh). 
  • Early Historical period: 
    • Rock art is typically found in isolated locations near perennial water sources.
    • These locations also contain remnants of ancient temples or mounds from this historical era.
    • Many of these sites have temples dedicated to deities like Shiva or mother goddesses.
    • Significant social, political, and economic change: 
      • Establishment of states, organized religions, and the use of written scripts, all of which are reflected in the rock art of this era.
      • Rock art from this period is work of warriors, war refugees, elite hunters, or local tribal communities who sought refuge or temporary shelter in these rock shelters during wars or hunting expeditions.
    • Symbols and designs with religious significance in rock art: fire altars, kalashas, swastikas, triratna, and alpana patterns.
    • Art reflects themes and designs from local traditions, including rangoli patterns and depictions of human forms.
    • Rock art includes representations of Hindu deities like Ganesha, Rama.  
    • Religious Sites in the Chambal Basin: Bhimlat Mahadev, Chatturbhuj Nath Nala, Garadia Mahadev, Bukki Mata, Chattaneshwar, Kanyadeh, Narsinghgarh, Kotra Vihar Jogania Mata, and Gepadnath. 

Mesolithic Culture: 

  • Mesolithic sites are found in most parts of India.
  • Sites: Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka).
  • Rock shelter sites: Lekhakia and Baghai Khor in Uttar Pradesh; Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. 
  • Rock paintings: Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Raisin and Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh and South Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh are some of the sites. 
  • Coastal sites: Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. 
  • In India, Mesolithic cultures appeared around 10,000 BCE.
  • In certain parts of India including Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it continued up to 1000 BCE, till the beginning of the Iron Age. 
  • Hunting wild animals and gathering plant food and fishing were people’s main occupation during this age. 
  • Agriculture was not practised in the early stages. At the end of the Mesolithic period, humans domesticated animals and paved the way for the Neolithic way of life.
  • They made temporary huts and also used caves and rock shelters.
    • Many caves and shelters feature paintings.
    • Circular huts are seen in rock paintings.
    • Traces of oval and circular huts and possible wattle daub are found in Chopani Mando and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh and Bagor and Tilwara in Rajasthan.
  • Mesolithic people buried the dead.
    • Suggests their beliefs and humane relationships.
    • Human skeletons have been found in Mahadaha, Damdama and Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh.
    • One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave good.

Chalcolithic Culture: 

  • The Pre Harappan cultures are the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India, and they are found in the time before the beginning of the mature phase of the Harappan culture, and continued to exist in the later period.
  • Unlike the mature urban phase of the Harappan civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on farming, generally rural in nature.
  • They used copper and stone blades and pottery and also low-grade iron in the later period.
  • Their settlements were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
  • In the north western and western regions of India, the early farming cultures are associated with the Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.
  • The Chalcolithic people also began to domesticate animals in addition to agriculture.
  • The houses were made of stone, mud bricks, mud and perishable wooden materials, and built on a stone foundation.
  • People used black and red ware and black on red ware pottery.
  • These sites have produced a large quantity of copper objects, such as flat axes, bangles, rings, knives, blades, socket-less axes, barbed and tanged arrowheads, choppers and chisels. 

Ahar-Banas Culture: 

  • A Chalcolithic archaeological culture on the banks of the Ahar River of southeastern Rajasthan.
  • Dated: from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE.
  • Contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley civilization.
  • Sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley.
  • More than 90 sites of the Ahar culture have been identified to date.
  • A number of sites with Ahar culture level are also found from Jawad, Mandsaur, Kayatha and Dangwada in Madhya Pradesh state.
  • Rajasthan: Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara, Ajmer, Tonk and Bhilwara districts.
  • Based on the pottery excavated here, this site is considered as a separate archaeological culture. 
  • Ahar pottery is a Black-and-red ware (BRW) with linear and dotted designs painted on it in white pigment.

For more information: 

  1. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/history/fusion-of-rock-art/
  2. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/paleolithic-tool-mulugu-district-telangana/
  3. https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/neolithic-era-celt-found/
  4. https://compass.rauias.com/ancient-history/megalithic/

Many, not one Ramyana

Context: In Ganga River basin the pivotal Ramayana narrative is the 16th-century Ramcharitmanas of Goswami Tulsidas, written in Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the existence of numerous Ramayanas beyond the Hindi belt, crafted over the last 2,000 years, each deserving equal respect.

Introduction:

image 110
  • Multiple versions of the Indian Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana, are known to exist.
  • The oldest among them is widely acknowledged to be the Sanskrit version known as the Mula Ramayana, attributed to the sage Narada.
  • Narada passed down this knowledge to Valmiki, who then authored the Valmiki Ramayana, which is currently considered the oldest available version of the epic.
  • The core themes of the original Ramayana transcend linguistic boundaries, finding expression in diverse regional cultures and artistic forms.

Influences:

  1. Portrayal of the epic in the Lkhaon Khmer dance theatre in Cambodia.
  2. Ramanattam and Kathakali of Kerala.
  3. Mappila Songs of the Muslims in Kerala and Lakshadweep.
  4. Indian dance tradition of Yakshagana, Karnataka. 
  5. Paintings adorning the walls of Thailand's Wat Phra Kaew palace temple.
  6. In Indonesia, the Ramayana tales are reflected in traditional dance performances such as Sendratari Ramayana and Kecak.

Diverse adaptations of the Ramayana, each reflecting unique cultural perspectives:

  • Andhra Pradesh:
    • Sri Ranganatha Ramayanam by Gona Budda Reddy (1300-1310 CE). 
    • Srimadramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Sri Viswanatha Satyanarayana, awarded the first Jnanpith award in Telugu.
  • Assam: Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali (14th century).
  • Bengal:
    • Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha (15th century). 
    • Ramananda Ghosh's 18th-century translation depicted Rama as an avatar of Buddha; 
  • Odisha:
    • The 15th-century Odia Dandi Ramayana mentions Ram enjoying mangoes provided by a tribal woman, later transforming into the widely known story of Shabari's berries in the 18th-century Bhakti-rasa-prabodhini.
  • Bihar:
    • Mithila Bhasha Ramayana by Chanda Jha. 
    • Rameshwar Charit Mithila by Lal Das.
  • Gujarat: Tulsi-Krta Ramayana, a Gujarati adaptation by Premanand Swami (17th century).
  • Karnataka:
    • Kumudendu Ramayana (Jain version)
    • Ramachandra Charita Purana by Nagachandra (12th century).
  • Kerala:
    • Ramacharitam, based on Yuddha Kanda, by Cheeraman (12th century);
    • Mappila Ramayanam among the Muslims.
  • Maharashtra: Bhavartha Ramayana by Sant Eknath (16th century).
  • Uttar Pradesh (Awadh): Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas (16th century).
  • Tamil Nadu:
    • Kamba Ramayanam by poet Kamban (12th century), a popular Tamil version.
    • 7th-century Tamil songs of Alwar poet-saints portray Ram playfully trying to straighten Manthara's humped back as a child.
  • Persian: A Persian version commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1558–1590, known as the Ramayana of Akbar.
  • Urdu: An Urdu version called the Pothi Ramayana was written in 1776.

Versions in Other Indian Religions:

  • Jainism:
    • Paumachariyam, a Jain version, asserts that all characters in the Ramayana were mere mortals.
    • Characters depicted as Jains; Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites. 
    • Ravana is not killed by Rama in the Jain version.
  • Buddhist Version of Ramayana:
    • Dasharatha was king of Benares, not Ayodhya.
    • This version does not feature Sita's kidnapping or the Ram-Ravan war.
    • Dasarata Jataka, notable for regarding Rama as a bodhisattva.
    • Characters in the Ramayana are considered mere mortals in conflict over moral issues.
  • Sikh Version:
    • Mention of two sorts of Ramayana in the highest Sikh text.
    • Spiritual Ramayana in Guru Granth Sahib, where Ravana represents ego, Sita represents intellect, Rama represents the inner Self, and Laxman represents attention. 
    • Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges Dashavatara as monarchs who restored order to the earth.
    • King Rama (Ramchandra) is mentioned, but no Guru authored a full Ramayana.

Various versions outside India:

  • Japan: Known as Ramaenna or Ramaensho.
  • Cambodia: Reamker is the local adaptation.
  • Indonesia: In Bali, there is Ramakavaca; Java features Kakawin Ramayana and Yogesvara Ramayana; Sumatra presents Ramayana Swarnadwipa.
  • Thailand: The local version is called Ramakien.
  • Nepal: Siddhi Ramayana (Nepal Bhasa) and Bhanubhaktako Ramayan (Nepali language).
  • Sri Lanka: Known as Janakiharan.

Ram Temple at Ayodhya built in Nagara style of temple architecture

Ram Temple at Ayodhya

  • The original design was given by the Sompura family of Ahmedabad in 1988. The Sompura family for at least 15 generations has contributed to temple designs of over 100 temples worldwide. Example: Somnath Temple
  • In 2022, a new design was prepared by the Sompuras, as per the Hindu texts, the Vastu Shastra and the Shilpa Shastra. 
  • The Ram mandir will be 250 feet wide, 380 feet long and 161 feet high. 
  • Predominantly designed in the Gurjara-Chaulukya (Maru-Gurjara) style of Nagara style of architecture. 
  • Main structure will be built on a raised platform with three storeys. 
  • The temple will have five mandapas in the middle of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and on the entrance passage. 
  • It will consist of a total of 366 columns and these columns will have 16 idols each to include the incarnations of Shiva, the 10 Dashavataras, the 64 Chausath Yoginis, and the 12 incarnations of the goddess Saraswati. 
  • Sandstone from Baansi in Rajasthan will be used. 
  • Iron will not be used in the construction of the temple and the fusion of stone blocks with copper plates will be done. 
  • Thailand is also symbolically contributing to the inauguration of the temple, by sending soil to the Ram Janmabhoomi. Prior to this the country has also sent water from two rivers in Thailand to honour the temple. 
Maru-Gurjara Architecture or Solanki style: The style originated from that of the dynasties preceding the Solanki dynasty, mainly the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Reached zenith from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chalukya dynasty of Gujarat (Solanki dynasty). Although originated as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became popular in Jain temples. Features:Curvilinear ShikharaFree standing Kirti ToranaKunda or a temple tankHeavy carvings on ceilings of MandapaHigh plinths Balconies looking out on multiple side

Nagara style of temple architecture:

  • Emerged sometime in the 5th century CE, during the late Gupta period, in Northern India. 
  • Seen in juxtaposition with the Dravidian style of southern India, which too emerged in the same period. 
  • Nagara and Dravida may be called ‘Styles’, but they cover vast areas and time spans. 
  • Different sub-schools emerged in western, central and eastern parts of the country. 
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Features of Nagara Temple Architecture 

  • Panchayatana style of temple making: Consisting of subsidiary shrines laid out in a crucified ground plan with respect to the principal shrine. 
  • Garbha-Griha (sanctum sanctorum): Idol of the deity is placed and is most sacred part of the temple. Images of the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, are placed outside the garbhagriha. 
  • Assembly halls or mandaps, in front of the principal shrine.
  • Unlike Dravida temples, water tanks or reservoirs are not present in the temple premises.
  • Built on upraised platforms. 
  • Shikharas: These are human-made representations of the natural and cosmological order, as imagined in Hindu tradition.
    • Depending on the period and geography, there is a large variation in what a shikhara looks like, or how it is used in a temple’s design.
    • Types of Shikharas: 
      • Latina or rekha-prasad: Square at the base and the walls curve inward to a point on the top.
      • Phamsana: Broader base and were shorter in height than the Latina ones; Slope upwards on a straight line.
      • Valabhi: Rectangular base with the roof rising into vaulted chambers;  Emerged in the Gupta heartland. 
      • Bhumija: Miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows; Created a grid-like effect on each face.
  • Amalaka (horizontal fluted disc): At the vertical end of the shikhara. 
  • Kalash: In spherical shape on top. 
  • Vertical planes: 
    • Triratha temples.
    • Later, pancharatha, saptaratha and even navaratha temples came into existence.
    • Used as different panels to make narrative sculptures.
  • Covered Ambulatory passageway (Pradakshina-path): Around the sanctum sanctorum. 
  • Temple premises did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
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Regional schools of Nagara Style 

Central India/ Khajuraho school or Chandela School

  • Chandelas in the centre of India around 1000 AD created this style of temple construction known as the Khajuraho School or Chandela School.
  • It is made of sandstone.
  • Generally north or east facing.
  • These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that serves as the garbhagriha.
  • This temple is in the panchayatana style.
  • The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple.
  • Examples: Khajuraho, Kandariya Mahadeo temple, in Madhya Pradesh
image 410

                                               Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khajuraho

Western India/Solanki Style

There are two schools that developed in Gujarat & Rajasthan these are Solanki school in Gujarat and Jain Temples in Mount Abu.

Gujarat School

  • The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type with sandstone being the most common construction material employed.
  • Presence of a hundred-square-metre rectangular pond(suryakund). 
  • A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides.
  • Example: Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat

Rajasthan School

  • Use of white marble.
  • The walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carving and are left plain as the temple faces the east.
  • The ornamental detail spreads over the minutely carved ceilings, doorways, pillars, and panels.
  • Example: Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu

East India Temple Architecture

There are three schools that developed in east India these are Assam, Bengal and Odisha School.

Assam School of Temple Architecture

  • It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction. The temple consists of four chambers:
  • garbhagriha and,
  • three mandapas locally called Calanta, Pancaratna and Natamandira.
  • The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.

Bengal School of Temple Architecture

  • Bengal witnessed a temple building spree from the late 15th century.
  • Temple architecture in Bengal got inspired from the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thatched huts in villages, which housed local deities.
  • Dochala (two-roofed style)
  • Chauchala (four-roofed style)
  • Temples were usually built on a square platform.
  • Interior of the temples were relatively plain, but the outer walls of these temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.
  • In the Bishnupur group of temples in Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.
  • This style also incorporated elements of the dome and multilobe arch of Islamic architecture.
  • Elements of Bengal Temple architecture were adopted outside Bengal as well. 

Odisha School of Temple Architecture

  • The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
  • The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
  • Also known as Kalinga School
  • The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra.
  • The Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a tower and a hall.
  • The tower is called deula and hall is called Jagmohan.
  • The walls of both the deula and the Jagmohan are lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of figures.
  • The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas. It is dual or deula which makes three distinct types of temples in Kalinga Architecture.
  • These temples usually have boundary walls.

Jagannath Puri, Odisha 

Temple Architecture in Hills

There are two schools that developed in Himalayan region of India these are Kumaon,Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir School.

Kumaon School

  • The central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers on each side.
  • The main entrance is located at the front of the central tower, while several other entrances are located at each of its sides.
  • These entrances are all decorated with intricate carvings depicting various scenes from mythology.
  • The main entrance faces east
  • The main temple complex includes four large halls or mandapas.
  • Jageshwar in Almora, Uttarakhand 

Himachal School

  • Wooden buildings
  • It looks like a hut, with an intricately carved wooden entrance, interior and ceiling.
  • Laksna Devi Mandir, Himachal Pradesh

Kashmir School of Temple Architecture

  • Wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
  • The main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture.
  • Pandrethan temple is built on a plinth built in the middle of a tank.
  • The temple is moderately ornamented.
  • Pandrethan temple or Pani Mandir, Badami bagh, Srinagar

Thiruvalluvar: Tamil Poet

Context: The Governor of Tamil Nadu paid tributes to a portrait of Tamil poet saint ‘Thiruvalluvar’ in saffron robes and described him as a saint of the ‘Bharatiya Sanatan’ tradition. This has revived a controversy, opposing the attempt to ‘saffronise’ Thiruvalluvar. 

About Thiruvalluvar: 

  • Valluvar was an ancient saint, poet, and prominent philosopher in the Tamil region, and his significant contributions are particularly evident in his work, 'Thirukurral.'
  • Comprising 1330 couplets, this collection holds a special place in every Tamil household. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam.
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Note: 

The Three Sangam Councils: These councils were held in the Pandyan Kingdom. 

  1. First Sangam, was held in Madurai, and was attended by legendary sages. No book or literary work of this Sangam is available. Sage Agastya is believed to have chaired the first Sangam. 
  2. Second Sangam, was convened in Kapadapuram. The only surviving literary work is Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar. 
  3. Third Sangam was held in Madurai. The literary works from this Sangam provide useful sources to reconstruct the history of Sangam period. 
  • Various communities in the Tamil region regard Valluvar as the 64th Nayanmar of the Saivite tradition.
    • The renowned Mylapore temple, constructed in the early 16th century, stands as a testament to the deep reverence for Valluvar.
    • The temple is situated within the Ekambareeswara-Kamakshi (Shiva-Parvati) temple complex in Mylapore, Chennai. 
  • Valluvar influenced and shaped the perspectives of numerous scholars and he presented views on ethical, social, political, philosophical, spiritual and economic domains.  
  • Authentic information about Valluvar's life remains scarce as neither his true name nor the original title can be found in Tirukkural. 
  • The earliest known textual reference to the legend of Valluvar is found in the Shaivite Tamil text Thiruvalluva Malai.

Religious affiliation:

  • It is a subject of debate, with conjectures placing him within either Jainism or Hinduism.
  • Some scholars argue that Valluvar's writings align more closely with Hinduism, as evidenced by the integration of his teachings in Tirukkural with Hindu texts.
  • Also, Valluvar's treatment of the concept of ahimsa (non-violence), which is an important tenet in both Jainism and Hinduism, further supports the claim.

About Tirukkural:

  • It is divided into three parts: aram (virtue), porul (wealth), and inbam (love).
  • Valluvar text predominantly addresses the three aspects directly but it does not explicitly cover vitu (moksha or release).
  • The concept of turavaram (renunciation) is explored, serving as a means to achieve spiritual liberation. Hence, vitu is indirectly discussed within the Kural text.
  • The couplets are organized into 133 sections, each containing 10 couplets.
  1. Book I (Aram): Deals with the moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy.
  2. Book II (Porul): Explores socio-economic values, polity and statecraft, and administration.
  3. Book III (Inbam): Addresses psychological values and the theme of love.
  • Valluvar presents his theory of the state through six key elements: Army (Patai), Subjects (Kuti), Treasure (Kul), Ministers (Amaiccu), Allies (Natpu), and Forts (Aran).
  • Valluvar recommends the establishment of forts and other infrastructure, along with adequate supplies and food storage, in preparation for potential sieges.
  • While sharing similarities with the teachings found in Arthasastra, Valluvar's perspectives differ in some crucial aspects.
  • Example: Valluvar's theory of the state, the army (patai) emerges as the most vital element, in contrast to Kautilya's emphasis on King.

Philosophy: 

  • Contrary to being a mystic or purely philosophical document, Tirukkural is centred on the comprehensive understanding of human relationships and is renowned for its concept of 'Pragmatic idealism.'
  • Valluvar's philosophy places the 'common man' at its core, emphasizing the need for individuals to lead virtuous lives, uphold human values, promote social harmony and actively engage in political life. 

On Religion and Spirituality: 

  1. He glorifies significant divine attributes without specifying a particular deity by name.
  2. This approach leads people to perceive the teachings in the Kural text as not being attributed to any specific God or religion.
  3. He envisioned a harmonious society where diverse communities from various sects coexist peacefully, thus advocating for a monotheistic divinity.
  4. He intentionally avoided discussing moksha or liberation and emphasized on the importance of living a virtuous and honest life on Earth.
  5. He believes that individuals who exhibit virtue in their domestic, social, political, and moral spheres will experience abundant joy in all aspects of life.

On Administration and Governance:

  1. Democracy: He did not endorse democracy but accepted Royalty with ministers bound by a code of ethics and a system of justice.
  2. At the same time, the Kural text, cautions against tyranny, appeasement, and oppression, suggesting that such behaviour leads to disasters, depletion of state wealth, and the loss of power and prosperity.

Governance:

  1. He asserts that “just as living beings thrive with good rainfall, citizens flourish when a king governs justly”.
  2. He advised rulers to avoid cruelty, as a lack of daily examination of wrongdoings and the absence of justice will lead to the downfall of the kingdom.
  3. He highlighted the ruler's duty to protect the realm from terrorism, warning that a failure to control such threats will result in the loss of peace. 
  4. Role of ministers is crucial, as they are expected to assist in the smooth administration of the kingdom, understanding the nature of undertakings and offering advice when necessary to the King.
  5. He underscored the necessity of maintaining good relationships with neighbouring countries through envoys for peaceful coexistence.

On Business:

  1. He advocated for eternal values and moral principles which will govern the conduct of business leaders.

Read also:

Sangam LiteratureSangam Society
Sangam PolityDynasties of Sangam Age

12th General Assembly of the Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace (ABCP)

image 81

Context: Vice President of India inaugurated the 12th General Assembly of the Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace (ABCP) at New Delhi. The theme of 12th General Assembly is “The Buddhist Voice of Global South”. The 11th ABCP General Assembly was held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

About Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace (ABCP): 

  • Brief Background: The roots of founding of ABCP lay in the Cold War Politics of peace movements and consolidation of allies and building popular outreach among masses through various organizations. 
  • Founded in: 1970, as a voluntary movement of followers of Buddhism with both monastic (monks) and lay members that carries out its activities based on the noble teachings of Lord Buddha. 
  • Established by: Religious Buddhist leaders from India, Sri Lanka and Nepal.
  • Members: North and South Korea, Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Central Tibetan Administration in Dharamshala, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Japan, Mongolia and Russia.
  • Headquarter:  Gandanthegchenling Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
  • Regional centers: ABCP Japan Center, ABCP Lao National Center and ABCP Vietnam Center.
  • Activities: It published a journal "Dharmaduta' and maintained close working relations with several organization such as Christian Peace Conference, Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Organization, the Russian Orthodox Church etc.
  • Aims of ABCP: Striving to disseminate and implement the teaching of the Lord Buddha - the Enlightened One, on peace and harmony, compassion and loving kindness for all sentient beings.
    • Bring together efforts of Buddhists in support of consolidating universal peace, harmony and cooperation among peoples of Asia,
    • Furthering their economic and social advancement and promoting respect for justice and human dignity, and,
    • Disseminating the Buddhist culture, tradition and heritage.
  • Achievements: The United Nations granted the ABCP the status of an accredited Non-Governmental Organisation with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

Appointment of Archakas in Agamic temples

Context: The Supreme Court issued an order maintaining the current state of affairs regarding the appointment of archakas (priests) in Agamic temples in Tamil Nadu. An association of archakas, had contested reforms introduced by the government, which were perceived as an attempt to alter the hereditary system of appointing archakas in Agama temples.

More about the news: 

  • The petitioners sought the annulment of the state government's orders, which paved the way for individuals trained in Agama Sastra, regardless of caste and gender, to assume the role of priests.
  • The petitioners alleged that the state government was illicitly trying to appoint non-believers as archakas, which they argued violated religious rights safeguarded by the Constitution. 
    • They contended that expertise in the Agamas, which are significant religious practices, could not be acquired through a one-year certificate course offered by the government but required years of rigorous training under knowledgeable Gurus.
    • It pointed out that prominent Shaivite and Vaishnavite temples in Tamil Nadu were built according to Agamas and worship therein is as per Agamas.
    • It is well settled that a secular Government does not have the power to interfere with essential religious practices, as such a right is well protected under the Constitution of India. Agamas undoubtedly pertains to an essential religious practice, which cannot be tampered with by the Government”.

About ‘Archakas’ and ‘Yajakas’: 

  • The term "Yajaka" finds its origins in the Sanskrit word "yaja," which encompasses the concepts of sacrifice. Those who actively partake in worship or sacrificial rites, along with those who support them, are collectively referred to as "Yajis."
  • "Yajanam" signifies the act of worship, while "yajamana" denotes the individual who sponsors and hosts the ritual with their patronage.
  • The practice of yaja dates back to the Vedic era.
  • The Yajurveda has given sacrificial prayers or formula. It stands as the second most significant Veda after the Rigveda. Anyone who engages in ritualistic worship of God is considered a Yajaka. 
  • An "archaka" is someone who worships an "arca," which signifies an image of God.
  • In traditional Vaishnavism, an "arca" represents a living incarnation of God in the form of an image. This image may be crafted from various materials such as stone, wood, clay, gemstones, gold, silver, bronze, or alloys, but it is treated as an embodiment of God.
  • To become an archaka, individuals typically receive initiation or "Deekshai" and undergo sacred rituals, often guided by their Guru or Acharya, who is often their fathers. This initiation occurs at a tender age, typically between five and seven years, and is followed by rigorous Vedic education spanning a minimum of three years.
  • Subsequently, they undergo further training, lasting three to five years, to perform Poojas (ritual worship) and Homams (sacrificial fire ceremonies). Only after this extensive training do they assume the role of archakas.

Role of Archakas or Yajakas:

  • In Vaishnavism, an archaka is unequivocally considered an incarnation of Hari (God). This perspective is mirrored in Saivism as well.
  • Archakas occupy a paramount role in society as they ensure the proper worship of deities in accordance with scriptural guidelines.
  • By keeping the Deities content, they prevent misfortunes and calamities, fostering peace, prosperity, and the well-being of communities in the towns and villages where temples are located.
  • Scriptures emphasize that when priests perform worship with pure intentions and utmost sincerity, it brings abundant blessings to all. 

Worship in Hinduism:

  • In Hinduism, devotees have the option to engage in worship of their chosen deities through two distinct approaches: external worship (bahya) involving specific rituals, prayers, and offerings, or internal worship (antah), which relies on mental visualization and spiritual connection.
  • The practice of mental worship, known as "manasa puja," is often regarded as more potent and profound in its effects. It entails invoking the divine presence within one's consciousness and devotion.
  • External worship can be performed by a devotee directly, without any intermediary, or indirectly with the guidance and assistance of a trained priest. 
  • Traditionally, the responsibility of conducting worship ceremonies in Hindu temples falls upon individuals known as priests. These priests go by different titles such as "archakas" and "yajakas," depending on their specific roles and responsibilities within the temple.
  • In Vaishnava temples, the participation of a priest is typically indispensable for the worship of deities. The intricate rituals and customs involved in Vaishnava worship necessitate the expertise of a trained priest to ensure their proper execution.
  • However, in Saiva temples, devotees have more flexibility. They can choose to worship the deity directly, engaging in rituals and prayers without the need for a priest's involvement, or they may opt to receive guidance and assistance from a temple priest, depending on their personal preferences and beliefs.

Agamas and Tantras: 

  • The Agamas are a compilation of diverse Tantric texts and scriptures from various Hindu schools. The term "Agama" translates to tradition or passed-down knowledge.
  • The term "Agama" signifies "that which has come to us," reflecting its transmission across generations, and "Tantra" means "that which protects with detail."
  • The Agamic and Tantric texts fall into three primary categories: Vaishnava Agamas, Saiva Agamas, and Sakta Tantras, though this classification is not exhaustive. Vaishnava and Saiva texts are typically called Agamas, while Tantra is often associated with Sakta texts. However, technically, Tantra is an integral part of Agama, and these terms are often used interchangeably.
  • These Agama texts encompass a wide range of subjects, including cosmology, philosophy, meditation techniques, yoga, mantras, temple construction and deity worship.
  • They are available in both Tamil and Sanskrit languages.
  • Although Agamic traditions are often associated with Tantrism, the term "Tantra" specifically refers to Shakta Agamas.
  • The Agama literature is extensive, comprising 28 Shaiva Agamas, 64 Shakta Agamas (also known as Tantras), and 108 Vaishnava Agamas (also called Pancharatra Samhitas), along with numerous Upa-Agamas.
  • The origin and chronology of Agamas remain uncertain, with some possibly of Vedic origin and others not. While some scholars suggest they date back to over 1100 BCE, epigraphical and archaeological evidence indicates their existence during the Pallava dynasty era in the middle of the 1st millennium CE.
  • It's important to note that Hindu Agama texts contain passages challenging the authority of the Vedas while asserting that they reveal the Vedas' true essence.
  • Additionally, the Agamic literary genre can also be found in Sramaṇic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism. 
  • The Agamas outline three essential requirements for a place of pilgrimage:
    • Sthala (temple location),
    • Tirtha (temple water tank), and
    • Murti (deity image)
  • They provide detailed rules for Silpa, the art of sculpture, including quality standards for temple locations, types of images, materials, dimensions, proportions, air circulation, and lighting within the temple complex.
  • Daily worship rituals at temples follow Agama-set rules.

Agamas and Tantras are profound sources of wisdom that enrich and guide various aspects of Hindu spiritual and cultural life.

Yelagiri Hut Shelters

Context: More than two centuries ago, over 200 Malaiyali tribes built traditional clay huts on the flat peak of the picturesque Yelagiri hill in northern Tamil Nadu establishing an all-encompassing system for shelter, storage, farming, and cattle. 

image 4

About Yelagiri Hut Shelters:

  • Tribespeople settled in upper Nillavur, Yelagiri, and became foragers turned farmers who began cultivating its tabletop peak for food. They used local red loam clay to build 16x22 feet one-room homes, replacing huts.
  • The hut was meant for people to live in but eventually turned into a storage space for the seeds we collected before the sowing period began. Once the land was harvested, that space was occupied by grains till we sold or consumed them.
  • A unique feature of the munn veedu (mud house) or andara kotai (storage facility) is that it stands on a stilt-like structure also made of teak wood. This holds the house two feet above the ground to keep rodents at bay and to prevent the house from flooding during torrential rains. 
  • These shelters are made of dry bamboo leaves the thatched roof is waxed with cow dung to prevent it from leaking during the monsoon season.
  • After the crops were harvested, the area was filled with grains until they were either sold or consumed. This outer layer sometimes gives the impression of the house being smaller than it actually is from the external view. Nonetheless, the interior has ample room to accommodate eight individuals, along with a paran (attic) utilised for storing utensils and various domestic belongings.
  • They employed science to build these houses that remained unaffected come rain, sun, or storm. At the same time, the stilts provided extra storage space under the house that could be used for grains or even poultry.
  • Today, all that remains in the hut is a three-foot-long munn paanai (clay pot) and the remnants of a straw attic that once held an entire year’s worth of grains and seeds. 

About Malaiyali Tribe

  • The Malaiyali tribe – malai meaning “hill” and Yali meaning “people” is strewn across the Eastern Ghats in North Tamil Nadu.
  • They are usually hill farmers and they cultivate different types of millet.
  • They are believed to have ancestral connections to the Vellala caste of cultivators. According to historical accounts, around ten generations ago, there was a migration from the sacred city of Kanchi to the hills of their present-day region. This period coincided with the dominance of Muslim rulers in Southern India.

Neolithic-era celt found in Tamil Nadu

Context: In Poothinatham village, Tamil Nadu, the Department of Archaeology made a noteworthy discovery from the Neolithic period. This find is an ancient celt, crafted from Doloraid stone, which had a dual purpose as both a plough and an axe. This discovery holds great significance in shedding light on the practices and tools used during that time.

Neolithic-era celt found in Tamil Nadu

What is a Neolithic celt?

  • A celt, composed of stone, is an age-old instrument utilized for cutting and shaping. This adaptable tool served as an axe, chisel, or adze, 
  • Application: Widespread uses throughout the Neolithic era in different fields such as woodworking, agriculture, and building.
  • A specific variation of the celt, referred to as a shoe-last celt, was a polished stone tool extensively employed during the early European Neolithic period. Its primary purpose revolved around the felling of trees and engaging in woodworking tasks.
neolithic cultures

Early Neolithic Cultures and the Beginning of Agriculture

  • The advent of agriculture and animal domestication during the Neolithic period marked a significant phase in Indian history. 
  • The crucial era witnessed the emergence of Neolithic culture in various regions such as the Fertile Crescent in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges Valley in India, and China.
  • Surplus food production: 
    • Between 10,000 BCE and 5000 BCE, agriculture sprouted in these areas, leading to numerous cultural advancements.
    • The domestication of animals and plants introduced a plentiful supply of grains and animal food.
    • The fertile soil deposited by rivers contributed to agricultural growth, resulting in surplus grain production.
    • The surplus food production played a pivotal role in the rise of early civilizations, as large villages were established, pottery developed, and permanent residences were constructed.
    • Consequently, the cultural advancements of this era are commonly referred to as the Neolithic revolution. 

The Neolithic Culture of North-Western India 

  • The earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication in India can be traced back to the Neolithic culture in northwestern India.
  • Important Sites: Mehrgarh and Sarai Kala, which are presently located in Pakistan. 
  • Mehrgarh:
    • It has provided evidence of early Neolithic practices dating back to around 7000 BCE. 
    • During this time, the cultivation of wheat and barley was practiced, and sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated. Mehrgar culture predates the Indus Civilization.
    • Phase I: The first cultural period of the Neolithic age at Mehrgarh spans from approximately 7000 to 5500 BCE. The people of this period did not employ pottery, but they cultivated six-row barley, wheat, and dates. These were semi-nomadic pastoral groups who constructed houses using mud and practiced the burial of the deceased.
    • Phase II and III: The second period at Mehrgarh covers the time from about 5500 to 4800 BCE followed by the third period from 4800 to 3500 BCE. Pottery evidence is present during these periods, and terracotta figurines and glazed faience beads have been discovered. Long-distance trade was practiced, as indicated by the presence of Lapis Lazuli, a stone that is exclusively found in Badakshan. The abandonment of the town occurred after the rise of the mature phase of the Indus Civilization.
Excavation at Mehrgarh
Excavation at Mehrgarh

Significance of Mehrgarh

  • Mehrgarh stands out as an important site due to its provision of the earliest and most extensive evidence of cattle, sheep, goat, wheat, and barley domestication, a comprehensive combination of evidence unmatched elsewhere in the world.
  • Dentistry:
    • In addition to agricultural and domestication practices, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh demonstrated knowledge of medicinal herbs and their use for health maintenance, an essential survival skill since prehistoric times.
    • During the Neolithic period, people began consuming ground grain and cooked food, which gave rise to dental and other health issues.
    • Notably, the earliest evidence of drilling a human tooth (belonging to a living person) has been discovered at Mehrgarh, offering a glimpse into early dental practices, which can be considered a precursor to dentistry.

Neolithic Culture of South India 

  • The Neolithic cultures of South India primarily existed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, as well as the north-western part of Tamil Nadu. These sites exhibit a distinct feature of having ash mounds at their centers, surrounded by settlements.
  • Locations: Often situated near granite hills with access to water sources. They can be found in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri. 
  • Some of the prominent Neolithic sites in South India include Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, and Hallur in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu. 
  • Certain early Neolithic sites also exhibit the presence of ash mounds, such as Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh. These sites showcase layers of soft ash and decomposed cow dung. 

Social Organisation 

  • Due to limited evidence, understanding the social organization of Neolithic people poses challenges. However, they transitioned to living in settled or semi-sedentary communities.
  • It is possible that they organized themselves into tribes or similar social units.
  • The presence of small houses suggests the presence of nuclear families within these settlements.
  • The development of ceramics and beads indicates advancements in material cultural production.
  • Burials within houses were practiced, and in some cases, animal burials have also been discovered, suggesting the adoption of rituals and reverence for the deceased.
  • It is possible that they worshipped natural forces.
  • The evidence for art objects is limited, but the existence of terracotta images depicting cattle implies the presence of a fertility cult or similar beliefs.
Neolithic artifact from North-east India
Neolithic artifact from North-east India

Pottery of the Neolithic period

  • The early phases of the Neolithic era are referred to as A-ceramic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic due to the absence of pottery vessels.
  • Containers were crafted using unfired clay, leather, wood, stone, straw, and other materials. Traces of these unfired vases are challenging to find.
  • The earliest instances of hand-made pottery, which are considered visually appealing, can be traced back to the Early Neolithic period. These pottery pieces were typically burnished or monochromatic, featuring painted, incised, or impressed decorations.
  • The most elaborate examples of painted ornamentation are observed in the Middle Neolithic period.
  • Archaeologists speculate that the emergence of agriculture also gave rise to the need for durable and sturdy objects for water transport in irrigation systems, although the development of farming and pottery did not always occur simultaneously.
  • Moreover, the accumulation of grain surpluses such as sorghum, rice, and wheat would have been essential for the sustenance of larger civilizations, with pottery playing a crucial role in storing these surplus crops.

Buddhism as a tool of Soft Power

Context: Nepal, the birthplace of Siddhartha Shakya, known as the Buddha, holds immense historical and cultural significance for Buddhists worldwide. However, despite this rich heritage, Nepal's role in global Buddhist congregations has been limited. This article explores the growing influence of India and China, two emerging superpowers, in defining the future of Buddhism and their utilization of Buddhism as a tool of soft power.

Buddhism as a tool of Soft Power

India's Approach to Buddhism

  • India is the place where Buddha attained his Nirvana and also popularised Buddhism. Hence, many religious sites associated with Buddhism in India are sacred for Buddhist across the globe. 
  • India has long claimed Buddhism as an integral part of its cultural identity. The country sees Buddhism as a symbol of peace and tranquillity, especially during its tumultuous formation as a Republic, marked by religious divisions between Hinduism and Islam.
  • India has utilized Buddhist symbolism, such as the Ashoka Pillar and the wheel on the flag, to escape difficult times and promote harmony.
  • Also, India's recently hosted a two-day global Buddhist summit in New Delhi, organized by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the International Buddhist Confederation.  

China's Soft Power Strategy

  • China's growing political and economic power has led to a multifaceted approach to promote Chinese Buddhism as a tool of soft power.
  • With a vast Buddhist population and numerous monasteries and temples, China sees Buddhism as an important aspect of its cultural diplomacy.
  • China's focus on Nepal as a source of Buddhism, alongside its infrastructure investments in Buddhist countries, demonstrates the country's intent to harness Buddhism's power for national integration and as a soft power tool. 

Let us understand the significance of the Global Buddhist Summit

  • The summit, which took place in April, witnessed the participation of prominent figures from the global Buddhist community, including the Dalai Lama.
  • By organizing this high-profile event, India seized a valuable opportunity to project itself and connect with the Buddhist population worldwide, thereby bolstering its soft power.

Understanding Soft Power Diplomacy

  • Soft power diplomacy refers to the use of cultural, social, and economic means to influence other countries' attitudes and behaviours, without resorting to coercion or economic pressure. It aims to build relationships and shape international discourse through avenues such as cultural exchanges, educational programs, and public diplomacy campaigns.
  • India's Buddhist heritage plays a pivotal role in its soft power diplomacy strategy.

Significance of Buddhism for India's Foreign Relations

  • Historical and Cultural Ties: India's deep-rooted cultural and historical connections with Buddhism strengthen its soft power diplomacy with Buddhist countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
  • Promoting Religious Harmony: As the birthplace of Buddhism, India can leverage its Buddhist heritage and teachings to engage with countries like China, which has a substantial Buddhist population, fostering dialogue and understanding between the two nations.
  • Economic Benefits: India's possession of seven out of the world's eight most significant Buddhist sites provides economic opportunities. The development of the Buddhist Circuit, a tourist trail connecting these sites, contributes to the nation's soft power diplomacy efforts.
  • Pan-Asian Presence: With 97% of the global Buddhist population residing in Asia, Buddhism holds intrinsic value for countries such as Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka, shaping their national values and identity.

India's Efforts in Buddhist Diplomacy

  • Focusing on promoting tourism through the development of the Buddhist tourist circuit. 
  • Prime Minister made it a priority to visit Buddhist sites during his Southeast and East Asian visits.
  • Alternative Approach to Global Politics:
  • The statement by Prime Minister, "India has not given 'Yuddha' to the world but 'Buddha'," reflects India's aspiration to provide an alternative to contentious global politics, with morality as a guiding principle.
  • The theme of the Delhi summit, "Responses to Contemporary Challenges: Philosophy to Praxis," aligns with this objective.

Challenges

  • China factor: 
  • China's attempt to control the appointment of the next Dalai Lama poses a challenge to India's soft power projection.
  • China's investment in the Gautam Buddha International Airport in Nepal, viewed by India as a Chinese project.
  • Geopolitical wrangling over Nepal's Buddhist sites risks turning them into mere attractions, devoid of their historical and spiritual essence.
  • India's promotion of Tibetan Buddhism and the exclusion of Nepal and other Buddhist nations from forums like the Global Buddhist Summit may serve geopolitical interests rather than a genuine commitment to Buddhism's essence. 

Way forward

  • India should continue promoting Buddhism at the highest levels of government and organize cultural events to showcase its rich Buddhist history.
  • Collaboration with the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) and strengthening ties with Buddhist institutions and leaders worldwide would be beneficial. 
  • Furthermore, leveraging Bollywood's reach to promote India's Buddhist heritage and utilizing cultural meetings during India's G-20 presidency can amplify Buddhist diplomacy on a global scale.
  • Increase investments, such as construction of the India International Centre for Buddhist Culture in Lumbini. 

Harappan Civilisation

Context: A burial site has been discovered at Khatiya Village, in Kutch region, Gujarat. It is considered to be the largest pre-urban Harappan cemetery.

About Khatiya cemetery

Situated on the banks of the Gandi stream, which flows into the Great Rann of Kutch. Researchers believe that in prehistoric times, the Great Rann of Kutch was a navigable area through which the Ghaggar-Harka-Nara River used to pass. However, the river eventually dried up, transforming Kutch into an arid region.

Findings

  • The excavation at the cemetery has revealed 500 graves, out of which 197 have been excavated so far.
  • Relation to ‘pre-urban’ Harappan phase: The Harappan civilisation, is said to have thrived along the banks of river Indus from around 5,000 BC to 1,000 BC. It is divided into the pre-Urban phase (5,000 BC to 2,600 BC); Urban phase or Mature phase (2,600 BC to 1,900 BC) and Post-Urban phase (1,900 BC to 1,000 BC). 
  • Burial goods: Shell bangle, pottery shards, stone blades and even human skeletal remains have been found.
  • Pottery: Found as burial goods at the Khatiya site are mainly redware, buffware and greyware. It is comparable to the pre-urban Harappan pottery of Sindh and Baluchistan and North Gujarat.
  • With these findings, conclusion is drawn that the cemetery is believed to be 5,000 years old, belonging to the ‘pre-urban’ phase of the Harappan civilisation.

Harappan Civilisation

  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history. It can be divided into three phases:
  • Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE.
  • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
  • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

Early Harappan Phase

  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.
image 402

The following sites show how the Early Harappan phase originated and took shape:

  • Mehrgarh: The earliest evidence for this development comes from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan.
  • First phase: People used stone tools but no potteries are found.
  • Second phase: Stone tools were refined and potteries were made.
  • Third phase: Greater use of pottery and copper tools were introduced.
  • Incipient Urbanism: Gradually, villages were getting larger and agriculture more developed. It was from these settled agricultural communities, the early phase of the Harappan civilization developed, marked by beginning of cities.
  • Ghaggar-Hakra-Indus Axis: In this region, the civilisation developed fully. Around 40 Early Harappan sites have been discovered.
  • Amri: Located near the Indus River. It shows the development of Indus pottery tradition from hard made, monochrome potteries to nicely painted, wheel-made potteries decorated with humped Indian bull. The use of copper and bronze also increased.
  • Kot Diji: This was a very important Early Harappan site. It is located on the left bank of river Indus opposite Mohenjodaro. One important feature is the diverse forms of wheel-made potteries decorated with plain dark brown stripes. This kind of pottery has been named as the Kot-Dijian Pottery and was widely spread in the Indus area.
  • The motifs such as horned bull, scaled fish and pipal leaves, used in the Amri and Kot Diji potteries, have been found extensively even during the mature Harappan period.
  • Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana:
  • Harappa: The site reveals the existence of Early Harappan phase. Kot Diji-type of potteries have been found. Lapis lazuli, steatite and terracotta human figurines are reported from these levels.
  • Kalibangan: Situated in north Rajasthan (on now dried-up Ghaggar bank). During its Early Harappan period, people lived in houses made of mud bricks of standard sizes.

Copper axes, terracotta bangles shell, carnelian etc. have been found. Evidences about the use of plough for agricultural purposes are found.

  • Banawali: Located at the now dried-up course of Ghaggar and Saraswati, Hissar district of Haryana. Material objects found at the site comprise potteries, terracotta bangles, terracotta animal figurines, shell etc. At one place, a depiction of covered cart with spoked wheel have been found.

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