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Saturn’s majestic rings will briefly ‘disappear’

Context: In March 2025, Saturn's rings will briefly ‘disappear’ from view when observed from Earth. This phenomenon is an optical illusion caused by Saturn's tilt and orbital position.

An optical illusion:

Saturn's rings will not truly vanish, but they will appear to ‘disappear’ from Earth's view due to an optical illusion.
This illusion occurs because of Saturn's unique tilt and lengthy orbit around the Sun.
Saturn is tilted at an angle of 26.73 degrees and takes about 29.4 Earth years to complete a single orbit.
During this time, for approximately half of its orbit (around 15 Earth years), Saturn is tilted toward the Sun, and for the other half, it is tilted away.
Since Saturn's rings share the same tilt as the planet, their appearance changes as Saturn moves along its orbital path.
Every 13 to 15 years, the edge of Saturn’s rings aligns directly with Earth. This will happen in March 2025 when only the edges of the ring will be visible from our planet.
- Since Saturn’s rings are very thin, just tens of metres thick in most places, at this position, they will reflect very little light, essentially making them invisible.
- But as Saturn continues to go around the Sun, its rings will gradually reappear.
- This phenomenon last occurred in 2009.
In 2018, NASA confirmed that Saturn is gradually losing its rings and will eventually be stripped of them entirely.
- The rings are slowly being pulled towards the planet due to Saturn's gravitational and magnetic forces.
- NASA described this phenomenon as ‘ring rain,’ estimating that an amount of water equivalent to that needed to fill an Olympic-sized swimming pool is drained from Saturn’s rings every half hour.
- At this pace, Saturn could lose its rings completely within the next 300 million years, or potentially even sooner.
Data collected by NASA's Cassini spacecraft has shown that Saturn's rings consist of billions of ice and rock particles, ranging in size from tiny grains of dust to massive chunks as large as mountains.
While it is believed that other gas giants, such as Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, may have once had similar rings, today they possess only faint ringlets that are barely visible, even with powerful telescopes.
In contrast, Saturn's rings are expansive, stretching across a distance nearly five times the diameter of Earth. The rings are divided into seven major sections, each featuring a complex and intricate structure.

Saturn’s rings:

There are multiple theories regarding the origin of Saturn's rings:
- Shattered Moon Hypothesis: One popular theory proposes that Saturn's rings are the remnants of a former moon that was shattered by a collision with a comet or another celestial body. The resulting debris then spread out and formed the rings.
- Primordial Origin Hypothesis: Another theory suggests that the rings could have formed from material left over from the early solar system that never coalesced into a larger body. This leftover material could have been captured by Saturn’s gravity and eventually formed the rings.
Saturn's rings are a relatively recent feature of the solar system, believed to have formed around 100 million years ago.
Composition:
- Saturn's rings are composed of a mix of icy particles, rocky debris, and dust. Despite their bright and stunning appearance from afar, these rings are surprisingly thin, with an average thickness of only about one kilometer.
- The icy composition gives them their characteristic reflective sheen, allowing them to be visible from Earth.
Structure:
- Saturn's rings are divided into several main groups, the most prominent of which are the A, B, and C rings.
- These groups are separated by distinct gaps, such as the Cassini Division, which is a large, dark gap that divides the A and B rings.
- The ring particles vary greatly in size, from tiny grains of dust to large chunks, and they orbit Saturn in a flat, disk-like structure.
Dynamics:
- The structure and stability of Saturn's rings are influenced by the gravitational effects of several small moons, known as ‘shepherd moons.’
- These moons, like Pandora and Prometheus, orbit near the rings and exert gravitational forces that help maintain the separation and sharp edges of the rings.
- By constantly tugging on the ring particles, the shepherd moons prevent them from dispersing and help sustain the distinct formations we observe today.

Planet Saturn:

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun.
It is the second-largest planet in our Solar System, after Jupiter.
Saturn has a diameter of approximately 116,464 kilometers (72,366 miles).
The planet is thought to have a rocky core. This core is surrounded by a thick layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and helium, and an outer gaseous layer.
Saturn is known for its large and intense storm systems, such as the Great White Spot. This massive storm occurs roughly once every Saturnian year (about 29 Earth years). These storms can last for months and cover vast areas.
Saturn's rapid rotation gives it an oblate shape. It is flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Its equatorial radius (60,268 km) is over 10% larger than its polar radius (54,364 km). This shape causes gravity to vary; it is about 74% of that at the poles (8.96 m/s²), and the equatorial escape velocity is nearly 36 km/s, much higher than Earth's.
Saturn's average density is 0.69 g/cm³, making it the only planet less dense than water by about 30%. Its low density is due to its vast gaseous atmosphere.
Saturn and Jupiter together account for about 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System. While Jupiter has a mass 318 times that of Earth, Saturn is about 95 times more massive.
Saturn orbits the Sun at an average distance of 9.59 astronomical units (AU), or roughly 1,434 million kilometers. Its orbital period is about 29.45 Earth years, nearly three decades to complete one orbit.
Saturn has a system of at least 146 identified moons. Of these, 63 have been officially named. Titan, the largest, is notable for being larger (though less massive) than Mercury and is the only moon with a dense atmosphere and liquid hydrocarbon lakes.

Exploration of Saturn:

Saturn has been visited by four spacecraft. While the first three made flybys, Cassini-Huygens entered into orbit around the planet and deployed a probe to explore Titan’s atmosphere.

Pioneer 11:

Launch: 1973
Operator: NASA
Mission Type: Flyby
Outcome: Successful
Pioneer 11 was the first spacecraft to reach the Saturnian system, with its closest approach occurring in 1979.
It also discovered the moons Epimetheus and Janus.

Voyager 2:

Launch: August 1977
Operator: NASA
Mission Type: Flyby
Outcome: Successful

Voyager 1:

Launch: September 1977
Operator: NASA
Mission Type: Flyby
Outcome: Successful

Cassini-Huygens:

Launch: 1997
Carrier Rocket: Titan IV(401)B Centaur-T
Operators: NASA (United States) and ESA (European Union)
Mission Type: Orbiter and Titan Lander
Outcome: Successful
Cassini entered orbit around Saturn in July 2004, becoming the first spacecraft to do so.
It discovered seven new moons and conducted extensive studies of Saturn and its rings.
The Huygens probe, part of the mission, landed on Titan in January 2005, marking the farthest landing from Earth ever made by a spacecraft.
The mission was concluded in 2017.

Also read: Important Missions of NASA

ILO’s World Employment and Social Outlook Report

Context: Inequality is on the rise as the share of labour income has stagnated worldwide and a large share of youth remain out of employment, education, or training, according to the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) World Employment and Social Outlook. A major reason for this fall in labour income, according to the report, is artificial intelligence or AI.

Key findings of the report

Rising inequality: Inequality is increasing globally as the share of labour income has stagnated, while a significant portion of youth remains out of employment, education, or training.
Impact of AI and technological innovations: The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) and other technological innovations over the past two decades has boosted productivity but reduced labour income shares. Automation-based technologies have been a key driver of this trend.
Decline in global labour income share: From 2019 to 2022, the global labour income share dropped by 0.6 percentage points, adding to a long-term downward trend. The decline was particularly pronounced during the COVID-19 pandemic.
COVID-19 exacerbated inequalities: The pandemic contributed to nearly 40% of the reduction in labour income share between 2020 and 2022, further concentrating capital income among the wealthiest and hindering progress toward SDG 10 (reducing inequality).

Countries need policies that promote an equitable distribution of economic benefits, including freedom of association, collective bargaining and effective labour administration, to achieve inclusive growth, and build a path to sustainable development for all.

About the World Employment and Social Outlook Report:

It is a flagship publication of the International Labour Organization (ILO).
It provides a comprehensive analysis of global labour market trends, challenges, and opportunities.
The report offers valuable insights into various aspects of employment, including global labour market trends, regional disparities, social protection, youth employment, gender equality and impact of the informal economy on labour market dynamics.

Jaipur's UNESCO Status to Be Enhanced with ₹100 Crore Plan

Context: The conservation and development of Jaipur's Walled City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2019, will be funded with ₹100 crore. The initiative will focus on enhancing infrastructure while preserving the city's architectural heritage and vibrant culture.

More information from the news article:

Known for its pink facade buildings, the Walled City's heritage status reflects its distinctive grid-based street layout with colonnades that form large public squares called chaupars.
The city's urban planning integrates ancient Hindu, Mughal, and Western architectural influences.
The conservation efforts are anticipated to enhance tourism, support the local economy, and improve infrastructure.
The Walled City is renowned for its landmarks, including the 400-year-old Man Sagar Lake, City Palace, Tripolia Gate, Ajmeri Gate, Sanganeri Gate, Zorawar Singh Gate, Jantar Mantar Observatory.
It also features Maota Lake at the base of the historic Amber Palace, the Maharaja School of Arts & Crafts (now the Museum of Legacies) in Kishanpole Bazaar, and the Hawa Mahal, Jaipur’s most iconic landmark.
Founded by Sawai Jai Singh II, the Kachwaha Rajput ruler of Amber, the historic fortified city of Jaipur was laid out on the plains with a grid plan inspired by Vedic architecture.
As the capital of Rajasthan, Jaipur has preserved its local commercial, artisanal, and cooperative traditions in their original form.

Note:

Jaipur became the second Indian city, after Ahmedabad, to receive the UNESCO World Heritage City status.
This recognition was granted during the 43rd session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC), held in Baku, Azerbaijan in 2019.
Ahmedabad, Gujarat:
- Ahmedabad holds the distinction of being the first Indian city to receive UNESCO World Heritage City status in July 2017.
- This recognition celebrates its rich architectural, historical, and cultural significance.
- Founded in 1411 by Sultan Ahmad Shah I, Ahmedabad served as the capital of Gujarat for six centuries, showcasing a continuous historical narrative.
- The city is renowned for its unique blend of Islamic, Hindu, and Jain architectural styles.
- Notable landmarks include Bhadra Fort, Jama Masjid, Sarkhej Roza, and many traditional havelis (wooden houses).
- Ahmedabad's historic pols (gated residential areas) reflect intricate wooden architecture and community living.
- Dubbed the ‘Manchester of the East,’ Ahmedabad is famous for its thriving textile industry, which plays a significant role in the city's economy and culture.

Sawai Jai Singh II Image — ***(Sawai Jai Singh II)***

About Sawai Jai Singh II

Sawai Jai Singh II (1688-1743) was the Rajput ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, who later founded the fortified city of Jaipur and established it as his capital.
Ascending to the throne at the age of 11 in 1699, Jai Singh initially served as a vassal of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb honoured him with the title ‘Sawai,’ meaning one and a quarter-times superior to his contemporaries, before the siege of Khelna Fort in the Deccan.
In 1721, he was granted the title Saramad-i-Raja-i-Hindustan, followed by Maharaja Sawai, Raj Rajeshwar, Shri Rajadhiraj in 1723.
Later in his life, Jai Singh II sought independence from Mughal dominance and asserted his sovereignty by reviving the ancient Ashvamedha sacrifice, a ritual that had been abandoned for centuries.
He shifted his kingdom's capital from Amber to the newly established city of Jaipur.

Situation during his accession

Upon ascending the ancestral throne of Amber, Jai Singh II faced a dire situation, with insufficient resources to maintain even a modest force of 1,000 cavalry.
This challenging circumstance had developed over the preceding 96 years, coinciding with the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Given Amber's proximity to Mughal power centres in Delhi and Agra, the Jaipur rulers had historically relied on diplomacy rather than military action in their interactions with the Mughals.
Six months after his accession, Aurangzeb ordered Jai Singh to serve in the Deccan Wars.
Jai Singh eventually reached Burhanpur, but could not advance further due to heavy rains. His rank and pay were further reduced by 500.
Despite his military achievements at the siege of Khelna in 1702, Jai Singh's reward was limited to the restoration of his previous rank and the conferral of the title ‘Sawai.’

Relations with later Mughals:

Aurangzeb's death in 1707 initially exacerbated Jai Singh's difficulties, as his patrons, Bidar Bakht and his father Azam, were defeated in the Mughal succession war.
Jai Singh responded by forming alliances with the Rajput states of Mewar (through marriage) and Marwar against the new Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah I.

Relations with the Marathas:

Jai Singh governed Malwa three times between 1714 and 1737.
During his first term (1714–1717), he successfully repelled Maratha incursions.
However, by 1728, Peshwa Baji Rao's victory over the Nizam of Hyderabad allowed the Marathas to establish a foothold in the region.
In his second tenure (1729–1730), facing a weakened Mughal Empire, Jai Singh sought to negotiate with Shahu, the Maratha ruler, to restore Mughal authority but was soon recalled to Rajputana.
In his final term (1732–1737), he urged Emperor Muhammad Shah to compromise with the Marathas.
Despite his efforts, court opposition led to his removal, and Malwa eventually fell to the Marathas in 1738 following a defeat of his successor, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah.

Fortifications

Amid the declining Mughal authority, Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded and sacked Delhi in 1739.
Throughout this period of upheaval, Jai Singh remained within his state but was far from passive.
Anticipating further instability, he launched an extensive program of fortification throughout Jaipur's territories.
To this day, many of the fortifications around the former Jaipur state are attributed to the reign of Jai Singh II.

Contributions

Revival of Ancient Vedic practices and reforms:

Sawai Jai Singh II revived ancient Vedic ceremonies, including the Ashwamedha sacrifice in 1716 and the Vajapeya in 1734, which had not been performed for many generations.
An adherent of the Nimbarka Sampradaya of the Vaishnava sect, Jai Singh actively promoted Sanskrit learning and initiated significant social reforms, such as the abolition of Sati.
He also successfully lobbied for the abolition of the Jaziya tax imposed on Hindus by Aurangzeb in 1679, which Emperor Muhammad Shah finally revoked in 1720.
In 1728, he further convinced the emperor to eliminate the pilgrimage tax on Hindus visiting Gaya.

Astronomy and Science:

Motivated by a desire to advance the nation's understanding of astronomy, Jai Singh established five observatories across India in Delhi, Mathura, Benares, Ujjain, and his capital Jaipur, despite ongoing local conflicts and foreign invasions.
These observatories, collectively known as Jantar Mantar, were equipped with advanced instruments such as the Ram Yantra, Jai Prakash, Samrat Yantra, Digamsha Yantra, and Narivalaya Yantra, which allowed for highly accurate astronomical observations.
He compiled a set of astronomical tables, ‘Zij-i-Muhammadshahi,’ and oversaw the translation of Euclid's ‘Elements of Geometry,’ as well as works on trigonometry and logarithms into Sanskrit.
His observatories, relying primarily on Indian astronomy, were used to accurately predict eclipses and other celestial events.

The City of Jaipur:

One of Jai Singh's greatest achievements was the construction of Jaipur, originally called Jai Nagara, which became known as the ‘City of Victory’ and later as the ‘Pink City’.
Construction began in 1725, and the city was officially established as the capital of the Kachwaha dynasty in 1733, replacing Amber.
Jai Singh, while planning the layout of Jaipur, consulted numerous architects and founded the city based on the principles of Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastra, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya.
The city became a commercial hub, attracting merchants from across India who sought the safety and prosperity offered by its thick protective walls and a garrison of 17,000 troops.
Later, during the reign of Sawai Ram Singh II, Jaipur was painted pink to welcome Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, in 1876.
The city’s avenues have retained their pink hue, earning Jaipur the nickname ‘Pink City.’

Location of Amber, 1525, with neighbouring polities, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire on Map — (***Location of Amber, 1525, with neighbouring polities, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire)***

The Kingdom of Amber

Later known as Jaipur State, was situated in the north-eastern Dhundhar region of Rajputana and was governed by the Kachwaha Rajput clan.
It was founded in the 12th century by Dulha Rai, who was likely the last ruler of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty of Gwalior.
He established his rule in Dausa with the support of the Chahamanas of Shakambhari.
The kingdom experienced a period of stagnation from the 12th to the 15th centuries, with limited historical records.
Under Raja Bharmal, the kingdom forged a strong alliance with the Mughal Empire, marked by his daughter's marriage to Emperor Akbar.
Bharmal's son, Raja Bhagwant Das, and grandson, Raja Man Singh I, emerged as prominent generals in Akbar's army, contributing significantly to the expansion of the Mughal Empire.
Later, Mirza Raja Jai Singh I served under Shah Jahan and became a distinguished general but fell out of favour with Aurangzeb in 1664 due to his suspected involvement in Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's escape from Mughal captivity.
Sawai Jai Singh II ruled during the decline of the Mughal Empire, successfully rebelling against Mughal authority in 1708 to reclaim his confiscated territories.
However, after his death, the kingdom faced economic difficulties due to a civil war between his sons Ishwari Singh and Madho Singh I, as well as pressures from the Marathas.
In 1818, following the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the kingdom became a princely state under British rule by signing a treaty that established a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company.

It acceded to independent India in 1947 and was officially integrated into the nation by 1949.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO)

Context: The qualifications of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation come into question after it got permission to do a ₹72,000 crore mega infrastructure project in Great Nicobar

Overview of ANIIDCO

Background (Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation)
- Incorporation Date: June 28, 1988, under the Companies Act.
- Objective: To develop and commercially exploit natural resources for balanced and environment-friendly development of the territory.
- Main Activities:
  - Trading of petroleum products, Indian-made foreign liquor, and milk.
  - Managing tourism resorts.
  - Infrastructure development for tourism and fisheries.
Current Major Project
- Project: ₹72,000 crore mega infrastructure project in Great Nicobar.
- Components:
  - Trans-shipment port.
  - Greenfield airport.
  - Tourism and township project.
  - Solar and gas-based power plant.
Concerns and Issues
- Qualifications: ANIIDCO’s mandate, history, structure, and capabilities raise concerns about its suitability for such a high-profile project.
- Environmental Governance:
  - Initial Status: ANIIDCO did not have an environment policy or an environment cell when appointed as project proponent in July 2020.
  - Human Resources: Lacked the necessary expertise and human resources initially. Began recruiting relevant experts only in late 2022.
  - Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) Concerns:
    - EAC asked if ANIIDCO had a corporate environment policy, an administrative system for environmental compliance, and standard operating procedures for environmental and forest violations.
    - ANIIDCO admitted in August 2021 that it did not have an environment policy.
    - Despite this, the EAC granted environmental clearance in November 2022.
Conflicts of Interest
- Forest Clearance Issue:
  - In 2022, Conservation Action Trust filed a petition before the National Green Tribunal challenging Stage 1 forest clearance.
  - The petition highlighted that the managing director of ANIIDCO was also the Commissioner cum Secretary (Environment and Forests), creating a conflict of interest as ANIIDCO was essentially certifying its own project.
- Evaluation and Oversight:
  - Chief Secretary of the islands, also chairman of ANIIDCO’s board of directors, was involved in evaluating the project and addressing complaints, which raised concerns about self-evaluation.
  - Numerous ANIIDCO staff are also civil servants handling environmental and tribal welfare issues.
Past Administrators' Views
- Lt Gen A.K. Singh (Lieutenant Governor 2013-16):
  - Suggested that ANIIDCO would be better suited than other departments but emphasized the need for expert agencies from outside the islands.
- Sanat Kaul (Chief Secretary in early 90s):
  - Criticized ANIIDCO’s tourism operations in a 2015 book.
  - Expressed doubt about ANIIDCO's ability to manage the ₹72,000 crore project without significant upgrades and improved staff.

Conclusion

ANIIDCO, a quasi-government agency based in Port Blair, is tasked with overseeing a significant infrastructure project in Great Nicobar.
It initially lacked necessary environmental policies and expertise.
Concerns about conflicts of interest and governance issues have been raised regarding its role in the project.

India PM advocates Development Over Expansionism During Brunei Visit

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi, emphasized India's stance on ‘development, not expansionism,’ in comments seen as directed at China's actions in the South China Sea and Indo-Pacific. He made these remarks at an event hosted by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah in Bandar Seri Begawan.

Strengthening strategic ties and emphasizing regional stability

The PM’s visit marked the first bilateral visit by an Indian Prime Minister to Brunei, although former PM Manmohan Singh visited in 2013 for the ASEAN-India summit.
The visit underscored Brunei's strategic importance, located at the centre of the ASEAN region and surrounded by key Southeast Asian countries.
During bilateral talks between India and Brunei, both countries renewed a cooperation agreement in space, with Brunei continuing to host the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) Telemetry Tracking and Command station.
The discussions also covered enhancing defence cooperation and exploring long-term partnerships in LNG supplies, as India has shifted its oil imports from Brunei to Russian sources in recent years.
The China factor:
- While Brunei has historically maintained close defence ties with the United States due to its strategic location, in recent decades, China has become Brunei's largest trading partner and investor, particularly in Belt and Road Initiative projects.
- Bilateral trade between China and Brunei amounts to $2.6 billion.
- In contrast, India-Brunei trade was valued at approximately $286.20 million in 2023.
PM Modi’s comments also reflected Brunei’s growing unease over Chinese aggression and territorial claims in the South China Sea. He called for giving a ‘strategic direction’ to the India-Brunei partnership, focusing on strengthening defence cooperation, including defence industry partnerships, training, and capacity building.
The plans for direct flights between India and Brunei, enhancing bilateral connectivity and ties were also announced.

Call for regional code of conduct

PM Modi called for the finalization of a ‘Code of Conduct’ for the Indo-Pacific, addressing issues of sovereignty and maritime violations.
The joint statement from both countries urged all parties to resolve disputes peacefully in line with international law, specifically referencing the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, under which Brunei is a claimant state in the South China Sea alongside China, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

Brunei Darussalam

Location: on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia, bordered by the South China Sea to the north and surrounded entirely by the Malaysian state of Sarawak.
Only sovereign state on the island of Borneo, the rest of which is shared by Malaysia and Indonesia.
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan.
Official language: Malay
Brunei’s economic wealth is driven by its significant petroleum and natural gas reserves, which helped transform it into an industrialized nation. Crude oil and natural gas production account for about 90% of its GDP.
Brunei ranks ‘very high’ on the Human Development Index (HDI), second only to Singapore among Southeast Asian countries.
Brunei is also a member of various international organizations, including ASEAN, East Asia Summit and Non-Aligned Movement.

India-Brunei bilateral relations

Political:

India and Brunei Darussalam established formal diplomatic relations in 1984, soon after Brunei gained full independence.
Initially, India’s diplomatic presence in Brunei was managed by its High Commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. This changed in 1993, when India set up its own High Commission in Brunei.
Brunei opened its resident High Commission in India in 1992.
India and Brunei share strong political and cultural relations, underscored by their common membership in international organizations such as the United Nations (UN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Commonwealth, and ASEAN.
Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei has been a strong advocate for closer ties with India and has supported the welfare of the Indian community in Brunei.
The Brunei government has also been supportive of India's ‘Look East’ and ‘Act East’ policies aimed at deepening engagement with ASEAN nations.
As the Country Coordinator for India in ASEAN from July 2012 to June 2015, Brunei played a significant role in strengthening India's partnership with ASEAN.
Additionally, Brunei has been generally supportive of India's candidature in various international organizations.

Strategic relations:

In 2021, India and Brunei renewed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Defence Cooperation for another five years, reinforcing their commitment to deepen bilateral defence ties.
- The agreement facilitates regular official-level exchanges, joint training exercises, and participation in defence exhibitions and events hosted by both countries.
The defence cooperation between India and Brunei has been marked by regular naval visits and joint exercises.
- Indian naval ships have frequently visited Brunei, with their officers participating in regional events like Milan and the Western Pacific Naval Symposium (WPNS).
Several high-level delegations from both countries have visited to strengthen defence ties.
- Indian Delegations: In 2017, a 16-member delegation from the National Defence College (NDC) visited Brunei.
- Bruneian Delegations: Pehin Haji Awang Abu Bakar, Minister of Home Affairs, attended the First Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) in 2016.
A significant component of India-Brunei strategic cooperation is the agreement signed in August 1997 for the establishment of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)'s Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TTC) Station in Brunei, operational since 2000.
- This station has played a crucial role in supporting over 35 ISRO missions.
- The latest MoU related to this initiative was signed in July 2018, ensuring continued collaboration in satellite tracking.
Significance of strategic relation for India:
- Brunei plays pivotal roles in India's broader Indo-Pacific vision.
- India has significant interests in the South China Sea, with approximately 55% of its trade transiting through these contested waters.
- China's growing economic influence allows it to fund various regional projects and extend loans, but China’s assertive actions in the South China Sea have generated regional tensions.
- India, with the support of partners like Brunei, can offer a counterbalance to China's regional dominance and bolster stability in the Indo-Pacific.
- India also aims to leverage Brunei’s potential as part of its China+1 strategy.
The ‘China+1’ strategy is employed by businesses and nations that have relied extensively on China for manufacturing and supply chain needs.
This approach focuses on diversifying operations by setting up manufacturing facilities or sourcing from additional countries beyond China, thereby reducing dependency and mitigating risks associated with over-reliance on a single market.

Commercial relations:

India and Brunei have maintained strong commercial ties, with a diverse range of exports and imports forming the core of their trade relationship.
India's main exports to Brunei include automobiles, transport equipment, rice, and spices.
In turn, crude oil remains the primary import from Brunei to India. As of 2023, India's exports to Brunei amounted to $128.2 million, while imports reached $67 million.
Both countries have actively participated in numerous trade fairs, exhibitions, and virtual meetings aimed at fostering bilateral trade. A notable development was the first Joint Trade Committee meeting held in 2018, which aimed to enhance trade relations between the two nations.
The Engineering Exports Promotion Council of India (EEPC) also organized a virtual session with Brunei as part of the India-ASEAN Engineering Partnership Summit in August 2021.
India has extended capacity-building assistance to Brunei under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program, offering two slots annually.
The collaboration between the two countries also extends to digital solutions and IT sectors. Activ8 BN Digital Solutions, a Bruneian IT company, participated in the Software EPC event held in October 2021, highlighting the potential for growth in technology-driven commercial relations between India and Brunei.

Indian diaspora:

The Indian presence in Brunei dates back to the discovery of oil in 1929, which brought many Indians to work in the hydrocarbon sector and related services.
Today, the Indian community in Brunei numbers approximately 14,000, with a significant majority hailing from Tamil Nadu (over 40%).
The Brunei-India Friendship Association (BIFA), established in 2009, and the Indian Overseas Professionals Network (IPON), launched in December 2021, further enhance community cohesion and professional networking among Indian expatriates in Brunei.
The Indian diaspora in Brunei is diverse, with a significant number of healthcare professionals, including doctors, nurses, lab technicians, and paramedics, as well as teachers, engineers, IT professionals, and other skilled workers
The Indian Chamber of Commerce, established in Brunei in July 1972, currently represents over 100 Indian business establishments.
Humanitarian contributions during the COVID-19 pandemic:
In response to the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in India, the Indian diaspora in Brunei contributed 1,050 cylinders filled with compressed medical oxygen as part of COVID relief efforts.

Challenges:

Historical neglect: India and Brunei's bilateral relations have historically been limited, with minimal engagement during Narendra Modi's first term (2014-2019). Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah's visit to India was rare, occurring only once to mark ASEAN-India dialogue relations.
Strategic misalignment:
- India’s focus on expanding its presence in Southeast Asia through its Act East Policy contrasts with Brunei's regional security concerns and its balancing act in foreign policy.
- Brunei maintains close defence relations with Western countries while fostering economic ties with China and its ASEAN maritime neighbours.
- This divergence can complicate efforts to align their strategic goals.
Limited maritime and defence cooperation: Despite some progress, including joint military exercises and a 2016 defence pact, India-Brunei defence cooperation remains limited due to Brunei's preference for Western military equipment and cautious approach to arms purchases from regional neighbours.
Economic underperformance: India-Brunei trade is underdeveloped, with significant growth potential in sectors beyond oil and gas, like ICT, finance, and manufacturing. Limited trade agreements and business ventures restrict the potential for a more comprehensive economic partnership and growth.
Connectivity issues: Limited direct connectivity between India and Brunei impacts business travel and tourism. This poor connectivity restricts people-to-people interactions and investment opportunities, making it difficult for businesses and tourists to engage fully.
Cultural and language barriers: Cultural and language differences pose challenges to deeper understanding and cooperation between the two countries. These barriers can affect diplomatic interactions and collaborative efforts across various sectors.
Political and economic uncertainty:
- Brunei's current political stability and economic diversification efforts are key to its future growth.
- While Brunei seeks to reduce its reliance on oil and gas and attract foreign investment, India must demonstrate its reliability as an economic partner, especially after withdrawing from regional trade agreements like the RCEP.

“India and Brunei stand poised for a significant strengthening of bilateral ties. The current climate presents an ideal opportunity for both nations to elevate their relationship to a more prominent position within their respective foreign policies. The leadership of Prime Minister Modi and the Sultan of Brunei will play a crucial role in revitalizing this partnership, fostering deeper and more sustainable engagement.”

Global Solar Facility

Context: The International Solar Alliance (ISA) will launch a $100 million fund, Global Solar Facility, that will help catalysing up to $1.5 billion in funding to expand decentralised solar power capacities across the least developed countries in Africa, where more than 700 million people have no access to electricity.

About Global Solar Facility (GSF)

It is a payment guarantee mechanism created by International Solar Alliance (ISA) to stimulate investments in solar power projects.
It aims to catalyse solar investments across the world, starting with Africa’s underserved segments and geographies, thereby unlocking commercial capital.
It will primarily focus on decentralised solar solutions, rooftop solar, and productive use solar.
- Through this financing vehicle, which includes payment guarantees, insurance and investment funds, the ISA aims to mitigate project risks, provide technical assistance to address regulatory gaps, reduce currency risks, resolve contractual and financial uncertainties in the solar energy sector.
In 2022, the ISA Assembly approved the creation of a Global Solar Facility (GSF) in Africa, which was announced at COP27 in Sharm-el-Sheikh.
After Africa, the GSF aims to expand to regions such as Asia, Latin America and the Middle East, where the Regional Facilities will be tailored to meet specific requirements.
In future, the GSF will invest in innovative technologies to enhance solar energy efficiency, support startups for faster solar energy implementation, and explore emerging solar energy sectors.

Unlocking the Potential of Health Sector Allocations: Key Challenges and Opportunities

Context: The effectiveness of Union Budget allocations for India’s health sector largely depends on State-level factors. Since many health initiatives are implemented as Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), State governments play a vital role in their success by sharing costs and ensuring smooth execution. Two major CSS programs, the Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM) and Human Resources for Health and Medical Education (HRHME), aim to bolster India's healthcare infrastructure and workforce, but their success faces multiple hurdles.

Key Initiatives in Health Sector

PM-ABHIM
- Aims to strengthen health infrastructure, build health and wellness centres (HWCs), block-level public health units (BPHUs), district public health labs (IDPHLs), and critical care hospital blocks (CCHBs).
- Focuses on improving India’s emergency preparedness, especially for pandemics.
HRHME
- Focuses on increasing the capacity of medical education by establishing new medical, nursing, and paramedical colleges.
- Plans to strengthen district hospitals and convert them into medical colleges.
- Aims to address shortages of medical personnel through increased seats and better training infrastructure.

Key Highlights of the article

1. Low Fund Utilisation in Key Health Schemes: Despite ambitious goals, fund utilisation in both PM-ABHIM and HRHME has been low, reflecting inefficiencies in budget absorption.

PM-ABHIM: In 2022-23, only 29% of the budget estimate was spent. In 2023-24, although the revised estimate increased to 50%, the actual expenditure is expected to be lower.
HRHME: Utilisation of funds was around a quarter of the budget estimates in both 2022-23 and 2023-24.

Key Challenges in Fund Utilisation

Dependence on 15th Finance Commission Health Grants
- Around 60% of PM-ABHIM’s funding is sourced from health grants recommended by the 15th Finance Commission. Only about 45% of these grants were utilised from 2021-22 to 2023-24, partly due to complex execution procedures at the State level.
Integration of Health Programs
- States are required to merge public health labs from various vertical programs under IDPHLs, necessitating significant planning and reorganisation. This integration has delayed implementation.
Delayed Fund Absorption in Construction Projects
- Components like BPHUs and CCHBs involve construction, where fund absorption is slowed by rigid procedural requirements and overlapping funding from multiple sources.

2. Shortage of Faculty and Specialists: A major challenge for HRHME is the shortage of teaching faculty and specialists, which affects both new and existing medical institutions. According to a study by the Centre for Social and Economic Progress (CSEP),

Faculty Shortage in AIIMS: There is a 40% shortage in teaching positions across 11 newly created AIIMS.
State Medical Colleges: In Uttar Pradesh, 30% of teaching faculty positions in newly established government medical colleges were vacant in 2022.
Specialist Shortages in Hospitals: More than a third of sanctioned specialist positions in urban CHCs and two-thirds in rural CHCs were vacant as of March 2022.

3. Fiscal Space Constraints for States: The financial burden of maintaining new health infrastructure will fall on State governments once the central support ends in 2025-26. States will need to plan for additional recurring costs, which may strain their fiscal space.

State governments need to create fiscal capacity not only to sustain PM-ABHIM and HRHME infrastructure but also to support other health schemes and initiatives.

Conclusion: For the Union Budget’s health allocations to translate into meaningful health outcomes, the following factors are crucial:

Strengthening the fiscal capacity of States to support recurring expenses.
Addressing human resource shortages, especially in teaching faculty and specialists.
Streamlining public financial management processes to improve fund absorption and scheme execution.

Addressing these challenges will be essential to ensure that capital expenditures in India’s health sector lead to improved infrastructure and better healthcare delivery.

Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

Context: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has exempted export-oriented green hydrogen projects from its domestic solar module manufacturer list (ALMM), allowing them to use cheaper imported solar modules.

Major Highlights:

The ALMM (Approved List of Models and Manufacturers) is a registry of domestically produced solar modules approved by the Indian government to promote the use of locally made products in solar energy projects.
- By granting the exemption to export-oriented green hydrogen projects from ALMM, the MNRE allows green hydrogen projects set up for export purposes (in Special Economic Zones or Export-Oriented Units) to use imported solar modules instead of the more expensive domestic ones.
- This exemption is intended to reduce the production cost of green hydrogen, making it more competitive with cheaper, carbon-intensive grey hydrogen. The lower costs can help green hydrogen producers compete globally and drive export growth.
In addition to cost-reduction measures, MNRE is supporting the green hydrogen sector through initiatives like the SIGHT programme, with Rs 17,490 crore allocated for electrolyser manufacturing and green hydrogen production.
The ministry has also waived transmission charges for 25 years and exempted green hydrogen projects from prior environmental clearance. Further, it has notified 73 green hydrogen standards for production and application of Green hydrogen.

Hydrogen as an alternative fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. However, Hydrogen is not present in the free state. Therefore, it must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
Hydrogen Fuel: Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.

Owing to its clean combustion, producing only water as a byproduct, makes it an attractive option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change. Thus, Hydrogen is gaining significant attention as a potential alternative fuel.

Ways of using Hydrogen as a fuel:

Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Fuel cells based on Hydrogen and Oxygen. Produces Water as a by-product.
Hydrogen CNG (Used as transportation fuel): Mixture of hydrogen and CNG in a fixed ratio, enables Hydrogen being used as fuel in conventional engines. HCNG increases the efficiency of combustion of CNG and is less polluting.

Types of Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind. Hydrogen is an invisible gas. Depending on the type of production used, different colour names are assigned to the hydrogen.

Some common types of Hydrogen

Grey hydrogen: Grey hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today.
- The two main production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release carbon dioxide (CO2).
- If the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey hydrogen.
Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered (stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS).
- Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel.
- Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture technology is used.
Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, which do not release greenhouse gases when generating electricity.
- Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O) is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) via a process known as electrolysis.
Pink Hydrogen: Pink hydrogen is produced through electrolysis of water but using energy from nuclear power, which does not produce any carbon dioxide emissions.
- Pink hydrogen facilities can achieve a high capacity factor due to the steady base-load profile of nuclear power (involving both stability and density), as compared to the intermittent supply from renewable sources (solar, wind).
Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis. In this process methane is split into hydrogen and solid carbon with heating in reactors or blast furnaces.

Utility of Hydrogen fuel

why hydrogen? zero emission efficient energy carrier

Abundant in nature and highly efficient. E.g., Hydrogen is two to three times more efficient than petrol.
Hydrogen is a versatile fuel which can be transported as gas by pipelines or in liquid form like LNG and can be transformed into electricity by fuel cells.
Strengthen energy security by being a direct replacement of fossil fuels.
Green hydrogen can be stored for a long period and can be used when renewable energy is not available for power generation with stationary fuel cells or hydrogen-ready gas turbines.
Green hydrogen is a clean fuel which can decarbonise a range of sectors including iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation.
Facilitate acceleration to the green economy. Presently, hydrogen is used in the refining industry, ammonia making, methanol manufacturing, steel making industries etc.

Challenges in using Hydrogen as a fuel

High production cost: Majority of hydrogen at present is extracted by energy-intensive processes like breaking down fossils, electrolysis of water etc. which adds to the cost of production of Hydrogen. Further, Hydrogen needs to be kept at a stable minus 253°C (far below the temperature of (-) 163°C at which Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is stored), which needs scaling of technology and makes its ‘prior-to-use-cost’ extremely high.
Extraction causes pollution: Production of grey hydrogen is responsible for around 830 million-tonnes of carbon dioxide annually.
Safety of hydrogen fuel tanks: Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive in nature, it is colourless, odourless, and its flames are not visible by naked eyes.
Storage capacity requirement: India has insufficient storage capacity for the current state of domestic consumption.
Lack of operational fuelling station infrastructure is a big barrier to adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. It would require large-scale investments in underground piping and underground caves and filling stations.

National Hydrogen Mission

The National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in January 2023, with an outlay of Rs. 19,744 crores from FY 2023-24 to FY 2029-30.
Aim: To develop India into a global hub for production, usage and export of Green hydrogen and its derivatives.
The scheme envisages generation of hydrogen from green power sources with a target of 5MMT production capacity of Green Hydrogen per annum.
Initiative of: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

National green hydrogen mission outcomes

Way Forward

Development of technology to produce "green" hydrogen is expensive. However, falling prices for renewable energy and fuel cells and stringent climate change regulations have spurred investment in the sector.

Investing in R&D and promoting private sector participation in the hydrogen economy.
Developing standardised procedures, rules and standards for hydrogen economy which will standardise and scale up production.
Mandating large users of hydrogen to shift to green hydrogen such as refineries, iron, and steel plants etc. For example, A minimum green hydrogen mandate can be introduced in such industries.
Green hydrogen facilities can be created at sites where the cost of producing renewable energy is lowest. E.g., In Thar desert region in Rajasthan and Ladakh etc.
Facilitating international trade in clean & green hydrogen.

Hydrogen fuel can significantly contribute to clean energy transition and India’s National Green Hydrogen Mission is the right step in that direction.

New Notary Portal Unveiled by Ministry of Law & Justice

Context: Ministry of Law & Justice has unveiled the new Notary Portal. The portal will provide a paperless, faceless and efficient system for managing Central Notraries. Notaries are regulated by the Department of Legal Affairs.

About the Notary Portal

The Notary Portal has been created by Department of Legal Affairs under Ministry of Law & Justice in associated with NIC.
The portal has a module-based design which will be rolled out in phases.
Phase I: In the first stage, module relating to issue of Certificate of Practice to the provisionally selected Notaries has been launched.
Modules relating to renewal of Certificate of Practice and submission of Annual Returns will be launched in due course.

Benefits of the Notary Portal

Notary Portal provides an online interface between notaries and Government for various services like submission of applications for appointment as notaries, issuance and renewal of certificates of practice, change of practice area, submission of annual returns etc.
Through the portal, Central Notaries will be able submit applications/requests through the portal and monitor its progress. Thus, doing away with the need for physical submissions.
The portal will result in following benefits:
- System of selection and appointments of notaries will be faster, efficient and transparent.
- Help in creating a digital storage facility of all notary related records.
- Ensure seamless administration of Notary Act.

What is a Safe Harbour?

Context: The legal action initiated by the French authorities against Pavel Durov impinges on the protection that is accorded to social media platforms across jurisdictions under a provision known as “safe harbour”.

What are ‘Safe Harbour’ Rules?

Since social media platforms are generally understood to be crucial tools of free speech, safe harbour is viewed as a basic tenet of enabling freedom of expression on these platforms.
The basic premise of safe harbour protection is: since social media platforms cannot control at the first instance what users post, they should not be held legally liable for any objectionable content that they host, provided they are willing to take down such content when flagged by the government or courts.

Legal Protection in India

Section 79 of Information Technology Act, 2000 it classifies social media platforms as intermediaries and broadly shields them from legal action over the content that users post.
However, this protection extends to companies operating in India with some caveats.
- Under The Information Technology Rules, 2021, social media companies with more than 5 million Indian users have to appoint a chief compliance officer who can be held criminally liable if the platform does not adhere to a takedown request, or violates other norms.
Hence, certain officials from the social media company in question can be legally prosecuted if the platform violates laid-down rules.

What is Social Capital?

Context: Social capital in today’s world has emerged as a transformative force. The jobs situation, economic disparities and environmental degradation necessitate a re-evaluation of traditional business models.

About social capital

It refers to the connections among individuals' social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It is closely related to civic virtue but emphasizes the importance of social networks in making these virtues effective.
It is often described as the "glue" that holds society together, consisting of trust, mutual understanding, shared values, and behaviours that enable cooperative actions.
It allows a group of people to work together effectively to achieve a common purpose or goal.
These rely on voluntary action and may require external funding for expansion.
In India, social capital is evident in various community-driven initiatives and traditional practices.
- Self-help groups (SHGs), especially among rural women, foster economic empowerment and collective bargaining.
- The Panchayat system strengthens local governance by promoting participation and accountability. It is considered a vital component in development theory. It helps explain why certain economic policies fail when social factors are not taken into account.
- Handicraft-oriented cottage industries rely heavily on strong community bonds, trust, and collaboration among artisans, where skills are passed down through generations, strengthening intra-community ties.
India has a rich tradition of social capital, with collective social entrepreneurship evident since ancient times. The Maurya and Gupta empires saw the emergence of community organizations like Sabhas and Village Councils. These organizations played a significant role in fostering social and cultural nationalism.
It plays a crucial role in promoting inclusive growth, particularly by involving the poor and marginalized in development processes.
It broadens government accountability, encourages compromise, and fosters innovation in policy making. It also enhances the efficiency of public service delivery through the involvement of community groups like Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

Roles of social capital organizations

Service role: Non-profit organizations often lead the way in responding to public needs, functioning as a flexible mechanism to address critical problems.
Value guardian role: These organizations act as value guardians in society, promoting individual initiative for the public good and fostering pluralism, diversity, and freedom.
Advocacy/social safety-valve role: They mobilize public attention to societal problems and represent under-represented groups, thus preserving democracy.
Community building role: Nonprofits create and sustain social cohesion through bonds of trust and reciprocity, essential for the functioning of a democratic society and a market economy.

Recommendations for strengthening social capital

The 2^nd ARC report suggests drafting a model law for Societies and Trusts, with changes to enhance independence, transparency, and dynamism in these institutions.
There is a call for an independent accreditation agency for the voluntary sector and for exemptions in foreign contribution regulations for smaller organizations.
The expansion of the SHG movement is recommended, particularly in financially underserved areas, with support from institutions like NABARD.

De-hyphenating rice – wheat

Context: Wheat is grappling with production challenges despite increasing consumption, while rice is experiencing a surplus issue, causing the two cereals to diverge significantly in their circumstances.

Scenario of wheat and rice production and export of India

Rice Surplus:
- Export Data: India exported 21.21 million tonnes (mt) of rice in 2021-22, 22.35 mt in 2022-23, and 16.36 mt in 2023-24.
- Stock Levels: As of August 1, 2024, rice stocks were at an all-time high of 45.48 mt.
Wheat Shortage:
- Export Data: Wheat exports fell from 7.24 mt in 2021-22 to 0.19 mt in 2023-24, with a ban on exports since May 2022.
- Stock Levels: Central pool stocks of wheat on August 1, 2024, were at 26.81 mt, the lowest in recent times.
Usually, rice stocks are below that of wheat at this time of the year.
This is because wheat is harvested and marketed during April-June, whereas the main kharif rice crop comes in only from October.
The last three years have been unusual, with rice stock levels on August 1, at the tail-end of the crop marketing year, being higher than that of wheat.

Stock in central pool: top wheat producers top rice producers

Production constraints

Rice:
- Geographical Spread: Cultivated across 16 states including Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and others. Grown in both rabi and kharif season
- Water Dependency: Limited primarily by water availability, with Telangana significantly increasing its rice output due to improved irrigation and support prices.
Wheat:
- Geographical Concentration: Grown mainly in eight states, with the top four states (UP, MP, Punjab, Haryana) contributing over 76% of the output. Wheat has a single rabi cropping season.
- Climate Sensitivity: Vulnerable to changing climate conditions such as shorter winters and fluctuating temperatures, affecting production.

Divergence in Consumption: Wheat vs. Rice

Wheat Consumption Trends: Current Consumption Levels:
- Rural India: 3.9 kg per capita per month.
- Urban India: 3.6 kg per capita per month.
- Total Consumption: Approximately 65 million tonnes (mt) for a population of 1,425 million.
Forms of Wheat Consumption:
- Whole-Grain Flour (Atta): Used for basic bread items like roti, chapati, paratha, and poori, as well as dishes like upma and rava kesari.
- Semi-Processed Flour (Sooji/Rava): Coarse flour used in various dishes.
Processed Wheat Products:
- Maida: Refined flour produced from wheat that has been stripped of its bran and germ.
- Production: Involves grinding the endosperm of the wheat grain, filtering, and bleaching.
- Uses: Key ingredient in bakery products (bread, buns, biscuits, cakes), convenience foods (sandwiches, noodles, pasta, pizza, momos, pav-bhaji), and sweetmeats (gulab jamun, jalebi).
- Characteristics: Known for its fine texture, softness, and longer shelf life, but lacks dietary fiber, minerals, B vitamins, and proteins.
Consumption Trends:
- Increasing Use of Processed Wheat: With rising incomes and urbanization, the consumption of wheat in processed forms like maida is growing.
- Data Gaps: Exact figures for processed wheat consumption are not available, but the trend indicates a significant increase.
Rice Consumption Trends:Current Consumption:
- Limited Innovation: Processing and convenience food innovations for rice have been relatively minimal.
- Common Products: Includes traditional dishes such as idli, dosa, murukku, puffed rice (murmura), puddings, and biryani.
Consumption Dynamics:
- Less Diversification: Unlike wheat, rice has not seen significant growth in processed forms or new food products.
- Wheat: Increasing consumption, especially in processed forms like maida, driven by rising incomes and urbanization. Consumption is significant both in traditional whole-grain forms and processed products.
- Rice: Consumption remains stable with limited diversification into processed products and convenience foods.

Policy Implications

Wheat Policy Considerations: Current Consumption Patterns:
- South India: Wheat is a staple, consumed in some form at least once daily.
- North India: Rice has not become as prevalent as wheat in South India.
Processing Infrastructure:
- Roller Flour Mills (RFMs):
  - Quantity: Approximately 1,500 RFMs.
  - Capacity: Process 50 to 500 tonnes of wheat per day into products like maida, sooji/rava, bran, and germ.
- Stone Chakkis:
  - Quantity: Numerous roadside and around 700 organized stone chakkis.
  - Capacity: Grind 50 to 300 kg of wheat per hour to produce whole atta flour.
Future Outlook:
- Short-Term: India may need to become a wheat importer due to rising consumption and production challenges.
- Long-Term Strategy:
  - Improve Yields: Focus on increasing per-acre wheat yields.
  - Develop Climate-Smart Varieties: Breed wheat varieties that can withstand changing climate conditions.
Rice Policy Considerations: Current Production vs. Consumption
- Production: High levels of rice production.
- Consumption: Domestic consumption does not match the production levels, leading to surplus.
Export Restrictions:
- Export Ban: Current ban on exports of white non-basmati rice should be lifted.
- Duties and Floor Prices:
  - Parboiled Non-Basmati Rice: Remove the 20% duty.
  - Basmati Rice: Eliminate the $950/tonne floor price on shipments.
Stock Management:
- Action Required: Immediate policy changes are needed to prevent unmanageable excess stocks.
Wheat: Requires a shift in policy to address rising consumption and production issues, including improving yields and adapting to climate change. The trend suggests India may need to import wheat soon.
Rice: Needs policy adjustments to manage surplus, including lifting export bans and duties to balance production and consumption.